Gastrointestinal Dopamine in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: A Systematic Review

The role of urine metabolomics in the diagnosis and management of adult and pediatric Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis

INTRODUCTION

Urine metabolomics offers a non-invasive approach to diagnose and manage inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), including Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), by identifying distinct metabolic signatures.

OBJECTIVES

This narrative review summarizes current findings on urinary metabolites in IBD, evaluating their roles in disease differentiation, assessment of activity, and monitoring therapeutic response.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature search of PubMed and MEDLINE up to October 2023 was conducted using keywords, such as 'urine metabolomics', 'inflammatory bowel disease', 'Crohn's disease', 'ulcerative colitis', and 'urinary biomarkers'. Studies were included that described alterations to metabolic pathways, including those related to the urea cycle, central energy metabolism (Krebs cycle), amino acid metabolism, and neurotransmitters.

RESULTS

Specific urinary metabolites differentiate IBD patients from healthy controls and between CD and UC. Decreased urinary levels of hippurate, acetate, methanol, formate, and methylamine are observed in IBD, indicating altered gut microbiota. In CD patients, urea cycle alterations include reduced urinary urea and ornithine with increased arginine. Changes in Krebs cycle intermediates show decreased citrate and succinate in adults, but increased fumarate and isocitrate in pediatric patients, reflecting energy metabolism differences. Amino acid metabolism differs by age: Adults exhibit decreased urinary asparagine, lysine, and histidine, while pediatric patients show increased methionine, proline, aspartic acid, and isoleucine. Elevated urinary neurotransmitters like dopamine are noted in pediatric IBD patients. Urine metabolomics also can monitor treatment efficacy by distinguishing responders from non-responders to therapies and differentiating active disease from remission.

CONCLUSION

Urine metabolomics provides promising, non-invasive biomarkers to enhance IBD diagnostics by distinguishing CD from UC and offering insights into underlying metabolic disturbances, paving the way for more precise, accessible patient care.

Dopamine Receptors and TAAR1 Functional Interaction Patterns in the Duodenum Are Impaired in Gastrointestinal Disorders

Currently, there is a growing amount of evidence for the involvement of dopamine receptors and the functionally related trace amine-associated receptor, TAAR1, in upper intestinal function. In the present study, we analyzed their expression in the duodenum using publicly accessible transcriptomic data. We revealed the expression of DRD1, DRD2, DRD4, DRD5, and TAAR1 genes in different available datasets. The results of the gene ontology (GO) enrichment analysis for DRD2 and especially TAAR1 co-expressed genes were consistent with the previously described localization of D2 and TAAR1 in enteric neurons and secretory cells, respectively. Considering that co-expressed genes are more likely to be involved in the same biological processes, we analyzed genes that are co-expressed with TAAR1, DRD2, DRD4, and DRD5 genes in healthy mucosa and duodenal samples from patients with functional dyspepsia (FD) or diabetes-associated gastrointestinal symptoms. Both pathological conditions showed a deregulation of co-expression patterns, with a high discrepancy between DRDs and TAAR1 co-expressed gene sets in normal tissues and patients' samples and a loss of these genes' functional similarity. Meanwhile, we discovered specific changes in co-expression patterns that may suggest the involvement of TAAR1 and D5 receptors in pathologic or compensatory processes in FD or diabetes accordingly. Despite our findings suggesting the possible role of TAAR1 and dopamine receptors in functional diseases of the upper intestine, underlying mechanisms need experimental exploration and validation.

Dopamine β-hydroxylase shapes intestinal inflammation through modulating T cell activation

BACKGROUND

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic and relapsing disease characterized by immune-mediated dysfunction of intestinal homeostasis. Alteration of the enteric nervous system and the subsequent neuro-immune interaction are thought to contribute to the initiation and progression of IBD. However, the role of dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DBH), an enzyme converting dopamine into norepinephrine, in modulating intestinal inflammation is not well defined.

METHODS

CD4+CD45RBhighT cell adoptive transfer, and 2,4-dinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (DNBS) or dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis were collectively conducted to uncover the effects of DBH inhibition by nepicastat, a DBH inhibitor, in mucosal ulceration, disease severity, and T cell function.

RESULTS

Inhibition of DBH by nepicastat triggered therapeutic effects on T cell adoptive transfer induced chronic mouse colitis model, which was consistent with the gene expression of DBH in multiple cell populations including T cells. Furthermore, DBH inhibition dramatically ameliorated the disease activity and colon shortening in chemically induced acute and chronic IBD models, as evidenced by morphological and histological examinations. The reshaped systemic inflammatory status was largely associated with decreased pro-inflammatory mediators, such as TNF-α, IL-6 and IFN-γ in plasma and re-balanced Th1, Th17 and Tregs in mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs) upon colitis progression. Additionally, the conversion from dopamine (DA) to norepinephrine (NE) was inhibited resulting in increase in DA level and decrease in NE level and DA/NE showed immune-modulatory effects on the activation of immune cells.

CONCLUSION

Modulation of neurotransmitter levels via inhibition of DBH exerted protective effects on progression of murine colitis by modulating the neuro-immune axis. These findings suggested a promising new therapeutic strategy for attenuating intestinal inflammation.

Systematic-Narrative Hybrid Literature Review: Crosstalk between Gastrointestinal Renin-Angiotensin and Dopaminergic Systems in the Regulation of Intestinal Permeability by Tight Junctions

In the first part of this article, the role of intestinal epithelial tight junctions (TJs), together with gastrointestinal dopaminergic and renin-angiotensin systems, are narratively reviewed to provide sufficient background. In the second part, the current experimental data on the interplay between gastrointestinal (GI) dopaminergic and renin-angiotensin systems in the regulation of intestinal epithelial permeability are reviewed in a systematic manner using the PRISMA methodology. Experimental data confirmed the copresence of DOPA decarboxylase (DDC) and angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) in human and rodent enterocytes. The intestinal barrier structure and integrity can be altered by angiotensin (1-7) and dopamine (DA). Both renin-angiotensin and dopaminergic systems influence intestinal Na+/K+-ATPase activity, thus maintaining electrolyte and nutritional homeostasis. The colocalization of B0AT1 and ACE2 indicates the direct role of the renin-angiotensin system in amino acid absorption. Yet, more studies are needed to thoroughly define the structural and functional interaction between TJ-associated proteins and GI renin-angiotensin and dopaminergic systems.

Research progress on the roles of dopamine and dopamine receptors in digestive system diseases

Dopamine (DA) is a neurotransmitter synthesized in the human body that acts on multiple organs throughout the body, reaching them through the blood circulation. Neurotransmitters are special molecules that act as messengers by binding to receptors at chemical synapses between neurons. As ligands, they mainly bind to corresponding receptors on central or peripheral tissue cells. Signalling through chemical synapses is involved in regulating the activities of various body systems. Lack of DA or a decrease in DA levels in the brain can lead to serious diseases such as Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, addiction and attention deficit disorder. It is widely recognized that DA is closely related to neurological diseases. As research on the roles of brain-gut peptides in human physiology and pathology has deepened in recent years, the regulatory role of neurotransmitters in digestive system diseases has gradually attracted researchers' attention, and research on DA has expanded to the field of digestive system diseases. This review mainly elaborates on the research progress on the roles of DA and DRs related to digestive system diseases. Starting from the biochemical and pharmacological properties of DA and DRs, it discusses the therapeutic value of DA- and DR-related drugs for digestive system diseases.

Gut commensals and their metabolites in health and disease

Purpose of review

This review comprehensively discusses the role of the gut microbiome and its metabolites in health and disease and sheds light on the importance of a holistic approach in assessing the gut.

Recent findings

The gut microbiome consisting of the bacteriome, mycobiome, archaeome, and virome has a profound effect on human health. Gut dysbiosis which is characterized by perturbations in the microbial population not only results in gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms or conditions but can also give rise to extra-GI manifestations. Gut microorganisms also produce metabolites (short-chain fatty acids, trimethylamine, hydrogen sulfide, methane, and so on) that are important for several interkingdom microbial interactions and functions. They also participate in various host metabolic processes. An alteration in the microbial species can affect their respective metabolite concentrations which can have serious health implications. Effective assessment of the gut microbiome and its metabolites is crucial as it can provide insights into one's overall health.

Summary

Emerging evidence highlights the role of the gut microbiome and its metabolites in health and disease. As it is implicated in GI as well as extra-GI symptoms, the gut microbiome plays a crucial role in the overall well-being of the host. Effective assessment of the gut microbiome may provide insights into one's health status leading to more holistic care.

Interaction of an α-synuclein epitope with HLA-DRB1∗15:01 triggers enteric features in mice reminiscent of prodromal Parkinson's disease

Enteric symptoms are hallmarks of prodromal Parkinson's disease (PD) that appear decades before the onset of motor symptoms and diagnosis. PD patients possess circulating T cells that recognize specific α-synuclein (α-syn)-derived epitopes. One epitope, α-syn32-46, binds with strong affinity to the HLA-DRB1∗15:01 allele implicated in autoimmune diseases. We report that α-syn32-46 immunization in a mouse expressing human HLA-DRB1∗15:01 triggers intestinal inflammation, leading to loss of enteric neurons, damaged enteric dopaminergic neurons, constipation, and weight loss. α-Syn32-46 immunization activates innate and adaptive immune gene signatures in the gut and induces changes in the CD4+ TH1/TH17 transcriptome that resemble tissue-resident memory (TRM) cells found in mucosal barriers during inflammation. Depletion of CD4+, but not CD8+, T cells partially rescues enteric neurodegeneration. Therefore, interaction of α-syn32-46 and HLA-DRB1∗15:0 is critical for gut inflammation and CD4+ T cell-mediated loss of enteric neurons in humanized mice, suggesting mechanisms that may underlie prodromal enteric PD.

Effects of Vitamin E on the Gut Microbiome in Ageing and Its Relationship with Age-Related Diseases: A Review of the Current Literature

Ageing is inevitable in all living organisms and is associated with physical deterioration, disease and eventually death. Dysbiosis, which is the alteration of the gut microbiome, occurs in individuals during ageing, and plenty of studies support that gut dysbiosis is responsible for the progression of different types of age-related diseases. The economic burden of age-linked health issues increases as ageing populations increase. Hence, an improvement in disease prevention or therapeutic approaches is urgently required. In recent years, vitamin E has garnered significant attention as a promising therapeutic approach for delaying the ageing process and potentially impeding the development of age-related disease. Nevertheless, more research is still required to understand how vitamin E affects the gut microbiome and how it relates to age-related diseases. Therefore, we gathered and summarized recent papers in this review that addressed the impact of the gut microbiome on age-related disease, the effect of vitamin E on age-related disease along with the role of vitamin E on the gut microbiome and the relationship with age-related diseases which are caused by ageing. Based on the studies reported, different bacteria brought on various age-related diseases with either increased or decreased relative abundances. Some studies have also reported the positive effects of vitamin E on the gut microbiome as beneficial bacteria and metabolites increase with vitamin E supplementation. This demonstrates how vitamin E is vital as it affects the gut microbiome positively to delay ageing and the progression of age-related diseases. The findings discussed in this review will provide a simplified yet deeper understanding for researchers studying ageing, the gut microbiome and age-related diseases, allowing them to develop new preclinical and clinical studies.

Dopamine receptors gene overexpression in the microenvironment of invasive gastric cancer and its potential implications

BACKGROUND

Gastric cancer (GC) is the fifth most common cancer worldwide and the most commonly diagnosed cancer in Iran. The nervous system provides proximity to tumor cells by releasing neurotransmitters such as dopamine and presenting them to the corresponding receptor-bearing tumors. While nerve fibers infiltrate the tumor microenvironment, little is known about the expression levels of dopamine (DA), dopamine receptors (DRs), and catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) in GC patients.

METHODS

DRs and COMT expression were analyzed in 45 peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and 20 paired tumor and adjacent tissue of GC patients by quantitative polymerase chain reaction. DA was measured in plasma specimens using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Protein-protein interaction analysis was carried out to identify GC-related hub genes.

RESULTS

Increased expression of DRD1-DRD3 was found in tumor specimens compared with adjacent non-cancerous specimens (P < 0.05). A positive correlation was found between DRD1 and DRD3 expression (P = 0.009); DRD2 and DRD3 expression (P = 0.04). Plasma levels of dopamine were significantly lower in patients (1298 pg/ml) than in controls (4651 pg/ml). DRD1-DRD4 and COMT were up-regulated in PBMCs of patients compared with controls (P < 0.0001). Bioinformatic analyses showed 30 hub genes associated with Protein kinase A and extracellular signal-regulated kinase signaling pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings indicated dysregulation of DRs and COMT mRNA expression in GC and suggest that the brain- gastrointestinal axis may mediate gastric cancer development. Network analysis revealed that combination treatments could be considered for optimizing and improving the precision treatment of GC.

Genome-wide multi-trait analysis of irritable bowel syndrome and related mental conditions identifies 38 new independent variants

BACKGROUND

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a chronic disorder of gut-brain interaction frequently accompanied by mental conditions, including depression and anxiety. Despite showing substantial heritability and being partly determined by a genetic component, the genetic underpinnings explaining the high rates of comorbidity remain largely unclear and there are no conclusive data on the temporal relationship between them. Exploring the overlapping genetic architecture between IBS and mental conditions may help to identify novel genetic loci and biological mechanisms underlying IBS and causal relationships between them.

METHODS

We quantified the genetic overlap between IBS, neuroticism, depression and anxiety, conducted a multi-trait genome-wide association study (GWAS) considering these traits and investigated causal relationships between them by using the largest GWAS to date.

RESULTS

IBS showed to be a highly polygenic disorder with extensive genetic sharing with mental conditions. Multi-trait analysis of IBS and neuroticism, depression and anxiety identified 42 genome-wide significant variants for IBS, of which 38 are novel. Fine-mapping risk loci highlighted 289 genes enriched in genes upregulated during early embryonic brain development and gene-sets related with psychiatric, digestive and autoimmune disorders. IBS-associated genes were enriched for target genes of anti-inflammatory and antirheumatic drugs, anesthetics and opioid dependence pharmacological treatment. Mendelian-randomization analysis accounting for correlated pleiotropy identified bidirectional causal effects between IBS and neuroticism and depression and causal effects of the genetic liability of IBS on anxiety.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings provide evidence of the polygenic architecture of IBS, identify novel genome-wide significant variants for IBS and extend previous knowledge on the genetic overlap and relationship between gastrointestinal and mental disorders.

The multiple roles of dopamine receptor activation in the modulation of gastrointestinal motility and mucosal function

Dopamine (DA) is a catecholamine regulatory molecule with potential role in physiology and physiopathology of the intestinal tract. Various cellular sources of DA have been indicated as enteric neurons, immune cells, intestinal flora and gastrointestinal epithelium. Moreover, DA is produced by nutritional tyrosine. All the five DA receptors, actually described, are present throughout the gut. Current knowledge of DA in this area is reviewed, focusing on gastrointestinal function in health and during inflammation. Research on animal models and humans are reported. A major obstacle to understanding the physiologic and/or pharmacological roles of enteric DA is represented by the multiplicity of receptors involved in the responses together with many signalling pathways related to each receptor subtype. It is mandatory to map precisely the distributions of DA receptors, to determine the relevance of a receptor in a specific location in order to explore novel therapies directed to dopaminergic targets that may be useful in the control of intestinal inflammation.

An evaluation of the rat intestinal monoamine biogeography days following exposure to acute stress

Stress-induced abnormalities in gut monoamine levels (e.g., serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine) have been linked to gastrointestinal (GI) dysfunction, as well as the worsening of symptoms in GI disorders. However, the influence of stress on changes across the entire intestinal monoamine biogeography has not been well-characterized, especially in the days following stress exposure. Therefore, the aim of this study was to comprehensively assess changes to monoamine neurochemical signatures across the entire rat intestinal tract days after exposure to an acute stressor. To the end, adult male F344 rats were subjected to an episode of unpredictable tail shocks (acute stress) or left undisturbed. Forty-eight hours later rats were euthanized either following a 12 h period of fasting or 30 min of food access to evaluate neurochemical profiles during the peri- and early postprandial periods. Monoamine-related neurochemicals were measured via UHPLC in regions of the small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum), large intestine (cecum, proximal colon, distal colon), cecal contents, fecal contents, and liver. The results suggest a relatively wide-spread increase in measures of serotonin activity across intestinal regions can be observed 48 h after exposure to acute stress, however some evidence was found supporting localized differences in serotonin metabolization. Moreover, acute stress exposure reduced catecholamine-related neurochemical concentrations most notably in the ileum, and to a lesser extent in the cecal contents. Next, stress-related fecal serotonin concentrations were consistent with intestinal profiles. However, fecal dopamine was elevated in association with stress, which did not parallel findings in any other intestinal area. Finally, stress exposure and the food access period together only had minor effects on intestinal monoamine profiles. Taken together, these data suggest nuanced differences in monoaminergic profiles exist across intestinal regions the days following exposure to an acute stressor, highlighting the importance of assessments that consider the entire intestinal tract biogeography when investigating stress-related biological outcomes that may be relevant to GI pathophysiology.

Small intestine neuromuscular dysfunction in a mouse model of dextran sulfate sodium-induced ileitis: Involvement of dopaminergic neurotransmission

AIMS

Anomalies in dopaminergic machinery have been shown in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients and preclinical models of IBD. Thus, we aimed to evaluate the impact of dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced ileitis on enteric dopaminergic pathways.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Male C57/Bl6 mice (10 ± 2 weeks old) received 2% DSS in drinking water for 5 days and were then switched to regular drinking water for 3 days. To measure ileitis severity inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, TNFα, IL-6) levels were assessed. Changes in ileal muscle tension were isometrically recorded following: 1) cumulative addition of dopamine on basal tone (0.1-1000 μM); ii) 4-Hz electric field stimulation (EFS) in the presence of 30 μM dopamine with/without 10 μM SCH-23390 (dopamine D1 receptor (D1R) antagonist) or 10 μM sulpiride (D2R antagonist). Immunofluorescence distribution of the neuronal HuC/D protein, glial S100β marker, D1R, and dopamine transporter (DAT) were determined in longitudinal-muscle-myenteric plexus whole-mounts (LMMPs) by confocal microscopy. D1R and D2R mRNA transcripts were evaluated by qRT-PCR.

KEY FINDINGS

DSS caused an inflammatory process in the small intestine associated to dysmotility and altered barrier permeability, as suggested by decreased fecal output and enhanced stool water content. DSS treatment caused a significant increase of DAT and D1R myenteric immunoreactivity as well as of D1R and D2R mRNA levels, accompanied by a significant reduction of dopamine-mediated relaxation, involving primarily D1-like receptors.

SIGNIFICANCE

Mouse ileitis affects enteric dopaminergic neurotransmission mainly involving D1R-mediated responses. These findings provide novel information on the participation of dopaminergic pathways in IBD-mediated neuromuscular dysfunction.

Continuous Activation of Dopamine Receptors Alleviates LPS-Induced Liver Injury in Mice via β-arrestin2 Dependent Akt/NF-κB Pathway

Many studies showed that dopamine receptors (DRs) agonists have anti-inflammatory effects. Rotigotine, a non-ergot dopamine receptor agonist, mainly actives DRD2/DRD3/DRD1. Rotigotine extended-release microspheres (RoMS) are a sustained-release formulation that can release sustainably rotigotine for more than 7 days after a single dose of RoMS. This study aimed to investigate whether RoMS can attenuate the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced liver injury of mice. The liver injury was evaluated by assaying serum transaminase and observing histopathological changes. The levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in serum were also detected. Western blot was employed to assay the expression of proteins in the Akt/NF-κB pathway. The results showed that pre-administration with a single dose of RoMS could inhibit the increase of serum transaminase induced by LPS, alleviate the pathological damage of liver tissue, and decrease the levels of tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6. In addition, RoMS decreased Toll-like receptor 4 protein expression in liver tissue. RoMS mitigated liver injury by activating DRs and negatively regulating the β-arrestin2-dependent Akt/NF-κB signaling pathway. The effects of RoMS could be weakened or abolished by the specific DRD2 antagonist, R121. In conclusion, activation of DRs inhibited the releases of pro-inflammatory cytokines and alleviated the immune-mediated liver injury induced by LPS in mice. The anti-inflammatory mechanism of RoMS may be related to the regulation of the β-arrestin2-dependent Akt/NF-κB signaling pathway.