Immunostimulatory Potential of Extracellular Vesicles Isolated from an Edible Plant, Petasites japonicus, via the Induction of Murine Dendritic Cell Maturation

Recognition on pharmacodynamic ingredients of natural products

Natural products (NPs) play an irreplaceable role in the intervention of various diseases and have been considered a critical source of drug development. Many new pharmacodynamic compounds with potential clinical applications have recently been derived from NPs. These compounds range from small molecules to polysaccharides, polypeptides, proteins, self-assembled nanoparticles, and extracellular vesicles. This review summarizes various active substances found in NPs. The investigation of active substances in NPs can potentiate new drug development and promote the in-depth comprehension of the mechanism of action of NPs that can be beneficial in the prevention and treatment of human diseases.

Sulforaphane-mediated immune regulation through inhibition of NF-kB and MAPK signaling pathways in human dendritic cells

Inflammation and immune responses are intricately intertwined processes crucial for maintaining homeostasis and combating against pathogens. These processes involve complex signaling pathways, notably the Nuclear Factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B-cells (NF-κB) and Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) pathways, which play crucial roles. Sulforaphane (SFN), a nutraceutic, has emerged as a potential regulator of NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways, exhibiting anti-inflammatory properties. However, limited knowledge exists regarding SFN's effects on immune cell modulation. This study aimed to assess the immunomodulatory capacity of SFN pretreatment in human dendritic cells (DCs), followed by exposure to a chronic inflammatory environment induced by lipopolysaccharide. SFN pretreatment was found to inhibit the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways, resulting in phenotypic changes in DCs characterized by a slight reduction in the expression of surface markers, as well as a decrease of TNF-α/IL-10 ratio. Additionally, SFN pretreatment enhanced the proliferation of Treg-cells and promoted the production of IL-10 by B-cells before exposure to the chronic inflammatory environment. Furthermore, these changes in DCs were found to be influenced by the inhibition of NF-κB and MAPK pathways (specifically p38 MAPK and JNK), suggesting that these pathways may play a role in the regulation of the differentiation of adaptive immune responses (proliferation of T- and IL-10-producing regulatory-cells), prior to SFN pretreatment. Our findings suggest that SFN pretreatment may induce a regulatory response by inhibiting NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways in an inflammatory environment. SFN could be considered a promising strategy for utilizing functional foods to protect against inflammation and develop immunoregulatory interventions.

Plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles: A novel nanotool for disease therapy

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles comprising bilayer phospholipid membranes and are secreted by eukaryotic cells. They are released via cellular exocytosis, contain DNA, RNA, proteins, and other substances, and participate in various cellular communications between tissues and organs. Since the discovery of exosomes in 1983, animal-derived exosomes have become a research focus for small-molecule drug delivery in biology, medicine, and other fields owing to their good biocompatibility and homing effects. Recent studies have found that plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles (PELNVs) exhibit certain biological effects, such as anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor abilities, and have minimal toxic side effects. Because they are rich in active lipid molecules with certain pharmacological effects, PELNVs could be novel carriers for drug delivery. In this review, the biological formation and effects, isolation, and extraction of PELNVs, as well as characteristics of transporting drugs as carriers are summarized to provide new ideas and methods for future research on plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles.

Immunostimulatory potential of extruded plant-based meat: effect of extrusion moisture level on macrophage activation

In this study, the effect of different moisture levels in extruded plant-based meat on macrophage immunostimulation, and the potential of this meat as a protein source and a solution to environmental and economic challenges associated with conventional meat was investigated. To determine the effects of the extruded plant-based meat, cell viability assay, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, flow cytometry, and western blotting were performed. Low-moisture (LMME) and high-moisture meat extracts (HMME) showed higher potential to activate macrophages and regulate cytokine production than raw material extract. Treatment with LMME and HMME resulted in increased expression of CD80, CD86, and MHC class I/II proteins, indicating their potential to activate macrophages. Western blotting suggested that the immune activation observed in a previous study of macrophages was because of the phosphorylation of MAPKs and NF-κB. These findings suggest that extruded plant-based meat can potentially be used as an immunostimulatory food ingredient.

Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: A New Revolutionization of Modern Healthy Diets and Biomedical Applications

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) have recently emerged as a promising area of research due to their potential health benefits and biomedical applications. Produced by various plant species, these EVs contain diverse bioactive molecules, including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Increasing in vitro and in vivo studies have shown that PDEVs have inherent pharmacological activities that affect cellular processes, exerting anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer activities, which can potentially contribute to disease therapy and improve human health. Additionally, PDEVs have shown potential as efficient and biocompatible drug delivery vehicles in treating various diseases. However, while PDEVs serve as a potential rising star in modern healthy diets and biomedical applications, further research is needed to address their underlying knowledge gaps, especially the lack of standardized protocols for their isolation, identification, and large-scale production. Furthermore, the safety and efficacy of PDEVs in clinical applications must be thoroughly evaluated. In this review, we concisely discuss current knowledge in the PDEV field, including their characteristics, biomedical applications, and isolation methods, to provide an overview of the current state of PDEV research. Finally, we discuss the challenges regarding the current and prospective issues for PDEVs. This review is expected to provide new insights into healthy diets and biomedical applications of vegetables and fruits, inspiring new advances in natural food-based science and technology.

Bioactive compounds and biological functions of medicinal plant-derived extracellular vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are tiny lipid bilayer-enclosed membrane particles released from a variety of cell types into the surrounding environment. These EVs have massive participated in cell-to-cell communication and interspecies communication. In recent years, plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) and "exosome-like" EVs populations found in distinct plants have attracted widespread attention. Especially, research on medicinal plant-derived extracellular vesicles (MPDEVs) are increasing, which are considered a kind of promising natural compound. This review summarizes current knowledge on MPDEVs in terms of bioactive compounds, including small RNA, protein, lipid, and metabolite, have been found on the surface and/or in the lumen of MPDEVs. Moreover, both in vitro and in vivo experiments have shown that MPDEVs exert broad biomedical functions, such as anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antioxidant, modulate microbiota, etc. MPDEVs may be a better substitute than animal-derived extracellular vesicles (ADEVs) because of safety and biocompatibility in the future.

Plant-derived nanovesicles as an emerging platform for cancer therapy

Plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs) derived from natural green products have emerged as an attractive nanoplatform in biomedical application. They are usually characterized by unique structural and biological functions, such as the bioactive lipids/proteins/nucleic acids as therapeutics and targeting groups, immune-modulation, and long-term circulation. With the rapid development of nanotechnology, materials, and synthetic chemistry, PDNVs can be engineered with multiple functions for efficient drug delivery and specific killing of diseased cells, which represent an innovative biomaterial with high biocompatibility for fighting against cancer. In this review, we provide an overview of the state-of-the-art studies concerning the development of PDNVs for cancer therapy. The original sources, methods for obtaining PDNVs, composition and structure are introduced systematically. With an emphasis on the featured application, the inherent anticancer properties of PDNVs as well as the strategies in constructing multifunctional PDNVs-based nanomaterials will be discussed in detail. Finally, some scientific issues and technical challenges of PDNVs as promising options in improving anticancer therapy will be discussed, which are expected to promote the further development of PDNVs in clinical translation.

Therapeutic potential and pharmacological significance of extracellular vesicles derived from traditional medicinal plants

Medicinal plants are the primary sources for the discovery of novel medicines and the basis of ethnopharmacological research. While existing studies mainly focus on the chemical compounds, there is little research about the functions of other contents in medicinal plants. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are functionally active, nanoscale, membrane-bound vesicles secreted by almost all eukaryotic cells. Intriguingly, plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) also have been implicated to play an important role in therapeutic application. PDEVs were reported to have physical and chemical properties similar to mammalian EVs, which are rich in lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and pharmacologically active compounds. Besides these properties, PDEVs also exhibit unique advantages, especially intrinsic bioactivity, high stability, and easy absorption. PDEVs were found to be transferred into recipient cells and significantly affect their biological process involved in many diseases, such as inflammation and tumors. PDEVs also could offer unique morphological and compositional characteristics as natural nanocarriers by innately shuttling bioactive lipids, RNA, proteins, and other pharmacologically active substances. In addition, PDEVs could effectively encapsulate hydrophobic and hydrophilic chemicals, remain stable, and cross stringent biological barriers. Thus, this study focuses on the pharmacological action and mechanisms of PDEVs in therapeutic applications. We also systemically deal with facets of PDEVs, ranging from their isolation to composition, biological functions, and biotherapeutic roles. Efforts are also made to elucidate recent advances in re-engineering PDEVs applied as stable, effective, and non-immunogenic therapeutic applications to meet the ever-stringent demands. Considering its unique advantages, these studies not only provide relevant scientific evidence on therapeutic applications but could also replenish and inherit precious cultural heritage.

Plant-derived nanovesicles: harnessing nature's power for tissue protection and repair

Tissue damage and aging lead to dysfunction, disfigurement, and trauma, posing significant global challenges. Creating a regenerative microenvironment to resist external stimuli and induce stem cell differentiation is essential. Plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs) are naturally bioactive lipid bilayer nanovesicles that contain proteins, lipids, ribonucleic acid, and metabolites. They have shown potential in promoting cell growth, migration, and differentiation into various types of tissues. With immunomodulatory, microbiota regulatory, antioxidant, and anti-aging bioactivities, PDNVs are valuable in resisting external stimuli and facilitating tissue repair. The unique structure of PDNVs provides an optimal platform for drug encapsulation, and surface modifications enhance their stability and specificity. Moreover, by employing synergistic administration strategies, PDNVs can maximize their therapeutic potential. This review summarized the progress and prospects of PDNVs as regenerative tools, provided insights into their selection for repair activities based on existing studies, considered the key challenge for clinical application, and anticipated their continued prominent role in the field of biomedicine.

Plant-Derived Vesicles: A New Era for Anti-Cancer Drug Delivery and Cancer Treatment

Lipid-structured vesicles have been applied for drug delivery system for over 50 years. Based on their origin, lipid-structured vesicles are divided into two main categories, namely synthetic lipid vesicles (SLNVEs) and vesicles of mammalian origin (MDVEs). Although SLNVEs can stably transport anti-cancer drugs, their biocompatibility is poor and degradation of exogenous substances is a potential risk. Unlike SLNVEs, MDVEs have excellent biocompatibility but are limited by a lack of stability and a risk of contamination by dangerous pathogens from donor cells. Since the first discovery of plant-derived vesicles (PDVEs) in carrot cell supernatants in 1967, emerging evidence has shown that PDVEs integrate the advantages of both SLNVEs and MDVEs. Notably, 55 years of dedicated research has indicated that PDVEs are an ideal candidate vesicle for drug preparation, transport, and disease treatment. The current review systematically focuses on the role of PDVEs in cancer therapy and in particular compares the properties of PDVEs with those of conventional lipid vesicles, summarizes the preparation methods and quality control of PDVEs, and discusses the application of PDVEs in delivering anti-cancer drugs and their underlying molecular mechanisms for cancer therapy. Finally, the challenges and future perspectives of PDVEs for the development of novel therapeutic strategies against cancer are discussed.

Plant-Derived Vesicle-Like Nanoparticles: Clinical Application Exploration and Challenges

The utilization of plant-derived vesicle-like nanoparticles (PDVLNs) has shown effectiveness in the prevention/treatment of inflammatory-mediated diseases, malignancies, and immune-related diseases, such as acute liver injury, allergic asthma, gastric cancer and so on. This highlights the promising potential of PDVLNs as biotherapeutics. Furthermore, it should be noted that PDVLNs possess the ability to function as both natural and engineered drug carriers, making them an appealing option. This review aims to present the appropriate extraction methods of PDVLNs, summarize the applications of PDVLNs in different diseases, and provide an outlook on the prospects of PDVLNs. At the same time, the authors also express their discussion on the current limitations of PDVLNs.

Plant-Derived Exosome-Like Nanovesicles: Current Progress and Prospects

Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles, ranging in size from 30-150nm, which can be derived from various types of cells. In recent years, mammalian-derived exosomes have been extensively studied and found to play a crucial role in regulating intercellular communication, thereby influencing the development and progression of numerous diseases. Traditional Chinese medicine has employed plant-based remedies for thousands of years, and an increasing body of evidence suggests that plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles (PELNs) share similarities with mammalian-derived exosomes in terms of their structure and function. In this review, we provide an overview of recent advances in the study of PELNs and their potential implications for human health. Specifically, we summarize the roles of PELNs in respiratory, digestive, circulatory, and other diseases. Furthermore, we have extensively investigated the potential shortcomings and challenges in current research regarding the mechanism of action, safety, administration routes, isolation and extraction methods, characterization and identification techniques, as well as drug-loading capabilities. Based on these considerations, we propose recommendations for future research directions. Overall, our review highlights the potential of PELNs as a promising area of research, with broad implications for the treatment of human diseases. We anticipate continued interest in this area and hope that our summary of recent findings will stimulate further exploration into the implications of PELNs for human health.

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) in nanomedicine for human disease and therapeutic modalities

BACKGROUND

The past few years have witnessed a significant increase in research related to plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) in biological and medical applications. Using biochemical technologies, multiple independent groups have demonstrated the important roles of PDEVs as potential mediators involved in cell-cell communication and the exchange of bio-information between species. Recently, several contents have been well identified in PDEVs, including nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and other active substances. These cargoes carried by PDEVs could be transferred into recipient cells and remarkably influence their biological behaviors associated with human diseases, such as cancers and inflammatory diseases. This review summarizes the latest updates regarding PDEVs and focuses on its important role in nanomedicine applications, as well as the potential of PDEVs as drug delivery strategies to develop diagnostic and therapeutic agents for the clinical management of diseases, especially like cancers.

CONCLUSION

Considering its unique advantages, especially high stability, intrinsic bioactivity and easy absorption, further elaboration on molecular mechanisms and biological factors driving the function of PDEVs will provide new horizons for the treatment of human disease.

Current understanding of plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles in regulating the inflammatory response and immune system microenvironment

Natural compounds are widely used to prevent and treat various diseases due to their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. As a kind of promising natural compound, plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PELNs) are extracted from multivesicular bodies of various edible plants, including vegetables, foods, and fruits, and mainly regulate the cellular immune response to pathogen attacks. Moreover, PELNs could remarkably interfere with the dynamic imbalance between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory effects, facilitating to maintain the homeostasis of cellular immune microenvironment. PELNs may serve as a better alternative to animal-derived exosomes (ADEs) owing to their widespread sources, cost-effectiveness, and easy accessibility. PELNs can mediate interspecies communication by transferring various cargoes such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids from plant cells to mammalian cells. This review summarizes the biogenesis, composition, and classification of exosomes; the common separation, purification, and characterization methods of PELNs, the potential advantages of PELNs over ADEs; and the anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory functions of PELNs in various diseases including colitis, cancer, and inflammation-associated metabolic diseases. Additionally, the future perspectives of PELNs and the challenges associated with their clinical application are discussed.

Microbiota and plant-derived vesicles that serve as therapeutic agents and delivery carriers to regulate metabolic syndrome

The gut is a fundamental organ in controlling human health. Recently, researches showed that substances in the intestine can alter the course of many diseases through the intestinal epithelium, especially intestinal flora and exogenously ingested plant vesicles that can be transported over long distances to various organs. This article reviews the current knowledge on extracellular vesicles in modulating gut homeostasis, inflammatory response and numerous metabolic disease that share obesity as a co-morbidity. These complex systemic diseases that are difficult to cure, but can be managed by some bacterial and plant vesicles. Vesicles, due to their digestive stability and modifiable properties, have emerged as novel and targeted drug delivery vehicles for effective treatment of metabolic diseases.

Dendritic Cell and Cancer Therapy

Dendritic cells (DCs) are acknowledged as the most potent professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs), able to induce adaptive immunity and support the innate immune response [...].

Plant-derived nanovesicles: Current understanding and applications for cancer therapy

Plant-derived vesicles (PDVs) are membranous structures that originate from plant cells and are responsible for multiple physiological and pathological functions. In the last decade, PDVs have gained much attention for their involvement in different biological processes, including intercellular communication and defense response, and recent scientific evidence has opened a new avenue for their applications in cancer treatment. Nevertheless, much remains unknown about these vesicles, and current research remains inconsistent. This review aims to provide a comprehensive introduction to PDVs, from their biological characteristics to purification methods, and to summarize the status of their potential development for cancer therapy.

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles as oral drug delivery carriers

Oral administration is one of the most convenient and widely utilized methods of drug administration. However, many drugs were difficult to be administered orally due to their poor oral bioavailability. Designing a safe and effective oral drug delivery system is one of the basic strategies to overcome the poor oral bioavailability. Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) were found in a variety of plants and have similar physical and chemical properties to mammalian EVs. It has been proved that PDEVs can effectively encapsulate hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs, remain stable in harsh gastrointestinal environments, and cross biological barriers to reach target tissues. Furthermore, the biological activity of PDEVs enables it to play a synergistic therapeutic role with drugs. In addition, the safety and high yield of PDEVs indicate their potential as oral drug carriers. In this review, we introduce the biogenesis, isolation, characterization and drug delivery methods of PDEVs, describe their stability, transport, delivery and therapeutic applications. Finally, the potential and challenges of PDEVs as drug carriers are discussed.

Emergence of Edible Plant-Derived Nanovesicles as Functional Food Components and Nanocarriers for Therapeutics Delivery: Potentials in Human Health and Disease

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a highly heterogeneous population of membranous particles that are secreted by almost all types of cells across different domains of life, including plants. In recent years, studies on plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs) showed that they could modulate metabolic reactions of the recipient cells, affecting (patho)physiology with health benefits in a trans-kingdom manner. In addition to its bioactivity, PDNV has advantages over conventional nanocarriers, making its application promising for therapeutics delivery. Here, we discuss the characteristics of PDNV and highlight up-to-date pre-clinical and clinical evidence, focusing on therapeutic application.

Technology insight: Plant-derived vesicles-How far from the clinical biotherapeutics and therapeutic drug carriers?

Within the past decades, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as important mediators of intercellular communication in both prokaryotes and higher eukaryotes to regulate a diverse range of biological processes. Besides EVs, exosome-like nanoparticles (ELNs) derived from plants were also emerging. Comparing to EVs, ELNs are source-widespread, cost-effective and easy to obtain. Their definite activities can be utilized for potential prevention/treatment of an abundance of diseases, including metabolic syndrome, cancer, colitis, alcoholic hepatitis and infectious diseases, which highlights ELNs as promising biotherapeutics. In addition, the potential of ELNs as natural or engineered drug carriers is also attractive. In this review, we tease out the timeline of plant EVs and ELNs, introduce the arising separation, purification and characterization techniques, state the stability and transport manner, discuss the therapeutic opportunities as well as the potential as novel drug carriers. Finally, the challenges and the direction of efforts to realize the clinical transformation of ELNs are also discussed.