Emerging Therapies for Charcot-Marie-Tooth Inherited Neuropathies

Schwann Cells in Neuromuscular Disorders: A Spotlight on Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is a complex neurodegenerative disease primarily affecting motor neurons, leading to progressive muscle atrophy and paralysis. This review explores the role of Schwann cells in ALS pathogenesis, highlighting their influence on disease progression through mechanisms involving demyelination, neuroinflammation, and impaired synaptic function. While Schwann cells have been traditionally viewed as peripheral supportive cells, especially in motor neuron disease, recent evidence indicates that they play a significant role in ALS by impacting motor neuron survival and plasticity, influencing inflammatory responses, and altering myelination processes. Furthermore, advancements in understanding Schwann cell pathology in ALS combined with lessons learned from studying Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease Type 1 (CMT1) suggest potential therapeutic strategies targeting these cells may support nerve repair and slow disease progression. Overall, this review aims to provide comprehensive insights into Schwann cell classification, physiology, and function, underscoring the critical pathological contributions of Schwann cells in ALS and suggests new avenues for targeted therapeutic interventions aimed at modulating Schwann cell function in ALS.

Autophagy induction by piplartine ameliorates axonal degeneration caused by mutant HSPB1 and HSPB8 in Charcot-Marie-Tooth type 2 neuropathies

HSPB1 [heat shock protein family B (small) member 1] and HSPB8 are essential molecular chaperones for neuronal proteostasis, as they prevent protein aggregation. Mutant HSPB1 and HSPB8 primarily harm peripheral neurons, resulting in axonal Charcot-Marie-Tooth neuropathies (CMT2). Macroautophagy/autophagy is a shared mechanism by which HSPB1 and HSPB8 mutations cause neuronal dysfunction. Autophagosome formation is reduced in mutant HSPB1-induced pluripotent stem-cell-derived motor neurons from CMT type 2F patients. Likewise, the HSPB8K141N knockin mouse model, mimicking CMT type 2 L, exhibits axonal degeneration and muscle atrophy, with SQSTM1/p62-positive deposits. We show here that mouse embryonic fibroblasts isolated from a HSPB8K141N/green fluorescent protein (GFP)-LC3 model have diminished autophagosome production under conditions of MTOR inhibition. To correct the autophagic deficits in the HSPB1 and HSPB8 models, we screened by high-throughput autophagosome quantification the repurposing Spectrum Collection library for molecules that could boost the autophagic activity above the canonical MTOR inhibition. Hit compounds were validated on motor neurons obtained by differentiation of HSPB1P182L and HSPB8K141N patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells, focusing on autophagy induction as well as neurite network density, axonal degeneration, and mitochondrial morphology. We identified molecules that specifically stimulate autophagosome formation in the HSPB8K141N cells, without affecting autophagy flux. Two top lead compounds induced autophagy and reduced axonal degeneration, thus promoting neuronal network maturation in the CMT2 patient-derived motor neurons. Based on these findings, the phenotypical screen revealed that piplartine rescued autophagy deficiencies in both the HSPB1 and HSPB8 models, demonstrating autophagy induction as an effective therapeutic strategy for CMT neuropathies and other chaperonopathies.

A Role of Inflammation in Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disorders-In a Perspective of Treatment?

Despite the fact that there are published case reports and model work providing evidence of inflammation in Charcot-Marie-Tooth disorders (CMTs), in clinical practice, CMT and inflammatory neuropathies are always classified as two separate groups of disorders. This sharp separation of chronic neuropathies into two groups has serious clinical implications. As a consequence, the patients harboring CMT mutations are practically excluded from pharmacological anti-inflammatory treatments. In this review, we present that neuropathological studies of peripheral nerves taken from some patients representing familial aggregation of CMTs revealed the presence of inflammation within the nerves. This shows that neurodegeneration resulting from germline mutations and the inflammatory process are not mutually exclusive. We also point to reports demonstrating that, at the clinical level, a positive response to anti-inflammatory therapy was observed in some patients diagnosed with CMTs, confirming the role of the inflammatory component in CMT. We narrowed a group of more than 100 genes whose mutations were found in CMT-affected patients to the seven most common (MPZ, PMP22, GJB1, SEPT9, LITAF, FIG4, and GDAP1) as being linked to the coexistence of hereditary and inflammatory neuropathy. We listed studies of mouse models supporting the idea of the presence of an inflammatory process in some CMTs and studies demonstrating at the cellular level the presence of an inflammatory response. In the following, we discuss the possible molecular basis of some neuropathies involving neurodegenerative and inflammatory processes at both the clinical and morphological levels. Finally, we discuss the prospect of a therapeutic approach using immunomodulation in some patients affected by CMTs.

Co-occurrence of Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1 and glomerulosclerosis in a patient with a de novo INF2 variant

BACKGROUND

Renal disease is associated with Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT), a common inherited neurological disorder. Three forms of CMT have been identified: CMT1 of the demyelinating type, CMT2 of the axonal defect type, and intermediate type (Int-CMT). INF2 is an important target for variants that cause the complex symptoms of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) and CMT.

CASE PRESENTATION

We report the case of a 13-year-old female Chinese patient (born in 2011) with a rare co-occurrence of CMT1 and glomerulosclerosis (GS) (CMT1-GS). The patient presented with slowly progressive gait disorder with unsteadiness during walking, pes cavus, and kyphoscoliosis since the age of 1 year. Electrophysiological studies and brain magnetic resonance imaging revealed demyelinating features consistent with CMT1. At 12 years of age, she was hospitalised for hypertension and dizziness; her serum albumin was 27.9 g/L, serum creatinine was 87 μmol/L, estimated glomerular filtration rate was 88.6 mL/min, and 24-h urine protein was 4.95 g. A renal biopsy showed glomerulosclerosis. Renal function deteriorated further during the follow-up period, and she received a kidney transplant at the age of 13. Whole-exome sequencing identified a de novo heterozygous c.326T > G (p.Met109Arg) variant in exon 2 of INF2. The variant was classified as "pathogenic" according to the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics criteria.

CONCLUSIONS

We describe a rare clinical phenotype of CMT1-GS associated with a de novo variant of INF2. Our findings expand the phenotypic and genotypic spectrums of INF2-associated disorders.

Animal models of neuropathic pain

Animal models continue to be crucial to developing our understanding of the molecular, cellular, and neurophysiological mechanisms that lead to neuropathic pain. The overwhelming majority of animal studies use rodent models, ranging from surgical and trauma-induced models to those induced by metabolic diseases, genetic mutations, viruses, neurotoxic drugs, and cancer. We discuss the clinical relevance of the available models and the pain behavior tests commonly used as outcome measures. Finally, we summarize the refinements that have been proposed to improve the ability of animal model studies to predict clinical efficacy.

Gene therapies for CMT neuropathies: from the bench to the clinic

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) neuropathies are rare, genetically heterogeneous and progressive diseases for which there are no approved treatments and their management remains mostly supportive and symptomatic. This review is intended to provide an update on recent developments in gene therapies for different CMT neuropathies.

RECENT FINDINGS

Increasing knowledge of disease pathomechanisms underlying several CMT types has facilitated the development of promising viral and nonviral gene therapy approaches. Some of these therapies are currently approaching the crucial step of moving from the bench to the clinic, having passed the proof-of-concept stage in rodent models and some also in larger animals. However, questions of optimal delivery route and dose, off-target effects, and possible payload toxicity remain to be clarified for several of these approaches. Furthermore, limited resources, the rarity of most CMT subtypes, and issues of safety and regulatory requirements, create the need for consensus guidelines and optimal clinical trial design.

SUMMARY

Promising gene therapies have been developed for several CMT neuropathies, with proof-of-principle demonstrated in relevant disease models. Advantages and drawbacks of each approach are discussed and remaining challenges are highlighted. Furthermore, we suggest important parameters that should be considered in order to successfully translate them into the clinic.

Trigeminal neuralgia, demyelinating polyneuropathy, and central nervous system involvement in a patient with an SH3TC2 mutation

BACKGROUND

Charcot-Marie-Tooth type 4C (CMT4C) is a slowly progressive, autosomal recessive, sensorimotor polyneuropathy characterized by demyelination and distinct clinical features, including cranial nerve involvement. CMT4C is associated with pathogenic mutations in the SH3TC2 gene.

METHODS

A patient presenting with gait instability due to demyelinating polyneuropathy and refractory trigeminal neuralgia underwent comprehensive evaluation. Nerve conduction studies, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain, cervical spine, and thoracic spine, lumbar puncture, and genetic test through next generation sequencing were performed.

RESULTS

The genetic test found an Arg1109Stop mutation in the SH3TC2 gene, associated with demyelinating polyneuropathy and cranial neuropathy. Interestingly, brain MRI showed multiple, nonenhancing white matter hyperintensities. This is the first case of CMT4C associated with white matter lesions.

CONCLUSION

Any patient with slowly progressive peripheral nervous system symptoms and disproportionally abnormal nerve conduction study findings should be tested for an inherited polyneuropathy and brain imaging for screening of possible central nervous system involvement should be performed. Further investigation is needed to elucidate the pathogenetic basis of CMT4C and a possible association with white matter lesions.

Current Treatment Methods for Charcot-Marie-Tooth Diseases

Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) disease, the most common inherited neuromuscular disorder, exhibits a wide phenotypic range, genetic heterogeneity, and a variable disease course. The diverse molecular genetic mechanisms of CMT were discovered over the past three decades with the development of molecular biology and gene sequencing technologies. These methods have brought new options for CMT reclassification and led to an exciting era of treatment target discovery for this incurable disease. Currently, there are no approved disease management methods that can fully cure patients with CMT, and rehabilitation, orthotics, and surgery are the only available treatments to ameliorate symptoms. Considerable research attention has been given to disease-modifying therapies, including gene silencing, gene addition, and gene editing, but most treatments that reach clinical trials are drug treatments, while currently, only gene therapies for CMT2S have reached the clinical trial stage. In this review, we highlight the pathogenic mechanisms and therapeutic investigations of different subtypes of CMT, and promising therapeutic approaches are also discussed.

Navigating the Landscape of CMT1B: Understanding Genetic Pathways, Disease Models, and Potential Therapeutic Approaches

Charcot-Marie-Tooth type 1B (CMT1B) is a peripheral neuropathy caused by mutations in the gene encoding myelin protein zero (MPZ), a key component of the myelin sheath in Schwann cells. Mutations in the MPZ gene can lead to protein misfolding, unfolded protein response (UPR), endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, or protein mistrafficking. Despite significant progress in understanding the disease mechanisms, there is currently no effective treatment for CMT1B, with therapeutic strategies primarily focused on supportive care. Gene therapy represents a promising therapeutic approach for treating CMT1B. To develop a treatment and better design preclinical studies, an in-depth understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms and animal models is essential. In this review, we present a comprehensive overview of the disease mechanisms, preclinical models, and recent advancements in therapeutic research for CMT1B, while also addressing the existing challenges in the field. This review aims to deepen the understanding of CMT1B and to encourage further research towards the development of effective treatments for CMT1B patients.

A Case of Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disease Causing Colitis and Electrolyte Imbalances

Peripheral nerve injury is a result of the rare and crippling Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) disease. Although it can happen at any age, progressive muscle weakening is most obvious in adolescence or the early stages of adulthood. We present a case of an 81-year-old female with recurrent urinary tract infections (UTIs), complaints of abdominal pain and constipation, as well as dysuria with abnormal electrolyte levels. This case serves as an effective symptomatic treatment plan for a patient with this rare neuromuscular disorder.

Morc2a variants cause hydroxyl radical-mediated neuropathy and are rescued by restoring GHKL ATPase

Mutations in the Microrchidia CW-type zinc finger 2 (MORC2) GHKL ATPase module cause a broad range of neuropathies, such as Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2Z; however, the aetiology and therapeutic strategy are not fully understood. Previously, we reported that the Morc2a p.S87L mouse model exhibited neuropathy and muscular dysfunction through DNA damage accumulation. In the present study, we analysed the gene expression of Morc2a p.S87L mice and designated the primary causing factor. We investigated the pathological pathway using Morc2a p.S87L mouse embryonic fibroblasts and human fibroblasts harbouring MORC2 p.R252W. We subsequently assessed the therapeutic effect of gene therapy administered to Morc2a p.S87L mice. This study revealed that Morc2a p.S87L causes a protein synthesis defect, resulting in the loss of function of Morc2a and high cellular apoptosis induced by high hydroxyl radical levels. We considered the Morc2a GHKL ATPase domain as a therapeutic target because it simultaneously complements hydroxyl radical scavenging and ATPase activity. We used the adeno-associated virus (AAV)-PHP.eB serotype, which has a high CNS transduction efficiency, to express Morc2a or Morc2a GHKL ATPase domain protein in vivo. Notably, AAV gene therapy ameliorated neuropathy and muscular dysfunction with a single treatment. Loss-of-function characteristics due to protein synthesis defects in Morc2a p.S87L were also noted in human MORC2 p.S87L or p.R252W variants, indicating the correlation between mouse and human pathogenesis. In summary, CMT2Z is known as an incurable genetic disorder, but the present study demonstrated its mechanisms and treatments based on established animal models. This study demonstrates that the Morc2a p.S87L variant causes hydroxyl radical-mediated neuropathy, which can be rescued through AAV-based gene therapy.

A study concept of expeditious clinical enrollment for genetic modifier studies in Charcot-Marie-Tooth neuropathy 1A

BACKGROUND

Caused by duplications of the gene encoding peripheral myelin protein 22 (PMP22), Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1A (CMT1A) is the most common hereditary neuropathy. Despite this shared genetic origin, there is considerable variability in clinical severity. It is hypothesized that genetic modifiers contribute to this heterogeneity, the identification of which may reveal novel therapeutic targets. In this study, we present a comprehensive analysis of clinical examination results from 1564 CMT1A patients sourced from a prospective natural history study conducted by the RDCRN-INC (Inherited Neuropathy Consortium). Our primary objective is to delineate extreme phenotype profiles (mild and severe) within this patient cohort, thereby enhancing our ability to detect genetic modifiers with large effects.

METHODS

We have conducted large-scale statistical analyses of the RDCRN-INC database to characterize CMT1A severity across multiple metrics.

RESULTS

We defined patients below the 10th (mild) and above the 90th (severe) percentiles of age-normalized disease severity based on the CMT Examination Score V2 and foot dorsiflexion strength (MRC scale). Based on extreme phenotype categories, we defined a statistically justified recruitment strategy, which we propose to use in future modifier studies.

INTERPRETATION

Leveraging whole genome sequencing with base pair resolution, a future genetic modifier evaluation will include single nucleotide association, gene burden tests, and structural variant analysis. The present work not only provides insight into the severity and course of CMT1A, but also elucidates the statistical foundation and practical considerations for a cost-efficient and straightforward patient enrollment strategy that we intend to conduct on additional patients recruited globally.

Knockout of PA200 improves proteasomal degradation and myelination in a proteotoxic neuropathy

The cellular response to a decrease in protein degradation by 26S proteasomes in chronic diseases is poorly understood. Pharmacological inhibition of proteasomes increases the expression of proteasome subunits and Proteasome Activator 200 (PA200), an alternative proteasome activator. In the S63del mouse model of the peripheral neuropathy Charcot Marie Tooth 1B (CMT1B), proteasomal protein degradation is decreased and proteasome gene expression is increased. Here, we show an increase in PA200 and PA200-bound proteasomes in the peripheral nerves of S63del mice. To test genetically whether the upregulation of PA200 was compensatory, we generated S63del//PA200-/- mice. Unexpectedly, in the sciatic nerves of these mice, there was greater proteasomal protein degradation than in S63del, less polyubiquitinated proteins and markers of the unfolded protein response, and a greater amount of assembled, active 26S proteasomes. These changes were not seen in PA200-/- controls and were therefore specific to the neuropathy. Furthermore, in S63del//PA200-/- mice, myelin thickness and nerve conduction were restored to WT levels. Thus, the upregulation of PA200 is maladaptive in S63del mice and its genetic ablation prevented neuropathy.

A medical odyssey of a 72-year-old man with Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2 newly diagnosed with biallelic variants in SORD gene causing sorbitol dehydrogenase deficiency

A 72-year-old man was referred to the Undiagnosed Diseases Network (UDN) because of gradual progressive weakness in both lower extremities for the past 45 years. He was initially diagnosed as having Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2 (CMT2) without a defined molecular genetic cause. Exome sequencing (ES) failed to detect deleterious neuromuscular variants. Very recently, biallelic variants in sorbitol dehydrogenase (SORD) were discovered to be a novel cause of inherited neuropathies including CMT2 or distal hereditary motor neuropathy (dHMN) referred to as Sorbitol Dehydrogenase Deficiency with Peripheral Neuropathy (SORDD, OMIM 618912). The most common variant identified was c.757delG; p.A253Qfs*27. Through the Vanderbilt UDN clinical site, this patient was formally diagnosed with SORDD after the identification of homozygosity for the above SORD frameshift through UDN Genome Sequencing (GS). His medical odyssey was solved by GS and detection of extremely high levels of sorbitol. The diagnosis provided him the opportunity to receive potential treatment with an investigational drug in a clinical trial for SORDD. We suggest that similar studies be considered in other individuals thought to possibly have CMT2 or dHMN.

AAV-mediated editing of PMP22 rescues Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1A features in patient-derived iPS Schwann cells

BACKGROUND

Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1A (CMT1A) is one of the most common hereditary peripheral neuropathies caused by duplication of 1.5 Mb genome region including PMP22 gene. We aimed to correct the duplication in human CMT1A patient-derived iPS cells (CMT1A-iPSCs) by genome editing and intended to analyze the effect on Schwann cells differentiated from CMT1A-iPSCs.

METHODS

We designed multiple gRNAs targeting a unique sequence present at two sites that sandwich only a single copy of duplicated peripheral myelin protein 22 (PMP22) genes, and selected one of them (gRNA3) from screening their efficiencies by T7E1 mismatch detection assay. AAV2-hSaCas9-gRNAedit was generated by subcloning gRNA3 into pX601-AAV-CMV plasmid, and the genome editing AAV vector was infected to CMT1A-iPSCs or CMT1A-iPSC-derived Schwann cell precursors. The effect of the genome editing AAV vector on myelination was evaluated by co-immunostaining of myelin basic protein (MBP), a marker of mature myelin, and microtubule-associated protein  2(MAP2), a marker of neurites or by electron microscopy.

RESULTS

Here we show that infection of CMT1A-iPS cells (iPSCs) with AAV2-hSaCas9-gRNAedit expressing both hSaCas9 and gRNA targeting the tandem repeat sequence decreased PMP22 gene duplication by 20-40%. Infection of CMT1A-iPSC-derived Schwann cell precursors with AAV2-hSaCas9-gRNAedit normalized PMP22 mRNA and PMP22 protein expression levels, and also ameliorated increased apoptosis and impaired myelination in CMT1A-iPSC-derived Schwann cells.

CONCLUSIONS

In vivo transfer of AAV2-hSaCas9-gRNAedit to peripheral nerves could be a potential therapeutic modality for CMT1A patient after careful examinations of toxicity including off-target mutations.

Clinical practice and outcomes of preimplantation genetic testing for CMT1A using a novel direct detection method

Background

Charcot-Marie-Tooth type 1A (CMT1A), the most frequent type of Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, is mainly caused by a 1.4-Mb duplication containing the PMP22 gene. There is no effective treatment other than general supportive care and symptomatic treatment. Preimplantation genetic testing for monogenic defects (PGT-M) is an alternative approach for obtaining healthy babies.

Methods

A new technology and analysis method based on next-generation sequencing (NGS) was developed to detect duplication mutations directly. Simultaneously, aneuploidy and linkage analyses were performed to achieve a comprehensive and accurate embryo diagnosis.

Results

Eight couples were recruited in this study; PMP22 duplication was validated in seven couples, and PMP22 splicing mutation was found in one. Forty-five embryos from 12 PGT cycles were successfully detected using this novel method. The direct detection results for all embryos were consistent with the linkage analyses, suggesting a 100 % accuracy rate, and the aneuploidy rate of the biopsied blastocysts was 33.3 %. Eventually, 18 of the 45 diagnosed embryos were deemed suitable for transfer. Four healthy babies from three families were delivered and their genetic status confirmed by amniocentesis. Additionally, there were no adverse effects of anesthesia or increased pregnancy complications during PGT-M in female patients with CMT1A.

Conclusions

This study provided a simple, reliable, and efficient method that can directly detect PMP22 mutations based on NGS data and does not require positive family members. A clinical workflow for CMT1A interruption in the offspring before embryo implantation is also summarized.

Neuron-Schwann cell interactions in peripheral nervous system homeostasis, disease, and preclinical treatment

Schwann cells (SCs) have a critical role in the peripheral nervous system. These cells are able to support axons during homeostasis and after injury. However, mutations in genes associated with the SCs repair program or myelination result in dysfunctional SCs. Several neuropathies such as Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) disease, diabetic neuropathy and Guillain-Barré syndrome show abnormal SC functions and an impaired regeneration process. Thus, understanding SCs-axon interaction and the nerve environment in the context of homeostasis as well as post-injury and disease onset is necessary. Several neurotrophic factors, cytokines, and regulators of signaling pathways associated with proliferation, survival and regeneration are involved in this process. Preclinical studies have focused on the discovery of therapeutic targets for peripheral neuropathies and injuries. To study the effect of new therapeutic targets, modeling neuropathies and peripheral nerve injuries (PNIs) in vitro and in vivo are useful tools. Furthermore, several in vitro protocols have been designed using SCs and neuron cell lines to evaluate these targets in the regeneration process. SCs lines have been used to generate effective myelinating SCs without success. Alternative options have been investigated using direct conversion from somatic cells to SCs or SCs derived from pluripotent stem cells to generate functional SCs. This review will go over the advantages of these systems and the problems associated with them. In addition, there have been challenges in establishing adequate and reproducible protocols in vitro to recapitulate repair SC-neuron interactions observed in vivo. So, we also discuss the mechanisms of repair SCs-axon interactions in the context of peripheral neuropathies and nerve injury (PNI) in vitro and in vivo. Finally, we summarize current preclinical studies evaluating transgenes, drug, and novel compounds with translational potential into clinical studies.

Hearing loss and vestibular schwannoma: new insights into Schwann cells implication

Hearing loss (HL) is the most common and heterogeneous disorder of the sensory system, with a large morbidity in the worldwide population. Among cells of the acoustic nerve (VIII cranial nerve), in the cochlea are present the hair cells, the spiral ganglion neurons, the glia-like supporting cells, and the Schwann cells (SCs), which alterations have been considered cause of HL. Notably, a benign SC-derived tumor of the acoustic nerve, named vestibular schwannoma (VS), has been indicated as cause of HL. Importantly, SCs are the main glial cells ensheathing axons and forming myelin in the peripheral nerves. Following an injury, the SCs reprogram, expressing some stemness features. Despite the mechanisms and factors controlling their biological processes (i.e., proliferation, migration, differentiation, and myelination) have been largely unveiled, their role in VS and HL was poorly investigated. In this review, we enlighten some of the mechanisms at the base of SCs transformation, VS development, and progression, likely leading to HL, and we pose great attention on the environmental factors that, in principle, could contribute to HL onset or progression. Combining the biomolecular bench-side approach to the clinical bedside practice may be helpful for the diagnosis, prediction, and therapeutic approach in otology.

The Current State of Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disease Treatment

Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT) and associated neuropathies are the most predominant genetically transmitted neuromuscular conditions; however, effective pharmacological treatments have not established. The extensive genetic heterogeneity of CMT, which impacts the peripheral nerves and causes lifelong disability, presents a significant barrier to the development of comprehensive treatments. An estimated 100 loci within the human genome are linked to various forms of CMT and its related inherited neuropathies. This review delves into prospective therapeutic strategies used for the most frequently encountered CMT variants, namely CMT1A, CMT1B, CMTX1, and CMT2A. Compounds such as PXT3003, which are being clinically and preclinically investigated, and a broad array of therapeutic agents and their corresponding mechanisms are discussed. Furthermore, the progress in established gene therapy techniques, including gene replacement via viral vectors, exon skipping using antisense oligonucleotides, splicing modification, and gene knockdown, are appraised. Each of these gene therapies has the potential for substantial advancements in future research.

CMT1A current gene therapy approaches and promising biomarkers

Charcot-Marie-Tooth neuropathies (CMT) constitute a group of common but highly heterogeneous, non-syndromic genetic disorders affecting predominantly the peripheral nervous system. CMT type 1A (CMT1A) is the most frequent type and accounts for almost ~50% of all diagnosed CMT cases. CMT1A results from the duplication of the peripheral myelin protein 22 (PMP22) gene. Overexpression of PMP22 protein overloads the protein folding apparatus in Schwann cells and activates the unfolded protein response. This leads to Schwann cell apoptosis, dys- and de- myelination and secondary axonal degeneration, ultimately causing neurological disabilities. During the last decades, several different gene therapies have been developed to treat CMT1A. Almost all of them remain at the pre-clinical stage using CMT1A animal models overexpressing PMP22. The therapeutic goal is to achieve gene silencing, directly or indirectly, thereby reversing the CMT1A genetic mechanism allowing the recovery of myelination and prevention of axonal loss. As promising treatments are rapidly emerging, treatment-responsive and clinically relevant biomarkers are becoming necessary. These biomarkers and sensitive clinical evaluation tools will facilitate the design and successful completion of future clinical trials for CMT1A.

New Pharmacological Approaches for Rare Diseases

The expression "rare disease" describes a group of diseases whose individual prevalence is low (between 3.9 and 6.6 in 10,000 subjects depending on the country) but which in total affect up to the 3-6% of the worldwide population [...].

Treatment of Charcot-Marie-Tooth neuropathies

Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) is a heterogeneous group of inherited neuropathies that affect the peripheral nerves and slowly cause progressive disability. Currently, there is no effective therapy. Patients' management is based on rehabilitation and occupational therapy, fatigue, and pain treatment with regular follow-up according to the severity of the disease. In the last three decades, much progress has been made to identify mutations involved in the different types of CMT, decipher the pathophysiology of the disease, and identify key genes and pathways that could be targeted to propose new therapeutic strategies. Genetic therapy is one of the fields of interest to silence genes such as PMP22 in CMT1A or to express GJB1 in CMT1X. Among the most promising molecules, inhibitors of the NRG-1 axis and modulators of UPR or the HDACs enzyme family could be used in different types of CMT.

Irisin and Bone in Sickness and in Health: A Narrative Review of the Literature

Irisin is a hormone-like myokine produced by the skeletal muscle in response to exercise. Upon its release into the circulation, it is involved in the browning process and thermogenesis, but recent evidence indicates that this myokine could also regulate the functions of osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteocytes. Most human studies have reported that serum irisin levels decrease with age and in conditions involving bone diseases, including both primary and secondary osteoporosis. However, it should be emphasized that recent findings have called into question the importance of circulating irisin, as well as the validity and reproducibility of current methods of irisin measurement. In this review, we summarize data pertaining to the role of irisin in the bone homeostasis of healthy children and adults, as well as in the context of primary and secondary osteoporosis. Additional research is required to address methodological issues, and functional studies are required to clarify whether muscle and bone damage per se affect circulating levels of irisin or whether the modulation of this myokine is caused by the inherent mechanisms of underlying diseases, such as genetic or inflammatory causes. These investigations would shed further light on the effects of irisin on bone homeostasis and bone disease.

NCAM1 and GDF15 are biomarkers of Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease in patients and mice

Molecular markers scalable for clinical use are critical for the development of effective treatments and the design of clinical trials. Here, we identify proteins in sera of patients and mouse models with Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT) with characteristics that make them suitable as biomarkers in clinical practice and therapeutic trials. We collected serum from mouse models of CMT1A (C61 het), CMT2D (GarsC201R, GarsP278KY), CMT1X (Gjb1-null), CMT2L (Hspb8K141N) and from CMT patients with genotypes including CMT1A (PMP22d), CMT2D (GARS), CMT2N (AARS) and other rare genetic forms of CMT. The severity of neuropathy in the patients was assessed by the CMT Neuropathy Examination Score (CMTES). We performed multitargeted proteomics on both sample sets to identify proteins elevated across multiple mouse models and CMT patients. Selected proteins and additional potential biomarkers, such as growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) and cell free mitochondrial DNA, were validated by ELISA and quantitative PCR, respectively. We propose that neural cell adhesion molecule 1 (NCAM1) is a candidate biomarker for CMT, as it was elevated in Gjb1-null, Hspb8K141N, GarsC201R and GarsP278KY mice as well as in patients with both demyelinating (CMT1A) and axonal (CMT2D, CMT2N) forms of CMT. We show that NCAM1 may reflect disease severity, demonstrated by a progressive increase in mouse models with time and a significant positive correlation with CMTES neuropathy severity in patients. The increase in NCAM1 may reflect muscle regeneration triggered by denervation, which could potentially track disease progression or the effect of treatments. We found that member proteins of the complement system were elevated in Gjb1-null and Hspb8K141N mouse models as well as in patients with both demyelinating and axonal CMT, indicating possible complement activation at the impaired nerve terminals. However, complement proteins did not correlate with the severity of neuropathy measured on the CMTES scale. Although the complement system does not seem to be a prognostic biomarker, we do show complement elevation to be a common disease feature of CMT, which may be of interest as a therapeutic target. We also identify serum GDF15 as a highly sensitive diagnostic biomarker, which was elevated in all CMT genotypes as well as in Hspb8K141N, Gjb1-null, GarsC201R and GarsP278KY mouse models. Although we cannot fully explain its origin, it may reflect increased stress response or metabolic disturbances in CMT. Further large and longitudinal patient studies should be performed to establish the value of these proteins as diagnostic and prognostic molecular biomarkers for CMT.

Hereditary motor and sensory neuropathy with SOD1-mutant: A case report

RATIONALE

Hereditary motor-sensory peripheral neuropathy, or Charot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease is an inherited peripheral neuropathy characterized by progressive limb weakness and muscle atrophy. As the disease progresses, sensory and autonomic involvement may occur. We report a case of CMT associated with SOD1 gene mutation, in order to provide new ideas for clinical disease diagnosis.

PATIENT CONCERNS

A 50-years-old female patient was admitted to the hospital with "progressive weakness of the right lower extremity for 5 years, aggravating, and weakness of the left lower extremity for 4 months".

DIAGNOSIS

The patient was diagnosed CMT.

INTERVENTION

Nerve nutrition and rehabilitation therapy were given, but the patient's condition still did not improve significantly.

OUTCOMES

The improvement of symptoms was not obvious.

LESSONS

The clinical manifestations and electromyography results of this patient are consistent with the characteristics of CMT. The peripheral nerve-related hereditary gene test found mutation in SOD1. It is possible that this mutation is linked to CMT. The disease is a neurodegenerative disease, that may be slowed by physical therapy and rehabilitation, but could not be healed.

The autophagy inducer SMER28 attenuates microtubule dynamics mediating neuroprotection

SMER28 originated from a screen for small molecules that act as modulators of autophagy. SMER28 enhanced the clearance of autophagic substrates such as mutant huntingtin, which was additive to rapamycin-induced autophagy. Thus, SMER28 was established as a positive regulator of autophagy acting independently of the mTOR pathway, increasing autophagosome biosynthesis and attenuating mutant huntingtin-fragment toxicity in cellular- and fruit fly disease models, suggesting therapeutic potential. Despite many previous studies, molecular mechanisms mediating SMER28 activities and its direct targets have remained elusive. Here we analyzed the effects of SMER28 on cells and found that aside from autophagy induction, it significantly stabilizes microtubules and decelerates microtubule dynamics. Moreover, we report that SMER28 displays neurotrophic and neuroprotective effects at the cellular level by inducing neurite outgrowth and protecting from excitotoxin-induced axon degeneration. Finally, we compare the effects of SMER28 with other autophagy-inducing or microtubule-stabilizing drugs: whereas SMER28 and rapamycin both induce autophagy, the latter does not stabilize microtubules, and whereas both SMER28 and epothilone B stabilize microtubules, epothilone B does not stimulate autophagy. Thus, the effect of SMER28 on cells in general and neurons in particular is based on its unique spectrum of bioactivities distinct from other known microtubule-stabilizing or autophagy-inducing drugs.

[Genetic distribution in Chinese patients with hereditary peripheral neuropathy]

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the distribution characteristics of hereditary peripheral neuropathy (HPN) pathogenic genes in Chinese Han population, and to explore the potential pathogenesis and treatment prospects of HPN and related diseases.

METHODS

Six hundred and fifty-six index patients with HPN were enrolled in Peking University Third Hospital and China-Japan Friendship Hospital from January 2007 to May 2022. The PMP22 duplication and deletion mutations were screened and validated by multiplex ligation probe amplification technique. The next-generation sequencing gene panel or whole exome sequencing was used, and the suspected genes were validated by Sanger sequencing.

RESULTS

Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) accounted for 74.3% (495/666) of the patients with HPN, of whom 69.1% (342/495) were genetically confirmed. The most common genes of CMT were PMP22 duplication, MFN2 and GJB1 mutations, which accounted for 71.3% (244/342) of the patients with genetically confirmed CMT. Hereditary motor neuropathy (HMN) accounted for 16.1% (107/666) of HPN, and 43% (46/107) of HPN was genetically confirmed. The most common genes of HMN were HSPB1, aminoacyl tRNA synthetases and SORD mutations, which accounted for 56.5% (26/46) of the patients with genetically confirmed HMN. Most genes associated with HMN could cause different phenotypes. HMN and CMT shared many genes (e.g. HSPB1, GARS, IGHMBP2). Some genes associated with dHMN-plus shared genes associated with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (KIF5A, FIG4, DCTN1, SETX, VRK1), hereditary spastic paraplegia (KIF5A, ZFYVE26, BSCL2) and spinal muscular atrophy (MORC2, IGHMBP, DNAJB2), suggesting that HMN was a continuum rather than a distinct entity. Hereditary sensor and autosomal neuropathy (HSAN) accounted for a small proportion of 2.6% (17/666) in HPN. The most common pathogenic gene was SPTLC1 mutation. TTR was the main gene causing hereditary amyloid peripheral neuropathy. The most common types of gene mutations were p.A117S and p.V50M. The symptoms were characterized by late-onset and prominent autonomic nerve involvement.

CONCLUSION

CMT and HMN are the most common diseases of HPN. There is a large overlap between HMN and motor-CMT2 pathogenic genes, and some HMN pathogenic genes overlap with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, hereditary spastic hemiplegia and spinal muscular atrophy, suggesting that there may be a potential common pathogenic pathway between different diseases.

Accelerate Clinical Trials in Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disease (ACT-CMT): A Protocol to Address Clinical Trial Readiness in CMT1A

With therapeutic trials on the horizon for Charcot-Marie-Tooth type 1A (CMT1A), reliable, valid, and responsive clinical outcome assessments and biomarkers are essential. Accelerate Clinical Trials in CMT (ACT-CMT) is an international study designed to address important gaps in CMT1A clinical trial readiness including the lack of a validated, responsive functional outcome measure for adults, and a lack of validated biomarkers for multicenter application in clinical trials in CMT1A. The primary aims of ACT-CMT include validation of the Charcot-Marie-Tooth Functional Outcome Measure, magnetic resonance imaging of intramuscular fat accumulation as a lower limb motor biomarker, and in-vivo reflectance confocal microscopy of Meissner corpuscle sensory receptor density, a sensory biomarker. Initial studies have indicated that these measures are feasible, reliable and valid. A large prospective, multi-site study is necessary to fully validate and examine the responsiveness of these outcome measures in relation to existing outcomes for use in future clinical trials involving individuals with CMT1A. Two hundred 15 adults with CMT1A are being recruited to participate in this prospective, international, multi-center study. Serial assessments, up to 3 years, are performed and include the CMT-FOM, CMT Exam Score-Rasch, Overall Neuropathy Limitations Scale, CMT-Health Index, as well as nerve conduction studies, and magnetic resonance imaging and Meissner corpuscle biomarkers. Correlations using baseline data will be examined for validity. Longitudinal analyses will document the changes in function, intramuscular fat accumulation, Meissner corpuscle sensory receptor density. Lastly, we will use anchor-based and other statistical methods to determine the minimally clinically important change for these clinical outcome assessments and biomarkers in CMT1A. Reliable, and responsive clinical outcome assessments of function and disease progression biomarkers are urgently needed for application in early and late phase clinical trials in CMT1A. The ACT-CMT study protocol will address this need through the prospective, longitudinal, multicenter examination in unprecedented detail of novel and existing clinical outcome assessments and motor and sensory biomarkers, and enhance international clinical trial infrastructure, training and preparedness for future therapeutic trials in CMT and related neuropathies.

Review of general and head and neck/oral and maxillofacial features of Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease and dental management considerations

Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMTD) is an uncommon progressive neuromuscular disorder of the peripheral nervous system and primarily leads to distal extremity weakness and sensory deficits. Frequently, affected patients manifest pes cavus, drop foot, and digit contractures that may pose significant challenges in ambulation and grasping objects. Although there are numerous articles of this syndrome in the medical literature, there is a limited number of dental publications. The objective of this article is to review the general and head and neck/oral and maxillofacial features of CMTD. General guidelines for dental management are also provided.

Neurological update: hereditary neuropathies

In this update, we review the recent discovery of autosomal recessive variants in sorbitol dehydrogenase as one of the commonest and potentially treatable causes of hereditary motor neuropathy and CMT2. We also report on recent therapeutic advances in hereditary neuropathy including the use of lipid nanoparticle sequestered antisense oligonucleotides in CMT1A and lipid nanoparticle delivered CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing in ATTR amyloidosis.

A translatable RNAi-driven gene therapy silences PMP22/Pmp22 genes and improves neuropathy in CMT1A mice

Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1A (CMT1A), the most common inherited demyelinating peripheral neuropathy, is caused by PMP22 gene duplication. Overexpression of WT PMP22 in Schwann cells destabilizes the myelin sheath, leading to demyelination and ultimately to secondary axonal loss and disability. No treatments currently exist that modify the disease course. The most direct route to CMT1A therapy will involve reducing PMP22 to normal levels. To accomplish this, we developed a gene therapy strategy to reduce PMP22 using artificial miRNAs targeting human PMP22 and mouse Pmp22 mRNAs. Our lead therapeutic miRNA, miR871, was packaged into an adeno-associated virus 9 (AAV9) vector and delivered by lumbar intrathecal injection into C61-het mice, a model of CMT1A. AAV9-miR871 efficiently transduced Schwann cells in C61-het peripheral nerves and reduced human and mouse PMP22 mRNA and protein levels. Treatment at early and late stages of the disease significantly improved multiple functional outcome measures and nerve conduction velocities. Furthermore, myelin pathology in lumbar roots and femoral motor nerves was ameliorated. The treated mice also showed reductions in circulating biomarkers of CMT1A. Taken together, our data demonstrate that AAV9-miR871–driven silencing of PMP22 rescues a CMT1A model and provides proof of principle for treating CMT1A using a translatable gene therapy approach.

A longitudinal and cross-sectional study of plasma neurofilament light chain concentration in Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease

Advances in genetic technology and small molecule drug development have paved the way for clinical trials in Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT); however, the current FDA-approved clinical trial outcome measures are insensitive to detect a meaningful clinical response. There is, therefore, a need to identify sensitive outcome measures or clinically relevant biomarkers. The aim of this study was to further evaluate plasma neurofilament light chain (NFL) as a disease biomarker in CMT. Plasma NFL was measured using SIMOA technology in both a cross-sectional study of a US cohort of CMT patients and longitudinally over 6 years in a UK CMT cohort. In addition, plasma NFL was measured longitudinally in two mouse models of CMT2D. Plasma concentrations of NFL were increased in a US cohort of patients with CMT1B, CMT1X and CMT2A but not CMT2E compared with controls. In a separate UK cohort, over a 6-year interval, there was no significant change in plasma NFL concentration in CMT1A or HSN1, but a small but significant reduction in patients with CMT1X. Plasma NFL was increased in wild type compared to GARSC201R mice. There was no significant difference in plasma NFL in GARSP278KY compared to wild type mice. In patients with CMT1A, the small difference in cross-sectional NFL concentration vs healthy controls and the lack of change over time suggests that plasma NFL may lack sufficient sensitivity to detect a clinically meaningful treatment response in adulthood.

Irisin Serum Levels and Skeletal Muscle Assessment in a Cohort of Charcot-Marie-Tooth Patients

BACKGROUND

Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) indicates a group of inherited polyneuropathies whose clinical phenotypes primarily include progressive distal weakness and muscle atrophy. Compelling evidence showed that the exercise-mimetic myokine irisin protects against muscle wasting in an autocrine manner, thus possibly preventing the onset of musculoskeletal atrophy. Therefore, we sought to determine if irisin serum levels correlate with biochemical and muscle parameters in a cohort of CMT patients.

METHODS

This cohort study included individuals (N=20) diagnosed with CMT disease. Irisin and biochemical markers were quantified in sera. Skeletal muscle mass (SMM) was evaluated by bioelectric impedance analysis, muscle strength by handgrip, and muscle quality was derived from muscle strength and muscle mass ratio.

RESULTS

CMT patients (m/f, 12/8) had lower irisin levels than age and sex matched healthy subjects (N=20) (6.51 ± 2.26 vs 9.34 ± 3.23 μg/ml; p=0.003). SMM in CMT patients was always lower compared to SMM reference values reported in healthy Caucasian population matched for age and sex. Almost the totality of CMT patients (19/20) showed low muscle quality and therefore patients were evaluated on the basis of muscle strength. Irisin was lower in presence of pathological compared to normal muscle strength (5.56 ± 1.26 vs 7.67 ± 2.72 μg/ml; p=0.03), and directly correlated with the marker of bone formation P1PN (r= 0.669; 95%CI 0.295 to 0.865; p=0.002), but inversely correlated with Vitamin D (r=-0.526; 95%CI -0,791 to -0,095; p=0.017). Surprisingly, in women, irisin levels were higher than in men (7.31 ± 2.53 vs 5.31 ± 1.02 μg/ml, p=0.05), and correlated with both muscle strength (r=0.759; 95%CI 0.329 to 0.929; p=0.004) and muscle quality (r=0.797; 95%CI 0.337 to 0.950; p=0.006).

CONCLUSION

Our data demonstrate lower irisin levels in CMT patients compared to healthy subjects. Moreover, among patients, we observed, significantly higher irisin levels in women than in men, despite the higher SMM in the latter. Future studies are necessary to establish whether, in this clinical contest, irisin could represent a marker of the loss of muscle mass and strength and/or bone loss.

Case report and literature review: Novel compound heterozygous FIG4 variants causing both of peripheral and central nervous system defects

BACKGROUND

Pathogenic variants in the FIG4 gene have been described to be associated with a diverse spectrum of syndromes, such as autosomal recessive bilateral temporooccipital polymicrogyria (OMIM 612691), autosomal dominant amyotrophic lateral sclerosis-11 (ALS11; OMIM 612577), autosomal recessive Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, type 4J (CMT4J; OMIM 611228), and autosomal recessive Yunis-Varon syndrome (YVS; OMIM 216340). Heterozygous FIG4 variants are responsible for ALS11 characterized by progressive muscular weakness, atrophy, and bulbar palsy. CMT4J is a disorder of peripheral nervous system defects mainly presenting with a highly variable onset of proximal and/or distal muscle weakness. YVS is a disorder of severe neurological involvement with central nervous system (CNS) dysfunction and extensive skeletal anomalies.

CASE PRESENTATION

We reported two Chinese siblings born with a weakness in all limbs. They experienced rapidly progressive weakness in distal limbs. At the age of 6 years, the elder brother presented with severe scoliosis and cervical kyphosis. They both had global developmental delay and a CNS involvement with cognitive deficits and swallowing problems. Genetic screening in the patients' family for inherited diseases was recommended. Novel compound heterozygous variants in the FIG4 gene (c.2148delTinsAA and c.317A > G) were found by whole-exome sequencing in the patients. These variants were confirmed by Sanger sequencing in family members.

CONCLUSIONS

Herein, we reported two Chinese male patients with CMT4J who presented with abnormal CNS features. CMT4J with CNS involvement has been very rarely reported. We hoped this study could expand the phenotypic and genetic spectrum of FIG4-related diseases. And we helped physicians to understand the genotype-phenotype correlation.

NAD+ Metabolism and Diseases with Motor Dysfunction

Neurodegenerative diseases result in the progressive deterioration of the nervous system, with motor and cognitive impairments being the two most observable problems. Motor dysfunction could be caused by motor neuron diseases (MNDs) characterized by the loss of motor neurons, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, or other neurodegenerative diseases with the destruction of brain areas that affect movement, such as Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) is one of the most abundant metabolites in the human body and is involved with numerous cellular processes, including energy metabolism, circadian clock, and DNA repair. NAD+ can be reversibly oxidized-reduced or directly consumed by NAD+-dependent proteins. NAD+ is synthesized in cells via three different paths: the de novo, Preiss-Handler, or NAD+ salvage pathways, with the salvage pathway being the primary producer of NAD+ in mammalian cells. NAD+ metabolism is being investigated for a role in the development of neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we discuss cellular NAD+ homeostasis, looking at NAD+ biosynthesis and consumption, with a focus on the NAD+ salvage pathway. Then, we examine the research, including human clinical trials, focused on the involvement of NAD+ in MNDs and other neurodegenerative diseases with motor dysfunction.

Animal Models as a Tool to Design Therapeutical Strategies for CMT-like Hereditary Neuropathies

Since ancient times, animal models have provided fundamental information in medical knowledge. This also applies for discoveries in the field of inherited peripheral neuropathies (IPNs), where they have been instrumental for our understanding of nerve development, pathogenesis of neuropathy, molecules and pathways involved and to design potential therapies. In this review, we briefly describe how animal models have been used in ancient medicine until the use of rodents as the prevalent model in present times. We then travel along different examples of how rodents have been used to improve our understanding of IPNs. We do not intend to describe all discoveries and animal models developed for IPNs, but just to touch on a few arbitrary and paradigmatic examples, taken from our direct experience or from literature. The idea is to show how strategies have been developed to finally arrive to possible treatments for IPNs.