Toll-Like Receptor Signaling Pathways: Novel Therapeutic Targets for Cerebrovascular Disorders

Neuroprotective effects of Gastrodia elata Blume on promoting M2 microglial polarization by inhibiting JNK/TLR4/T3JAM/NF-κB signaling after transient ischemic stroke in rats

Background

Gastrodia elata Blume, also called Tian Ma (TM), has been used to treat stroke for centuries. However, its effects on inflammation in acute cerebral ischemic injury and underlying mechanisms involved in microglial polarization remain unknown. The present study explored the effects of the TM extract on the modulation of microglial M1/M2 polarization 2 days after transient cerebral ischemia.

Methods

Male Sprague Dawley rats were intracerebroventricularly administered with 1% dimethyl sulfoxide 25 min before cerebral ischemia and subsequently intraperitoneally administered 0.25 g/kg (DO + TM-0.25 g), 0.5 g/kg (DO + TM-0.5 g), or 1 g/kg (DO + TM-1 g) of the TM extract after cerebral ischemia onset.

Results

DO + TM-0.5 g and DO + TM-1 g treatments downregulated the following: phospho-c-Jun N-terminal kinase (p-JNK)/JNK, tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor-associated factor 3 (TRAF3), TRAF3-interacting JNK-activating modulator (T3JAM), p-nuclear factor-kappa B p65 (p-NF-κB p65)/NF-κB p65, ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 (Iba1), CD86, TNF-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6 expression and toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/Iba1, CD86/Iba1, and p-NF-κB p65/Iba1 coexpression. These treatments also upregulated IL-10, nerve growth factor, and vascular endothelial growth factor A expression and YM-1/2/Iba1 and IL-10/neuronal nuclei coexpression in the cortical ischemic rim. The JNK inhibitor SP600125 exerted similar treatment effects as the DO + TM-0.5 g and DO + TM-1 g treatments.

Conclusion

DO + TM-0.5 g and DO + TM-1 g/kg treatments attenuate cerebral infarction by inhibiting JNK-mediated signaling. TM likely exerts the neuroprotective effects of promoting M1 to M2 microglial polarization by inhibiting JNK/TLR4/T3JAM/NF-κB-mediated signaling in the cortical ischemic rim 2 days after transient cerebral ischemia.

Molecular mechanisms underlying cyclophosphamide-induced cognitive impairment and strategies for neuroprotection in preclinical models

Cyclophosphamide has drastically enhanced the expectancy and quality of life of cancer patients. However, it is accompanied by diverse neurological complications which are considered a dose-limiting adverse effect. Neurotoxicity caused by cyclophosphamide can manifest in numerous manners including anxiety, depression, motor dysfunction and cognitive deficits. This review article offers an overview on cyclophosphamide-induced neurotoxicity, providing a unified point of view on the possible underlying molecular mechanisms including oxidative brain damage, neuroinflammation, apoptotic neuronal cell death as well as disruption of the balance of brain neurotransmitters and neurotrophic factors. Besides, this review sheds light on the promising protective agents that have been investigated using preclinical animal models as well as their biological targets and protection mechanisms. Despite promising results in experimental models, none of these agents has been studied in clinical trials. Thus, there is lack of evidence to advocate the use of any neuroprotective agent in the clinical setting. Furthermore, none of the protective agents has been evaluated for its effect on the anticancer activity of cyclophosphamide in tumor-bearing animals. Therefore, there is a great necessity for adequate well-designed clinical studies for evaluation of the therapeutic values of these candidates. Conclusively, this review summarizes the molecular mechanisms accounting for cyclophosphamide-induced neurotoxicity together with the potential protective strategies seeking for downgrading this neurological complication, thus enhancing the quality of life and well-being of cancer patients treated with cyclophosphamide.

Analysis and Regulatory Mechanisms of Platelet-Related Genes in Patients with Ischemic Stroke

It was found that ischemic stroke (IS) was associated with abnormal platelet activity and thrombosis. However, the potential significance of platelet-related genes (PRGs) in IS still needs to be more thorough. This study extracted IS-related transcriptome datasets from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. The target genes were obtained by intersecting the differentially expressed genes (DEGs), the module genes related to IS, and PRGs, where the key genes of IS were screened by two machine learning algorithms. The key genes-based diagnostic model was constructed. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) and the immune microenvironment analyses were analyzed targeting key genes in IS. The co-expression, TF-mRNA, and competitive endogenous RNAs (ceRNA) regulatory networks were constructed to reveal the potential regulation of key genes. Potential drugs targeting key genes were predicted as well. Totals of eight target genes were obtained and were associated with immune-related functions. Four platelet-related key genes were acquired, which were related to immunity and energy metabolism. The abnormal expressions of DOCK8, GIMAP5, ICOS were determined by the quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), and the significant correlations among these key genes were identified. Notably, hsa-miR-17-3p, hsa-miR-3158-3p, hsa-miR-423-3p, and hsa-miR-193a-8p could regulate all key genes at the same time. In addition, Caffeine, Carboplatin, and Vopratelimab were the targeted drugs of these key genes. This study identified four platelet-related key genes of IS, which might help to deepen the understanding of the role of platelet-related genes in the molecular mechanism of IS.

Sodium Glucose Transporter-2 Inhibitors (SGLT2Is)-TLRs Axis Modulates Diabetes

Diabetes affects millions of people worldwide and is mainly associated with impaired insulin function. To date, various oral anti-diabetic drugs have been developed, of which, the sodium glucose transporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2Is) are of the most recent classes that have been introduced. They differ from other classes in terms of their novel mechanism of actions and unique beneficial effects rather than just lowering glucose levels. SGLT2Is can protect body against cardiovascular events and kidney diseases even in non-diabetic individuals. SGLT2Is participate in immune cell activation, oxidative stress reduction, and inflammation mediation, thereby, moderating diabetic complications. In addition, toll like receptors (TLRs) are the intermediators of the immune system and inflammatory process, thus it's believed to play crucial roles in diabetic complications, particularly the ones that are related to inflammatory reactions. SGLT2Is are also effective against diabetic complications via their anti-inflammatory and oxidative properties. Given the anti-inflammatory properties of TLRs and SGLT2Is, this review investigates how SGLT2Is can affect the TLR pathway, and whether this could be favorable toward diabetes.

Early Brain Injury and Neuroprotective Treatment after Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage: A Literature Review

Early brain injury (EBI) subsequent to subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is strongly associated with delayed cerebral ischemia and poor patient prognosis. Based on investigations into the molecular mechanisms underlying EBI, neurovascular dysfunction resulting from SAH can be attributed to a range of pathological processes, such as microvascular alterations in brain tissue, ionic imbalances, blood-brain barrier disruption, immune-inflammatory responses, oxidative stress, and activation of cell death pathways. Research progress presents a variety of promising therapeutic approaches for the preservation of neurological function following SAH, including calcium channel antagonists, endothelin-1 receptor blockers, antiplatelet agents, anti-inflammatory agents, and anti-oxidative stress agents. EBI can be mitigated following SAH through neuroprotective measures. To enhance our comprehension of the relevant molecular pathways involved in brain injury, including brain ischemia-hypoxic injury, neuroimmune inflammation activation, and the activation of various cell-signaling pathways, following SAH, it is essential to investigate the evolution of these multifaceted pathophysiological processes. Facilitating neural repair following a brain injury is critical for improving patient survival rates and quality of life.

Bioinformatics and experimental analyses of glutamate receptor and its targets genes in myocardial and cerebral ischemia

BACKGROUND

There is a mutual hemodynamic and pathophysiological basis between the heart and brain. Glutamate (GLU) signaling plays an important role in the process of myocardial ischemia (MI) and ischemic stroke (IS). To further explore the common protective mechanism after cardiac and cerebral ischemic injuries, the relationship between GLU receptor-related genes and MI and IS were analyzed.

RESULTS

A total of 25 crosstalk genes were identified, which were mainly enriched in the Toll-like receptor signaling pathway, Th17 cell differentiation, and other signaling pathways. Protein-protein interaction analysis suggested that the top six genes with the most interactions with shared genes were IL6, TLR4, IL1B, SRC, TLR2, and CCL2. Immune infiltration analysis suggested that immune cells such as myeloid-derived suppressor cells and monocytes were highly expressed in the MI and IS data. Memory B cells and Th17 cells were expressed at low levels in the MI and IS data; molecular interaction network construction suggested that genes such as JUN, FOS, and PPARA were shared genes and transcription factors; FCGR2A was a shared gene of MI and IS as well as an immune gene. Least absolute shrinkage and selection operator logistic regression analysis identified nine hub genes: IL1B, FOS, JUN, FCGR2A, IL6, AKT1, DRD4, GLUD2, and SRC. Receiver operating characteristic analysis revealed that the area under the curve of these hub genes was > 65% in MI and IS for all seven genes except IL6 and DRD4. Furthermore, clinical blood samples and cellular models showed that the expression of relevant hub genes was consistent with the bioinformatics analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, we found that the GLU receptor-related genes IL1B, FOS, JUN, FCGR2A, and SRC were expressed in MI and IS with the same trend, which can be used to predict the occurrence of cardiac and cerebral ischemic diseases and provide reliable biomarkers to further explore the co-protective mechanism after cardiac and cerebral ischemic injury.

The oxidative aging model integrated various risk factors in type 2 diabetes mellitus at system level

Background

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a chronic endocrine metabolic disease caused by insulin dysregulation. Studies have shown that aging-related oxidative stress (as "oxidative aging") play a critical role in the onset and progression of T2DM, by leading to an energy metabolism imbalance. However, the precise mechanisms through which oxidative aging lead to T2DM are yet to be fully comprehended. Thus, it is urgent to integrate the underlying mechanisms between oxidative aging and T2DM, where meaningful prediction models based on relative profiles are needed.

Methods

First, machine learning was used to build the aging model and disease model. Next, an integrated oxidative aging model was employed to identify crucial oxidative aging risk factors. Finally, a series of bioinformatic analyses (including network, enrichment, sensitivity, and pan-cancer analyses) were used to explore potential mechanisms underlying oxidative aging and T2DM.

Results

The study revealed a close relationship between oxidative aging and T2DM. Our results indicate that nutritional metabolism, inflammation response, mitochondrial function, and protein homeostasis are key factors involved in the interplay between oxidative aging and T2DM, even indicating key indices across different cancer types. Therefore, various risk factors in T2DM were integrated, and the theories of oxi-inflamm-aging and cellular senescence were also confirmed.

Conclusion

In sum, our study successfully integrated the underlying mechanisms linking oxidative aging and T2DM through a series of computational methodologies.

The fusiform gyrus exhibits differential gene-gene co-expression in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is an irreversible neurodegenerative disease clinically characterized by the presence of β-amyloid plaques and tau deposits in various regions of the brain. However, the underlying factors that contribute to the development of AD remain unclear. Recently, the fusiform gyrus has been identified as a critical brain region associated with mild cognitive impairment, which may increase the risk of AD development. In our study, we performed gene co-expression and differential co-expression network analyses, as well as gene-expression-based prediction, using RNA-seq transcriptome data from post-mortem fusiform gyrus tissue samples collected from both cognitively healthy individuals and those with AD. We accessed differential co-expression networks in large cohorts such as ROSMAP, MSBB, and Mayo, and conducted over-representation analyses of gene pathways and gene ontology. Our results comprise four exclusive gene hubs in co-expression modules of Alzheimer's Disease, including FNDC3A, MED23, NRIP1, and PKN2. Further, we identified three genes with differential co-expressed links, namely FAM153B, CYP2C8, and CKMT1B. The differential co-expressed network showed moderate predictive performance for AD, with an area under the curve ranging from 0.71 to 0.76 (+/- 0.07). The over-representation analysis identified enrichment for Toll-Like Receptors Cascades and signaling pathways, such as G protein events, PIP2 hydrolysis and EPH-Epherin mechanism, in the fusiform gyrus. In conclusion, our findings shed new light on the molecular pathophysiology of AD by identifying new genes and biological pathways involved, emphasizing the crucial role of gene regulatory networks in the fusiform gyrus.

Identification of immune and Toll-like receptor signaling pathway related feature lncRNAs to construct diagnostic nomograms for acute ischemic stroke

We aimed to identify the immune and Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling pathway related feature lncRNAs to construct the diagnostic nomograms for acute ischemic stroke (AIS). Two AIS-associated expression profiles GSE16561 and GSE22255 were downloaded from NCBI Gene Expression Omnibus, the former was the training set and the latter was the validation set. The differential expression genes (DEGs) and lncRNAs (DElncRNAs) related to TLR signaling pathway were identified between AIS and control groups. The single sample gene set enrichment analysis (ssGSEA) was applied to evaluate the immune infiltration. The immune and TLR signaling pathway related DElncRNAs were determined. Three optimization algorithms were utilized to select the immune and TLR signaling pathway related feature lncRNAs to construct the diagnostic nomograms of AIS. Based on the lncRNA signature, a ceRNA network was constructed. 37 DEGs and 28 DElncRNAs related to TLR signaling pathway were identified in GSE16561. 16 immune cell types exhibited significant differences in distribution between AIS and control groups. 28 immune and TLR signaling pathway related DElncRNAs were determined. 8 immune and TLR signaling pathway related feature lncRNAs were selected. The diagnostic nomograms of AIS performed well in both datasets. A ceRNA network was constructed consisting of 7 immune and TLR signaling pathway related feature lncRNAs as well as 19 AIS related miRNAs and 21 TLR signaling pathway related genes. LINC00173, LINC01089, LINC02210, MIR600HG, SNHG14, TP73-AS1, LINC00680 and CASC2 may be the potential biomarkers of AIS diagnosis, and TLR signaling pathway may be a promising immune related therapeutic target for AIS.

Monocyte, neutrophil, and whole blood transcriptome dynamics following ischemic stroke

BACKGROUND

After ischemic stroke (IS), peripheral leukocytes infiltrate the damaged region and modulate the response to injury. Peripheral blood cells display distinctive gene expression signatures post-IS and these transcriptional programs reflect changes in immune responses to IS. Dissecting the temporal dynamics of gene expression after IS improves our understanding of immune and clotting responses at the molecular and cellular level that are involved in acute brain injury and may assist with time-targeted, cell-specific therapy.

METHODS

The transcriptomic profiles from peripheral monocytes, neutrophils, and whole blood from 38 ischemic stroke patients and 18 controls were analyzed with RNA-seq as a function of time and etiology after stroke. Differential expression analyses were performed at 0-24 h, 24-48 h, and >48 h following stroke.

RESULTS

Unique patterns of temporal gene expression and pathways were distinguished for monocytes, neutrophils, and whole blood with enrichment of interleukin signaling pathways for different time points and stroke etiologies. Compared to control subjects, gene expression was generally upregulated in neutrophils and generally downregulated in monocytes over all times for cardioembolic, large vessel, and small vessel strokes. Self-organizing maps identified gene clusters with similar trajectories of gene expression over time for different stroke causes and sample types. Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analyses identified modules of co-expressed genes that significantly varied with time after stroke and included hub genes of immunoglobulin genes in whole blood.

CONCLUSIONS

Altogether, the identified genes and pathways are critical for understanding how the immune and clotting systems change over time after stroke. This study identifies potential time- and cell-specific biomarkers and treatment targets.

Competing endogenous RNA network analysis of the molecular mechanisms of ischemic stroke

BACKGROUND

Ischemic stroke (IS) is a serious neurological disease that largely results in long-term disability and death. Extensive evidence has indicated that the activation of inflammation and ferroptosis significantly contribute to the development of IS pathology. However, the underlying molecular mechanism remains unclear. In this study, we aimed to identify potential biomarkers associated with IS through the construction of a competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) network and to investigate the possible inflammatory and ferroptosis-related molecular mechanisms.

RESULTS

We identified 178 differentially expressed target messenger RNAs (DETmRNAs) associated with IS. As revealed through enrichment analysis, the DEmRNAs were mainly enriched in the inflammatory signaling pathways and also related to ferroptosis mechanism. The CIBERSORT algorithm showed immune infiltration landscapes in which the naïve B cells, naïve T cells, and monocytes had statistically different numbers in the cerebral infarction group compared with the control group. A ceRNA network was constructed in this study involving 44 long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), 15 microRNAs (miRNAs), and 160 messenger RNAs (mRNAs). We used the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis to identify three miRNAs (miR-103a-3p, miR-140-3p, and miR-17-5p), one mRNA (TLR4), and one lncRNA (NEAT1) as the potential key biomarkers of the ceRNA network. The key mRNA and lncRNA were shown to be highly related to the ferroptosis mechanism of IS. The expression of these key biomarkers was also further validated by a method of quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction in SH-SY5Y cells, and the validated results were consistent with the findings predicted by bioinformatics.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that the ceRNA network may exert an important role in the inflammatory and ferroptosis molecular mechanisms of IS, providing new insight into therapeutic IS targets.

Comparison of ischemic stroke diagnosis models based on machine learning

Background

The incidence, prevalence, and mortality of ischemic stroke (IS) continue to rise, resulting in a serious global disease burden. The prediction models have a great value in the early prediction and diagnosis of IS.

Methods

The R software was used to screen the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of IS and control samples in the datasets GSE16561, GSE58294, and GSE37587 and analyze DEGs for enrichment analysis. The feature genes of IS were obtained by several machine learning algorithms, including the least absolute shrinkage and selector operation (LASSO) logistic regression, the support vector machine-recursive feature elimination (SVM-RFE), and the Random Forest (RF). The IS diagnostic models were constructed based on transcriptomics by machine learning and artificial neural network (ANN).

Results

A total of 69 DEGs, mainly involved in immune and inflammatory responses, were identified. The pathways enriched in the IS group were complement and coagulation cascades, lysosome, PPAR signaling pathway, regulation of autophagy, and toll-like receptor signaling pathway. The feature genes selected by LASSO, SVM-RFE, and RF were 17, 10, and 12, respectively. The area under the curve (AUC) of the LASSO model in the training dataset, GSE22255, and GSE195442 was 0.969, 0.890, and 1.000. The AUC of the SVM-RFE model was 0.957, 0.805, and 1.000, respectively. The AUC of the RF model was 0.947, 0.935, and 1.000, respectively. The models have good sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy. The AUC of the LASSO+ANN, SVM-RFE+ANN, and RF+ANN models was 1.000, 0.995, and 0.997, respectively, in the training dataset. However, the AUC of LASSO+ANN, SVM-RFE+ANN, and RF+ANN models was 0.688, 0.605, and 0.619, respectively, in the GSE22255 dataset. The AUC of the LASSO+ANN and RF+ANN models was 0.740 and 0.630, respectively, in the GSE195442 dataset. In the training dataset, the sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of the LASSO+ANN model were 1.000, 1.000, and 1.000, respectively; of the SVM-RFE+ANN model were 0.946, 0.982, and 0.964, respectively; and of the RF+ANN model were 0.964, 1.000, and 0.982, respectively. In the test datasets, the sensitivity was very satisfactory; however, the specificity and accuracy were not good.

Conclusion

The LASSO, SVM-RFE, and RF models have good prediction abilities. However, the ANN model is efficient at classifying positive samples and is unsuitable at classifying negative samples.

Venous stroke–a stroke subtype that should not be ignored

Based on the etiology, stroke can be classified into ischemic or hemorrhagic subtypes, which ranks second among the leading causes of death. Stroke is caused not only by arterial thrombosis but also by cerebral venous thrombosis. Arterial stroke is currently the main subtype of stroke, and research on this type has gradually improved. Venous thrombosis, the particular type, accounts for 0.5–1% of all strokes. Due to the lack of a full understanding of venous thrombosis, as well as its diverse clinical manifestations and neuroimaging features, there are often delays in admission for it, and it is easy to misdiagnose. The purpose of this study was to review the pathophysiology mechanisms and clinical features of arterial and venous thrombosis and to provide guidance for further research on the pathophysiological mechanism, clinical diagnosis, and treatment of venous thrombosis. This review summarizes the pathophysiological mechanisms, etiology, epidemiology, symptomatology, diagnosis, and treatment heterogeneity of venous thrombosis and compares it with arterial stroke. The aim is to provide a reference for a comprehensive understanding of venous thrombosis and a scientific understanding of various pathophysiological mechanisms and clinical features related to venous thrombosis, which will contribute to understanding the pathogenesis of intravenous stroke and provide insight into diagnosis, treatment, and prevention.

Emerging roles of toll-like receptor 4 in chemotherapy-induced neurotoxicity

Chemotherapy-induced neurotoxicity is one of the most prevalent side effects in cancer patients and survivors. Cognitive decline and peripheral neuropathy are the most common chemotherapy-induced neurotoxic symptoms. These symptoms lead not only to the limiting of the dose of chemotherapy given to cancer patients, but also have an impact on the quality of life of cancer survivors. Although the exact mechanisms involved in chemotherapy-induced neurotoxicity are still unclear, neuroinflammation is widely regarded as being one of the major causes involved in chemotherapy-induced neurotoxicity. It is known that Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) plays a critical role in the inflammatory process, and it has been recently reported that it is associated with chemotherapy-induced neurotoxicity. In this review, we summarize and discuss all available evidence regarding the activation of the TLR4 signaling pathway in various models of chemotherapy-induced neurotoxicity. This review also emphasizes the evidence pertinent to TLR4 inhibition on chemotherapy-induced neurotoxicity in rodent studies. Understanding the role of the TLR4 signaling pathway behind chemotherapy-induced neurotoxicity is crucial for improving treatments and ensuring the long-term survival of cancer patients.

Effect of Tetrahedral Framework Nucleic Acids on Neurological Recovery via Ameliorating Apoptosis and Regulating the Activation and Polarization of Astrocytes in Ischemic Stroke

Astrocytes, as the most plentiful subtypes of glial cells, play an essential biphasic function in ischemic stroke (IS). However, although having beneficial effects on stroke via promoting nerve restoration and limiting lesion extension, astrocytes can unavoidably cause exacerbated brain damage due to their participation in the inflammatory response. Therefore, seeking an effective and safe drug/strategy for protecting and regulating astrocytes in stroke is urgent. Here, we employ tetrahedral framework nucleic acid (tFNA) nanomaterials for astrocytes in stroke, considering their excellent biological properties and outstanding biosafety. In vitro, tFNA can inhibit calcium overload and ROS regeneration triggered by oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R), which provides a protective effect against astrocytic apoptosis. Furthermore, morphological changes such as hyperplasia and hypertrophy of reactive astrocytes are restrained, and the astrocytic polarization from the proinflammatory A1 phenotype to the neuroprotective A2 phenotype is facilitated by tFNA, which further alleviates cerebral infarct volume and facilitates the recovery of neurological function in transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAo) rat models. Moreover, the TLRs/NF-κB signaling pathway is downregulated by tFNA, which may be the potential mechanism of tFNA for protecting astrocytes in stroke. Collectively, we demonstrate that tFNA can effectively mediate astrocytic apoptosis, activation, and polarization to alleviate brain injury, which represents a potential intervention strategy for IS.

The mechanism of action of the combination of Astragalus membranaceus and Ligusticum chuanxiong in the treatment of ischemic stroke based on network pharmacology and molecular docking

Since 1990, the incidence of stroke has been rising to become the second leading cause of death in the world, posing a huge burden and challenge to society and families. Astragalus membranaceus and Ligusticum chuanxiong (A&L) have been used as traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) prescriptions to treat and prevent the occurrence of ischemic stroke (IS), but their mechanism of action on the disease has not been fully elucidated. The main objective of this study was to reveal the pharmacological mechanism of A&L in the treatment of IS and to perform preliminary validation. The active ingredients of A&L were obtained from the systematic pharmacology platform of traditional Chinese medicine (TCMSP) database, whereas the genes of IS were obtained from 2 major databases, DrugBank and GeneCards. Cytoscape_v3.8.2 was used to construct the TCM-active ingredient and TCM-active ingredient-cross-target-disease relationship maps, and the MCODE plug-in was used to obtain the core genes, whereas the protein-protein interaction maps were obtained from the STRING database. The results of gene ontology and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes enrichment were obtained using the Hiplot online tool, and the small molecules in the relevant signalling pathways were verified by molecular docking using AutoDock. A&L contained a total of 26 eligible active ingredients, sharing 161 common targets with IS. A total of 58 core genes with 1326 edges were obtained using the MCODE plug-in. Gene ontology and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes enrichment results showed association with interleukin-17 signaling pathway, lipid and atherosclerosis, tumor necrosis factor signaling pathway, and Toll-like receptor signaling pathway, which mainly mediates the development of inflammatory responses. Furthermore, molecular docking was conducted and most of the components were found to have good binding to the receptors. This study demonstrates that A&L can be used to treat IS by controlling the inflammatory response through multiple targets and multiple pathways, and provides a reference for subsequent trials.

Investigating the AC079305/DUSP1 Axis as Oxidative Stress-Related Signatures and Immune Infiltration Characteristics in Ischemic Stroke

Background

Oxidative stress (OS) and immune inflammation play complex intersections in the pathophysiology of ischemic stroke (IS). However, a competing endogenous RNA- (ceRNA-) based mechanism linked to the intersections in IS has not been explored. We aimed to identify potential OS-related signatures and analyze immune infiltration characteristics in IS.

Methods

Three datasets (GSE22255, GSE110993, and GSE140275) from the GEO database were extracted. Differentially expressed long noncoding RNAs, microRNAs, and messenger RNAs (DElncRNAs, DEmiRNAs, and DEmRNAs) between IS patients and controls were identified. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis were explored. Moreover, a triple ceRNA network was constructed to reveal transcriptional regulation mechanisms. A comprehensive strategy among least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression, DEmRNAs, uprelated DEmRNAs, and OS-related genes was adopted to select the best signature. Then, we evaluated and verified the discriminant ability of the signature via receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis. Immune infiltration characteristics were explored via the CIBERSORT algorithm. Moreover, the best signature was verified via qPCR and western blot methods in rat brain tissues and PC12 cells.

Results

11 DEmRNAs were identified totally. Enrichment analysis showed that the DEmRNAs were primarily concentrated in MAPK-associated biological processes and immune or inflammation-involved pathways. DUSP1 was identified as the best signature with an area under the ROC curve of 73.5% (95%CI = 57.02-89.98, sensitivity = 95%, and specificity = 60%) in GSE22255 and 100.0% (95%CI = 100.00-100.00, sensitivity = 100%, and specificity = 100%) in GSE140275. Importantly, we also identified the AC079305/DUSP1 axis in the ceRNA network. Immune infiltration showed that resting mast cells infiltrate less in IS patients compared with controls. And DUSP1 was negatively correlated with resting mast cells (r = −0.703, P < 0.01), whereas it was positively correlated with neutrophils (r = 0.339, P < 0.05). Both in vivo and in vitro models confirmed the upregulated expression of DUSP1 and the downregulated expression of miR-429.

Conclusion

This study identified the ceRNA-based AC079305/DUSP1 axis as a promising OS-related signature for IS. Immune infiltrating cells, especially mast cells, may exert a pivotal role in IS progression. Pharmacological agents targeting signatures, their receptors, or mast cells may shed a novel light on therapeutic targets for IS.

Neuroinflammation: The Pathogenic Mechanism of Neurological Disorders

Neuroinflammation is implicated in the pathophysiology of several neurological diseases [...].

ACK1 Contributes to the Pathogenesis of Inflammation and Autoimmunity by Promoting the Activation of TLR Signaling Pathways

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are the first line of defense in the immune system, whose activation plays a key role in the pathogenesis of inflammation and autoimmunity. TLRs can activate a variety of immune cells such as macrophages and dendritic cells, which produce proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and co-stimulatory molecules that lead to the development of inflammation and autoimmune diseases. As a nonreceptor tyrosine kinase, ACK1 is involved in multiple signaling pathways and physiological processes. However, the roles of ACK1 in the activation of TLR pathways and in the pathogenesis of inflammation and autoimmune diseases have not yet been reported. We found that the expression of ACK1 could be upregulated by TLR pathways in vivo and in vitro. Intriguingly, overexpression of ACK1 significantly promoted the activation of TLR4, TLR7, and TLR9 pathways, while knockdown of ACK1 or the use of the ACK1 inhibitor AIM-100 significantly inhibited the activation of TLR4, TLR7, and TLR9 pathways. In vivo studies showed that the inhibition of ACK1 activity by AIM-100 could significantly protect mice from the TLR4 agonist lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-mediated endotoxin shock and alleviate the condition of imiquimod-mediated lupus-prone mice and MRL/lpr mice. In summary, ACK1 participates in TLR-mediated inflammation and autoimmunity and has great potential in controlling inflammation and alleviating autoimmune diseases.

Neuroinflammation in Cerebral Ischemia and Ischemia/Reperfusion Injuries: From Pathophysiology to Therapeutic Strategies

Its increasing incidence has led stroke to be the second leading cause of death worldwide. Despite significant advances in recanalization strategies, patients are still at risk for ischemia/reperfusion injuries in this pathophysiology, in which neuroinflammation is significantly involved. Research has shown that in the acute phase, neuroinflammatory cascades lead to apoptosis, disruption of the blood-brain barrier, cerebral edema, and hemorrhagic transformation, while in later stages, these pathways support tissue repair and functional recovery. The present review discusses the various cell types and the mechanisms through which neuroinflammation contributes to parenchymal injury and tissue repair, as well as therapeutic attempts made in vitro, in animal experiments, and in clinical trials which target neuroinflammation, highlighting future therapeutic perspectives.