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Džodić J, Marković M, Milenković D, Dimić D. Molecular Aspects of the Interactions between Selected Benzodiazepines and Common Adulterants/Diluents: Forensic Application of Theoretical Chemistry Methods. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:10087. [PMID: 39337573 PMCID: PMC11432270 DOI: 10.3390/ijms251810087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2024] [Revised: 09/14/2024] [Accepted: 09/17/2024] [Indexed: 09/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Benzodiazepines are frequently encountered in crime scenes, often mixed with adulterants and diluents, complicating their analysis. This study investigates the interactions between two benzodiazepines, lorazepam (LOR) and alprazolam (ALP), with common adulterants/diluents (paracetamol, caffeine, glucose, and lactose) using infrared (IR) spectroscopy and quantum chemical methods. The crystallographic structures of LOR and ALP were optimized using several functionals (B3LYP, B3LYP-D3BJ, B3PW91, CAM-B3LYP, M05-2X, and M06-2X) combined with the 6-311++G(d,p) basis set. M05-2X was the most accurate when comparing experimental and theoretical bond lengths and angles. Vibrational and 13C NMR spectra were calculated to validate the functional's applicability. The differences between LOR's experimental and theoretical IR spectra were attributed to intramolecular interactions between LOR monomers, examined through density functional theory (DFT) optimization and quantum theory of atoms in molecules (QTAIM) analysis. Molecular dynamics simulations modeled benzodiazepine-adulterant/diluent systems, predicting the most stable structures, which were further analyzed using QTAIM. The strongest interactions and their effects on IR spectra were identified. Comparisons between experimental and theoretical spectra confirmed spectral changes due to interactions. This study demonstrates the potential of quantum chemical methods in analyzing complex mixtures, elucidating spectral changes, and assessing the structural stability of benzodiazepines in forensic samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jelica Džodić
- Faculty of Physical Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Milica Marković
- Faculty of Physical Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Dejan Milenković
- Department of Science, Institute for Information Technologies, University of Kragujevac, Jovana Cvijića bb, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia
| | - Dušan Dimić
- Faculty of Physical Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
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Taflaj B, La Maida N, Tittarelli R, Di Trana A, D'Acquarica I. New Psychoactive Substances Toxicity: A Systematic Review of Acute and Chronic Psychiatric Effects. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:9484. [PMID: 39273431 PMCID: PMC11395625 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25179484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2024] [Revised: 08/27/2024] [Accepted: 08/28/2024] [Indexed: 09/15/2024] Open
Abstract
New psychoactive substances (NPSs) are a heterogenous group of psychotropic molecules and diverted pharmaceutical drugs sold worldwide as legal substitutes for controlled drugs. The psychiatric consequences of NPS use are relatively unknown, although evidence of related psychotic symptoms has been described in the literature. We sought to summarize the available evidence on NPS-related psychiatric disorders, to facilitate the interpretation of the molecular mechanism underlying their specific pathologies. A literature search of Scopus, PubMed and Google Scholar was conducted including studies published between 2013 and 2024, in which a correlation between NPS consumption and psychiatric symptoms was reported. Furthermore, the short- and long-term psychopathological effects were included. The literature search resulted in 109 NPS-related intoxication cases in which acute or chronic psychiatric symptoms were reported, mostly related to synthetic cannabinoids, followed by synthetic cathinones, hallucinogens, natural NPSs and stimulants. The most common acute symptoms were hallucinations, aggressiveness, and psychotic and bizarre behavior, related to the molecular disbalance of neurotransmitters in the central nervous systems, with different mechanisms. The lack of clear diagnostic criteria and toxicological analyses has resulted in crucial complications in psychiatric diagnoses related to NPS intoxication. Hence, the implementation of toxicological screening procedures in emergency rooms, including the main NPS classes, should support the diagnosis of acute intoxication and its proper therapeutic treatment. Finally, proper follow-up should be implemented to assess the chronic sequelae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beldisa Taflaj
- Azienda Ospedaliera San Giovanni Addolorata, Via dell'Amba Aradam 8, 00184 Rome, Italy
| | - Nunzia La Maida
- National Centre on Addiction and Doping, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Roberta Tittarelli
- Laboratory of Forensic Toxicology, Section of Legal and Forensic Medicine, Social Security and Forensic Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, University of Rome "Tor Vergata", Via Montpellier 1, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Annagiulia Di Trana
- National Centre on Addiction and Doping, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Ilaria D'Acquarica
- Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, Sapienza Università di Roma, Piazzale A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
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Di Trana A, Di Giorgi A, Carlier J, Serra F, Busardò FP, Pichini S. "Tranq-dope": The first fatal intoxication due to xylazine-adulterated heroin in Italy. Clin Chim Acta 2024; 561:119826. [PMID: 38909977 DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2024.119826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2024] [Revised: 06/14/2024] [Accepted: 06/19/2024] [Indexed: 06/25/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS The number of xylazine-involved overdose deaths tremendously increased from 2019 onwards in the US. This is due to the "tranq-dope" trend consisting in mixing opioids with the sedative to reduce drug manufacturing costs and enhance their effects. In this study, we report the first fatality involving xylazine-adulterated heroin in the EU. MATERIALS AND METHODS The subject was a 33-year-old Caucasian male with a documented history of drug abuse who was found dead in a public area with puncture marks at the elbow. Peripheral blood and urine were collected at the autopsy and analyzed by liquid chromatography-high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS/MS) after protein precipitation. RESULTS 6-Monoacetylmorphine, total/free morphine, and codeine blood concentrations of 20.3, 236/105, and 38.3 ng/mL, respectively, indicated recent heroin consumption. Methadone blood concentration was below 10 ng/mL. Alprazolam, nordiazepam, and flurazepam blood concentrations were 23.9, 61.4, and 55.0 ng/mL, respectively. Benzoylecgonine blood concentration was below 5 ng/mL. Xylazine blood and urine concentrations were 105 and 72.6 ng/mL, respectively. CONCLUSION The combination of central nervous system depressants, i.e., opioids, benzodiazepines, and xylazine, was the principal cause of death by cardiorespiratory failure. The case was promptly reported to the UE Early Warning System on drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annagiulia Di Trana
- National Centre on Addiction and Doping, National Institute of Health, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandro Di Giorgi
- Section of Legal Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University, Via Tronto 10/a, 60126 Ancona, Italy
| | - Jeremy Carlier
- Section of Legal Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University, Via Tronto 10/a, 60126 Ancona, Italy.
| | - Francesco Serra
- Section of Legal Medicine, Department of Prevention, Sassari Hospital, via Rizzeddu 21/B, 07100 Sassari, Italy
| | - Francesco Paolo Busardò
- Section of Legal Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University, Via Tronto 10/a, 60126 Ancona, Italy
| | - Simona Pichini
- National Centre on Addiction and Doping, National Institute of Health, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy
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Manier SK, Mumber P, Zapp J, Eckstein N, Meyer MR. Characterization and Metabolism of Drug Products Containing the Cocaine-Like New Psychoactive Substances Indatraline and Troparil. Metabolites 2024; 14:342. [PMID: 38921476 PMCID: PMC11205633 DOI: 10.3390/metabo14060342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2024] [Revised: 05/28/2024] [Accepted: 06/05/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
With a rising demand of cocaine over the last years, it is likely that unregulated new psychoactive substances with similar effects such as indatraline ((1R,3S)-3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-N-methyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-inden-1-amine) and troparil (Methyl (1R,2S,3S,5S)-8-methyl-3-phenyl-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane-2-carboxylate) become popular as well. Both substances share a similar pharmacological profile as cocaine, while their potency is higher, and their duration of action is longer. This study investigated their metabolic fate in rat urine and incubations using pooled human liver S9 fraction (pHLS9). Indatraline formed two phase I and four phase II metabolites, with aromatic hydroxylation and glucuronidation being the main metabolic steps. All metabolites were detected in rat urine, while the parent compound was not detectable. Although low in abundance, indatraline metabolites were well identifiable due to their specific isotopic patterns caused by chlorine. Troparil formed four phase I and three phase II metabolites, with demethylation being the main metabolic step. Hydroxylation of the tropane ring, the phenyl ring, and combinations of these steps, as well as glucuronidation, were found. Phase I metabolites were detectable in rat urine and pHLS9, while phase II metabolites were only detectable in rat urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sascha K. Manier
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology and Pharmacology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), 66421 Homburg, Germany
| | - Paula Mumber
- Applied Pharmacy, University of Applied Sciences Kaiserslautern, Campus Pirmasens, 66953 Pirmasens, Germany
| | - Josef Zapp
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Niels Eckstein
- Applied Pharmacy, University of Applied Sciences Kaiserslautern, Campus Pirmasens, 66953 Pirmasens, Germany
| | - Markus R. Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology and Pharmacology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), 66421 Homburg, Germany
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Barone R, Pelletti G, Giorgetti A, Mohamed S, Pascali JP, Sablone S, Introna F, Pelotti S. Validation and application of a method for the quantification of 137 drugs of abuse and new psychoactive substances in hair. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2024; 243:116054. [PMID: 38422647 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2024.116054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION In the dynamic universe of new psychoactive substances (NPS), the identification of multiple and chemically diverse compounds remains a challenge for forensic laboratories. Since hair analysis represents a gold-standard to assess the prevalence of NPS, which are commonly detected together with classical drugs of abuse (DoA), our study aimed at developing a wide-screen method to detect and quantify 127 NPS and 15 DoA on hair. MATERIALS AND METHODS A multi-analyte ultra-high performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry method for the identification and quantification of 127 NPS (phenethylamines, arylcyclohexylamines, synthetic opioids, tryptamines, synthetic cannabinoids, synthetic cathinones, designer benzodiazepines) and 15 DoA in hair samples was developed. A full validation was performed according to the European medicines Agency (EMA) guidelines, by assessing selectivity, linearity, accuracy, precision, limit of quantification (LOQ), limit of detection (LOD), matrix effect and recovery. As a proof of the applicability, the method was applied to 22 authentic hair samples collected for forensic purposes. RESULTS Successful validation was achieved, by meeting the required technical parameters, for 137 compounds (122 NPS and 15 DoA), with LOQ set at 4 pg/mg for 129 compounds, at 10 pg/mg for 6 and at 40 pg/mg for 2. The method was not considered validated for 5 NPS, as LLOQ resulted too high for a forensic analysis (80 pg/mg). Among authentic forensic samples, 17 tested positive for DoA, and 10 to NPS, most samples showing positivity for both. Detected NPS were ketamine and norketamine, 5-MMPA, ritalinic acid, methoxyacetyl fentanyl, methylone and RCS-4. CONCLUSION The present methodology represents an easy, low cost, wide-panel method for the quantification of 122 NPS and 15 DoA, for a total of 137 analytes, in hair samples. The method can be profitably applied by forensic laboratories. Similar multi-analyte methods on the hair matrix might be useful in the future to study the prevalence of NPS and the co-occurrence of NPS-DoA abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rossella Barone
- Unit of Legal Medicine, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Via Irnerio 49, Bologna 40126, Italy
| | - Guido Pelletti
- Unit of Legal Medicine, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Via Irnerio 49, Bologna 40126, Italy
| | - Arianna Giorgetti
- Unit of Legal Medicine, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Via Irnerio 49, Bologna 40126, Italy.
| | - Susan Mohamed
- Unit of Legal Medicine, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Via Irnerio 49, Bologna 40126, Italy
| | - Jennifer Paola Pascali
- Unit of Legal Medicine, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Via Irnerio 49, Bologna 40126, Italy
| | - Sara Sablone
- Section of Legal Medicine, Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine (DIM), University-Hospital of Bari, Giulio Cesare square 11, Bari 70124, Italy
| | - Francesco Introna
- Section of Legal Medicine, Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine (DIM), University-Hospital of Bari, Giulio Cesare square 11, Bari 70124, Italy
| | - Susi Pelotti
- Unit of Legal Medicine, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Via Irnerio 49, Bologna 40126, Italy
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Henningfield JE, Grundmann O, Huestis MA, Smith KE. Kratom safety and toxicology in the public health context: research needs to better inform regulation. Front Pharmacol 2024; 15:1403140. [PMID: 38887550 PMCID: PMC11180979 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1403140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2024] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Although kratom use has been part of life for centuries in Southeast Asia, the availability and use of kratom in the United States (US) increased substantially since the early 2000s when there was little information on kratom pharmacology, use patterns, and effects, all critical to guiding regulation and policy. Here we provide a synthesis of research with several hundred English-language papers published in the past 5 years drawing from basic research, epidemiological and surveillance data, and recent clinical research. This review of available literature aims to provide an integrated update regarding our current understanding of kratom's benefits, risks, pharmacology, and epidemiology, which may inform United States-based kratom regulation. Recent surveillance indicates there are likely several million past-year kratom consumers, though estimates vary widely. Even without precise prevalence data, kratom use is no longer a niche, with millions of United States adults using it for myriad reasons. Despite its botanical origins in the coffee tree family and its polypharmacy, kratom is popularly characterized as an opioid with presumed opioid-system-based risks for addiction or overdose. Neuropharmacology, toxicology, and epidemiology studies show that kratom is more accurately characterized as a substance with diverse and complex pharmacology. Taken together the work reviewed here provides a foundation for future scientific studies, as well as a guide for ongoing efforts to regulate kratom. This work also informs much-needed federal oversight, including by the United States Food and Drug Administration. We conclude with recommendations for kratom regulation and research priorities needed to address current policy and knowledge gaps around this increasingly used botanical product.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack E. Henningfield
- Pinney Associates, Inc., Bethesda, MD, United States
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Marilyn A. Huestis
- Institute of Emerging Health Professions, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Kirsten E. Smith
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
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Al-Saif LA, Aljawhri SA, Eissa OG, Mahmoud RH, Said ES. Effect of Amphetamine Dependence on Redox State via Alteration of Urinary Levels of Major and Trace Elements: A Case-Control Study in the Saudi Population. Cureus 2024; 16:e59819. [PMID: 38846242 PMCID: PMC11156246 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.59819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Drug and substance abuse remains a major medical problem worldwide. Amphetamines are potent stimulants of the central nervous system. Amphetamine abuse is highly prevalent among drug-dependents. This study was conducted in Qassim, Saudi Arabia, to evaluate amphetamine's toxic effects on major and trace elements and their correlation with redox status. Methods The study involved amphetamine-only patients admitted to the Erada Rehabilitation Centre from March to October 2023. Urine samples were analysed from both normal subjects and amphetamine-dependent groups. Results Urinary sodium and chloride levels were significantly higher in the amphetamine-dependent group than in the control group, while their calcium levels decreased. Lipid peroxidase levels significantly increased in people with a substance use disorder (SUD), indicating oxidative stress. Together, their total antioxidant capacity decreased. Zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), sodium (Na), and total antioxidant capacity levels were positively correlated with lipid peroxidase. Conclusions Amphetamine-dependent people are more likely to experience a variety of health problems. This study found a direct correlation between an imbalance in major and trace elements and the redox status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lira A Al-Saif
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Qassim University, Buraydah, SAU
| | - Said A Aljawhri
- Department of Laboratory, Erada Medical Rehabilitation Centre in Qassim, Ministry of Health, Buraydah, SAU
| | - Osama G Eissa
- Department of Psychiatry, Erada Medical Rehabilitation Centre in Qassim, Ministry of Health, Buraydah, SAU
| | - Rania H Mahmoud
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Fayoum University, Fayoum, EGY
| | - Eman S Said
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Qassim University, Buraydah, SAU
- Department of Medical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Fayoum University, Fayoum, EGY
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Galust H, Seltzer JA, Hardin JR, Friedman NA, Salamat J, Clark RF, Harmon J. Adulterants present in the San Diego county fentanyl supply: a laboratory analysis of seized law enforcement samples. BMC Public Health 2024; 24:923. [PMID: 38553721 PMCID: PMC10981322 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-024-18459-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2023] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/01/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The opioid overdose crisis is one of the worst public health crises ever to face the US and emerging evidence suggests its effects are compounded by the presence of drug adulterants. Here we report our efforts to characterize the adulterants present within the local fentanyl supply of San Diego County, obtained from undifferentiated drug samples seized by local law enforcement over the calendar year 2021. METHODS Thirty-two participating local law enforcement agencies across San Diego submitted 4838 unknown individual illicit drug samples (total of 312 kg) to the San Diego County Sheriff's Department Regional Crime Laboratory for identification. RESULTS Qualitative analysis of these samples via FTIR and GC-MS identified methamphetamine (38.7%), fentanyl (20.8%), diacetylmorphine (heroin) (10.2%), codeine (5.8%) and alprazolam (4.3%) as the most common illicit substances and the presence of 52 unique adulterants. The most common adulterants included 4-methylaminoantipyrine (4-MAAP) (10.9%), mannitol (9%), acetaminophen (8.5%), methamphetamine (4.2%), diacetylmorphine (heroin) (3.6%), tramadol (1.9%), and xylazine (1.7%). Several additional pharmacologically active adulterants and contaminants of interest were also identified. CONCLUSION This analysis is vital for public health use and harm reduction efforts at the level of the individual consumer. Continued direct surveillance of the drug supply is necessary for the detection of potentially harmful adulterants that may pose serious threats to the public.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrik Galust
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, UC San Diego Health, 200 W. Arbor Dr. #8676, 92103, San Diego, CA, USA.
- VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, USA.
- California Poison Control System, San Diego, CA, USA.
| | - Justin A Seltzer
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, UC San Diego Health, 200 W. Arbor Dr. #8676, 92103, San Diego, CA, USA
- VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, USA
- California Poison Control System, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Jeremy R Hardin
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, UC San Diego Health, 200 W. Arbor Dr. #8676, 92103, San Diego, CA, USA
- VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, USA
- California Poison Control System, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Nathan A Friedman
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, UC San Diego Health, 200 W. Arbor Dr. #8676, 92103, San Diego, CA, USA
- VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, USA
- California Poison Control System, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Jeff Salamat
- San Diego County Sheriff's Crime Laboratory. John F. Duffy Administrative Center, 9621. Ridgehaven Ct, 92123, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Richard F Clark
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, UC San Diego Health, 200 W. Arbor Dr. #8676, 92103, San Diego, CA, USA
- VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, USA
- California Poison Control System, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Jennifer Harmon
- San Diego County Sheriff's Crime Laboratory. John F. Duffy Administrative Center, 9621. Ridgehaven Ct, 92123, San Diego, CA, USA
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Mullin A, Scott M, Vaccaro G, Floresta G, Arillotta D, Catalani V, Corkery JM, Stair JL, Schifano F, Guirguis A. Benzodiazepine Boom: Tracking Etizolam, Pyrazolam, and Flubromazepam from Pre-UK Psychoactive Act 2016 to Present Using Analytical and Social Listening Techniques. PHARMACY 2024; 12:13. [PMID: 38251407 PMCID: PMC10801481 DOI: 10.3390/pharmacy12010013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Revised: 01/01/2024] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The designer benzodiazepine (DBZD) market continues to expand whilst evading regulatory controls. The widespread adoption of social media by pro-drug use communities encourages positive discussions around DBZD use/misuse, driving demand. This research addresses the evolution of three popular DBZDs, etizolam (E), flubromazepam (F), and pyrazolam (P), available on the drug market for over a decade, comparing the quantitative chemical analyses of tablet samples, purchased from the internet prior to the implementation of the Psychoactive Substances Act UK 2016, with the thematic netnographic analyses of social media content. METHOD Drug samples were purchased from the internet in early 2016. The characterisation of all drug batches were performed using UHPLC-MS and supported with 1H NMR. In addition, netnographic studies across the platforms X (formerly Twitter) and Reddit, between 2016-2023, were conducted. The latter was supported by both manual and artificial intelligence (AI)-driven thematic analyses, using numerous.ai and ChatGPT, of social media threads and discussions. RESULTS UHPLC-MS confirmed the expected drug in every sample, showing remarkable inter/intra batch variability across all batches (E = 13.8 ± 0.6 to 24.7 ± 0.9 mg; F = 4.0 ± 0.2 to 23.5 ± 0.8 mg; P = 5.2 ± 0.2 to 11.5 ± 0.4 mg). 1H NMR could not confirm etizolam as a lone compound in any etizolam batch. Thematic analyses showed etizolam dominated social media discussions (59% of all posts), with 24.2% of posts involving sale/purchase and 17.8% detailing new administration trends/poly-drug use scenarios. Artificial intelligence confirmed three of the top five trends identified manually. CONCLUSIONS Purity variability identified across all tested samples emphasises the increased potential health risks associated with DBZD consumption. We propose the global DBZD market is exacerbated by surface web social media discussions, recorded across X and Reddit. Despite the appearance of newer analogues, these three DBZDs remain prevalent and popularised. Reporting themes on harm/effects and new developments in poly-drug use trends, demand for DBZDs continues to grow, despite their potent nature and potential risk to life. It is proposed that greater controls and constant live monitoring of social media user content is warranted to drive active regulation strategies and targeted, effective, harm reduction strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Mullin
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK; (A.M.); (M.S.); (G.V.); (G.F.); (V.C.); (J.M.C.); (J.L.S.); (F.S.)
| | - Mark Scott
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK; (A.M.); (M.S.); (G.V.); (G.F.); (V.C.); (J.M.C.); (J.L.S.); (F.S.)
| | - Giorgia Vaccaro
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK; (A.M.); (M.S.); (G.V.); (G.F.); (V.C.); (J.M.C.); (J.L.S.); (F.S.)
| | - Giuseppe Floresta
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK; (A.M.); (M.S.); (G.V.); (G.F.); (V.C.); (J.M.C.); (J.L.S.); (F.S.)
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95131 Catania, Italy
| | - Davide Arillotta
- School of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Florence, 50121 Florence, Italy;
| | - Valeria Catalani
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK; (A.M.); (M.S.); (G.V.); (G.F.); (V.C.); (J.M.C.); (J.L.S.); (F.S.)
| | - John M. Corkery
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK; (A.M.); (M.S.); (G.V.); (G.F.); (V.C.); (J.M.C.); (J.L.S.); (F.S.)
| | - Jacqueline L. Stair
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK; (A.M.); (M.S.); (G.V.); (G.F.); (V.C.); (J.M.C.); (J.L.S.); (F.S.)
| | - Fabrizio Schifano
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK; (A.M.); (M.S.); (G.V.); (G.F.); (V.C.); (J.M.C.); (J.L.S.); (F.S.)
| | - Amira Guirguis
- Pharmacy, Medical School, The Grove Extension, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK
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Onohuean H, Oosthuizen F. Multinational appraisal of the epidemiological distribution of opioid fatalities: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Psychiatry 2024; 14:1290461. [PMID: 38250280 PMCID: PMC10796457 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1290461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Background The global or multinational scientific evidence on the distribution of opioid fatality is unknown. Hence, the current study collects epidemiological characteristics to shed light on the ongoing global or multinational opioid crisis and to promote the development of public health prevention/management strategies. Method All documents on PRISMA standards were retrieved via electronic databases. Results Among the 47 articles relevant to our studies, which depict a total population size of 10,191 individuals, the prevalence of opioid fatal overdose was 15,022 (14.74%). Among the 47 articles, 14 of them reported the gender of the participants, with 22,125 (15.79%) male individuals and 7,235 (5.17%) female individuals, and the age distribution of the participants that was most affected by the overdose was as follows: 29,272 (31.13%) belonged to the 18-34-year-old age group and 25,316 (26.92%) belonged to the less than 18-year-old age group. Eighteen studies qualified for the meta-analysis of the multinational prevalence of fatal opioid overdose, depicting an overall pooled prevalence estimate of 19.66%, with 95% CIs (0.13-0.29), I2 = 99.76% determined using the random-effects model, and Q statistic of 7198.77 (p < 0.0001). The Egger test models of publication bias revealed an insubstantial level of bias (p = 0.015). The subgroup analysis of the study design (cohort or other) revealed that others have the highest prevalence estimate of 34.37, 95% CIs (0.1600-0.5901), I2 = 97.04%, and a sample size of less than 1,000 shows the highest prevalence of 34.66, 95% CIs (0.2039-0.5234), I2 = 97.82%, compared to that of more than 1,000 with a prevalence of 12.28, 95% CIs (0.0675-0.2131), I2 = 99.85%. The meta-regression analysis revealed that sample size (less-than or greater-than 1,000), (p = 0.0098; R2 = 3.83%) is significantly associated with the observed heterogeneity. Conclusion Research-based findings of fatal opioid overdose are grossly lacking in middle- and low-income nations. We established that there is a need for opioid fatality surveillance systems in developing nations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hope Onohuean
- Biopharmaceutics Unit, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Kampala International University Western Campus, Ishaka-Bushenyi, Uganda
- Discipline of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Frasia Oosthuizen
- Discipline of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
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