Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia in the Pediatric Setting

The Discovery of New Antibody in Autoimmune Disease Using a Novel Approach of Coombs Test Based on Flow Cytometry Method

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to investigate the antibody to RBC in autoimmune disease patients with ANA using sensitive Coombs test based on flow cytometry method.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Antinuclear antibodies (ANA) of autoimmune disease patients were added to red blood cells (RBCs) of blood group O. At the same time, healthy individuals' serums were also checked. The sample tubes were incubated for 30 min at 37°C. After incubation, each sample was analyzed on flow cytometry.

RESULTS

The agglutination of antinuclear antibodies in autoimmune patients was observed, while in healthy people, there was no agglutination between RBCs and serum. A significant difference was found between the disease group and healthy group (p < 0.0001) showing that a statistical analysis was conducted to compare the presence of ANA agglutination between the two groups. The reported p-value of less than 0.0001 shows that the observed difference is highly significant. The serum stability test conducted over ten consecutive days demonstrated a CV of 6.90% in the test results, indicating favorable stability.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, this study emphasizes the effectiveness of flow cytometry as a valuable tool for detecting RBC-bound antibodies and new antibodies in autoimmune disease patients. Its high sensitivity and accuracy have the potential to greatly improve diagnostic capabilities in clinical laboratories.

A new way of the Coombs test using flow cytometry-based assay to assess erythrocytes-bound IgG antibodies in the human and rabbit model

The Coombs test is important in hematology for detecting erythrocyte-bound IgG antibodies or in serm through agglutination methods, but its sensitivity and specificity are limited. Flow cytometry provides a more precise and sensitive alternative for quantitatively assessing RBC-bound IgG antibodies. This assessment is crucial for evaluating the risk of hemolytic reactions and ensuring safe transfusions. This study aimed to explore a new method for the detection of RBC-bound IgG antibodies in rabbits following the injection of human red blood cells. Rabbits serum treated with 2-mercaptoethanol (2-ME) were serially diluted at ratios of 1:1, 1:2, 1:4, 1:8, 1:16, 1:32, 1:64, 1:128, 1:256, 1:512, 1:1024, and 1:2048. These diluted samples were then reacted with O-type red blood cells (RBCs). Serum samples from healthy individuals were used as the control group. The tubes were kept in a water bath at 37°C for 30 min incubation. After incubation, the samples were analyzed using a flow cytometry-based assay. Additionally, the traditional Coombs tube method was used and the strength of IgG antibody and agglutination was graded. The results were analyzed using a flow cytometry-based assay, and the agglutination strength was determined using the Coombs traditional tube method for RBC-bound IgG antibodies. A significant difference was found between the rabbits serum and normal control groups (p < 0.001). IgG titers increased significantly after 1 month of immunization in rabbits compared to the titers observed after 1 week. The serum Anti-D stability test showed a coefficient of variation (CV) of 7.74%, indicating good stability of the test results. In this study, we concluded that the flow cytometry-based assay for detecting RBC-bound IgG antibodies was accurate, sensitive, and had positional value in clinical laboratories and research centers.

Pediatric autoimmune hemolytic anemia: A single-center retrospective study

BACKGROUND

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) is a rare, life-threatening disease in pediatrics. This article describes the clinical features, diagnostic workup, treatment and outcome in patients with AIHA.

METHOD

Medical charts of under 18-year-old patients with AIHA treated at a tertiary Brazilian institution from 2006 to 2021 were retrospectively reviewed. Data analysis was primarily descriptive, using medians, interquartile ranges, and categorical variables presented as absolute frequencies.

MAIN RESULTS

Twenty-four patients (14 female, 10 male) were evaluated in this study. The median age at diagnosis was 5.99 years (range: 0.25-17.1 years) and the median hemoglobin level was 4.85 g/dL (range: 4.17-5.57 g/dL). Most had warm antibodies (83.3 %). Twelve patients (50 %) had known underlining diseases, four (16.6 %) presented with AIHA concomitant with acute infectious diseases and three (12.5 %) had an undetermined post-vaccine association. Steroids and intravenous immunoglobulin were first-line therapy in 23 cases. Seven patients (29.1 %) required second and third-line treatments (rituximab, cyclophosphamide and splenectomy). The median follow-up period was 4.4 years (range: 1.0-6.7 years). Thirteen patients (54.1 %) were discharged, five cases (20.8 %) were lost to follow-up and no patient died. The median age for the six remaining patients was 11.53 years (8.5-14.7) with all of them having complete responses with no further therapies.

CONCLUSION

Most cases of AIHA are secondary to an underlying systemic disease or have a possible correlation with infections/vaccines and respond to steroids. The second and third-line therapies for refractory and relapse cases remain a dilemma. A prospective, multicenter study is essential to address the best therapeutic combinations.

Challenges in the diagnosis and management of autoimmune hemolytic anemia: A case-based approach. Experience from a tertiary care hospital in the Haryana region

BACKGROUND

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) is a rare immune disorder which occurs when antibodies are directed against self red blood cells (RBCs) leading to hemolysis. AIHA is widely classified as warm autoimmune hemolytic anemia, cold agglutinin syndrome, mixed AIHA, paroxysmal cold hemoglobinuria and rarely drug induced AIHA. The pathogenesis of AIHA is complex interplay between genetic predisposition, immune dysregulation and enviornmental triggers. A direct antiglobulin test can be used to assess the immunological origin of the hemolysis in order to diagnose AIHA after identifying laboratory and clinical symptoms of hemolysis.

OBJECTIVE

The objective is to understand underlying mechanism in AIHAs, and usage of targeted therapies to modulate specific components of the immune response.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We are hereby presenting a case series of 11 clinically suspected cases of AIHA in collaboration with their clinical features, immuno-hematological and other laboratory parameters, Flow cytometric analysis of lymphocyte subset in relevant cases, underlying etiology as well as serological subtype are also included.

RESULTS

Majority of the patients were categorized as secondary AIHA (7/11, 63.63%). Out of 11 cases 7 were serologically subtyped as warm AIHA (7/11, 63.63%) ,2 cases were DaaT negative AIHA (2/11;18.18%), 2 cases were characterized as mixed AIHA subtype (2/11, 18.18%).

CONCLUSION

Accurate subtyping of AIHA requires a systematic immunohematological approach coupled with comprehensive evaluations of clinical, hematological, and biochemical parameters.

Hematological manifestation of Pediatric Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) - A single centered cross-sectional study

Introduction

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), the commonest type of lupus, is an autoimmune multisystemic disorder that can affect any organ system of the body, especially blood vessels and connective tissues, causing widespread inflammation. Pediatric onset of SLE is a rare condition with more hematological involvement.

Aim

This study was undertaken to observe various hematological abnormalities and their association with various autoantibodies present in pediatric SLE in Eastern India.

Methodology

It was a single-centered, cross-sectional, observational, hospital-based study conducted in the Department of Pediatric Medicine in collaboration with the Department of Rheumatology in IPGME and R and SSKM Hospital, Kolkata. The duration of the study was 1.5 years, and a total of 30 children up to 12 years of age of either gender were enrolled. Study participants were evaluated for various parameters like demographic, hematological (anemia, neutropenia, leucopenia, lymphopenia, and thrombocytopenia), biochemical (CRP, Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and bilirubin), autoantibodies (anti-dsDNA, anti-Ro 52, and anti-Ribonucleoprotein [RNP]), and SLE related pathologies (Cutaneous, nephritis, serositis).

Results

In the present study, most of the participants had arthritis, muscle pain (86.66%), and hematological involvement (80%). Among cytopenias, anemia was the commonest. dsDNA autoantibody was positive in most of the patients (83%), and about one-third suffered from autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA). No association was observed between autoantibodies and various hematological manifestations.

Conclusion

It can be concluded from the present study that anemia is the most common cytopenia in pediatric SLE, but there is no association between autoantibodies and these cytopenias. However, study on larger population may give better results.

Les cytopénies auto-immunes de l’enfant : Quand penser au déficit immunitaire primitif ?

Autoimmune cytopenias are defined by autoantibodies' immune destruction of one or more blood elements. Most often it is autoimmune hemolytic anemia or immune thrombocytopenia or both that define Evans syndrome. It may be secondary to infection or to underlying pathology such as systemic autoimmune disease or primary immunodeficiency, especially when it becomes chronic over several years. Primary Immunodeficiencies or inborn errors of immunity (IEI) are no longer defined solely by infections: autoimmunity is part of the clinical features of several of these diseases. It is dominated by autoimmune cytopenias, in particular, immune thrombocytopenia (ITP) and autoimmune hemolytic anaemia (AIHA). The challenges for the clinician are the situations where autoimmune cytopenias are chronic, recurrent and/or refractory to the various long-term therapeutic options. Most of these therapies are similar in action and generally consist of non-mediated immune suppression or modulation. In these situations, primary Immunodeficiencies must be diagnosed as soon as possible to allow the initiation of a targeted treatment and to avoid several ineffective therapeutic lines.

Hematopoietic effect of echinochrome on phenylhydrazine-induced hemolytic anemia in rats

Background

Hemolytic anemia (HA) is a serious health condition resulting from reduced erythrocytes' average life span. Echinochrome (Ech) is a dark-red pigment found in shells and spines of sea urchins.

Aim

Studying the potential therapeutic effect of Ech on phenylhydrazine (PHZ)-induced HA in rats.

Methods

Eighteen rats were divided into three groups (n = 6): the control group, the phenylhydrazine-induced HA group and the Ech group, injected intraperitoneally with PHZ and supplemented with oral Ech daily for 6 days.

Results

Ech resulted in a considerable increase in RBCs, WBCs, and platelets counts, hemoglobin, reduced glutathione, catalase, and glutathione-S-transferase levels, and a significant decrease in aspartate & alanine aminotransferases, alkaline phosphatase, gamma-glutamyl transferase, bilirubin, creatinine, urea, urate, malondialdehyde & nitric oxide levels in anemic rats. Histopathological examination of liver and kidney tissue samples showed marked improvement.

Conclusion

Ech ameliorated phenylhydrazine-induced HA with a hepatorenal protective effect owing to its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties.

Chlamydophila pneumoniae-associated community-acquired pneumonia in paediatric patients of a tertiary care hospital in Mexico: molecular diagnostic and clinical insights

Chlamydophila pneumoniae is a cause of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) and responsible for 1-2% of cases in paediatric patients. In Mexico, information on this microorganism is limited. The aim of this study was to detect C. pneumoniae using two genomic targets in a real-time PCR and IgM/IgG serology assays in paediatric patients with CAP at a tertiary care hospital in Mexico City and to describe their clinical characteristics, radiological features, and outcomes. A total of 154 hospitalized patients with diagnosis of CAP were included. Detection of C. pneumoniae was performed by real-time PCR of the pst and arg genes. Complete blood cell count, C-reactive protein measurement and IgM and IgG detection were performed. Clinical-epidemiological and radiological data from the patients were collected. C. pneumoniae was detected in 25 patients (16%), of whom 88% had underlying disease (P = 0.014). Forty-eight percent of the cases occurred in spring, 36% in girls, and 40% in children older than 6 years. All patients had cough, and 88% had fever. Interstitial pattern on chest-X-ray was the most frequent (68%), consolidation was observed in 32% (P = 0.002). IgM was positive in 7% and IgG in 28.6%. Thirty-six percent presented complications. Four percent died. A high proportion showed co-infection with Mycoplasma pneumoniae (64%). This is the first clinical report of C. pneumoniae as a cause of CAP in Mexican paediatric patients, using two genomic target strategy and serology. We found a frequency of 16.2% with predominance in children under 6 years of age. In addition; cough and fever were the most common symptoms. Early detection of this pathogen allows timely initiation of specific antimicrobial therapy to reduce development of complications. This study is one of the few to describe the presence of C. pneumoniae in patients with underlying diseases.

Severe Acute Kidney Injury in Children as a Rare Complication of Paroxysmal Cold Hemoglobinuria

Paroxysmal cold hemoglobinuria (PCH) is a rare condition in childhood characterized by complement-mediated premature destruction of red blood cells. PCH is associated with intravascular hemolysis causing hemoglobinuria, which may result in acute kidney injury of various severity. We aimed to retrospectively analyze clinical and laboratory features of children with PCH-associated acute kidney injury received at tertiary Pediatric Hematology and Nephrology Center, University Motol Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic during the period 2016 to 2022. We present here 3 children with PCH-associated acute kidney failure requiring renal replacement therapy. We highlight the association of PCH with kidney disease. Renal parameters and urine examination should be regularly tested in all children with PCH.

Autoimmune Haemolytic Anaemia as a Rare and Potentially Serious Complication of Crohn's Disease in a 11-Year-Old Child-Case Report and Minireview

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is the term given to a heterogeneous group of chronic inflammatory diseases of the gastrointestinal tract (GI). These include ulcerative colitis (UC), where the inflammatory process involves only the intestinal mucosa, and Crohn's disease (CD), where it can involve the entire wall of the GI in all of its sections. In addition to typical gastrointestinal complaints, IBD manifests with a range of extraintestinal symptoms involving inter alia the eyes, joints, skin, liver and biliary tract. These can cause a number of extraintestinal complications; of these, one of the most common is anaemia, usually resulting from nutritional deficiencies, especially iron, or chronic inflammation. When treating patients with IBD, it is important to consider the possibility of rare but serious complications, including autoimmune haemolytic anaemia (AIHA). This condition occurs in only 0.2 to 1.7% of UC cases and is even rarer in CD. AIHA is usually mild but can occur suddenly and cause very rapid anaemia. In the article presented here, we describe the case of a patient who developed AIHA two years after a diagnosis of CD, causing a life-threatening diagnostic and therapeutic challenge for the medical team.

Anti-Inflammatory and Immunomodulatory Effect of High-Dose Immunoglobulins in Children: From Approved Indications to Off-Label Use

BACKGROUND

The large-scale utilization of immunoglobulins in patients with inborn errors of immunity (IEIs) since 1952 prompted the discovery of their key role at high doses as immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory therapy, in the treatment of IEI-related immune dysregulation disorders, according to labelled and off-label indications. Recent years have been dominated by a progressive imbalance between the gradual but constant increase in the use of immunoglobulins and their availability, exacerbated by the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.

OBJECTIVES

To provide pragmatic indications for a need-based application of high-dose immunoglobulins in the pediatric context.

SOURCES

A literature search was performed using PubMed, from inception until 1st August 2023, including the following keywords: anti-inflammatory; children; high dose gammaglobulin; high dose immunoglobulin; immune dysregulation; immunomodulation; immunomodulatory; inflammation; intravenous gammaglobulin; intravenous immunoglobulin; off-label; pediatric; subcutaneous gammaglobulin; subcutaneous immunoglobulin. All article types were considered.

IMPLICATIONS

In the light of the current imbalance between gammaglobulins' demand and availability, this review advocates the urgency of a more conscious utilization of this medical product, giving indications about benefits, risks, cost-effectiveness, and administration routes of high-dose immunoglobulins in children with hematologic, neurologic, and inflammatory immune dysregulation disorders, prompting further research towards a responsible employment of gammaglobulins and improving the therapeutical decisional process.

Rare case of refractory mixed autoimmune hemolytic anemia in a 6-year-old child: a case report

BACKGROUND

Mixed autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) shows combined clinical and laboratory characteristics of warm and cold AIHA. It is relatively uncommon in children. Consequently, knowledge about mixed AIHA prevalence, clinical presentation, treatment options, and prognosis in children is limited to very few case reports.

CASE PRESENTATION

We describe a six-year-old Asian girl presenting with profound anemia, blood group typing discrepancy and crossmatch incompatibility, post upper respiratory tract infection. Detection of red cell warm and cold reactive autoantibodies, led to the diagnosis of mixed AIHA. Autoantibodies with laboratory evidence of hemolysis persisted despite high dose steroid therapy. Due to the inability to wean further, the patient was subsequently commenced on mycophenolate mofetil to which she seems to be responding.

CONCLUSIONS

Mixed AIHA may be notoriously difficult to diagnose and treat. Detailed clinical and laboratory work-up is essential to establish the diagnosis. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first case report of mixed AIHA following upper respiratory tract infection. Awareness of this occurrence is important, as similar to warm AIHA, mixed AIHA should be treated immediately by early initiation of steroid therapy. In addition, prompt supportive care as well as long-term clinical follow-up are required to improve outcomes of these cases.

Paroxysmal cold hemoglobinuria: A diagnostic dilemma in a paediatric patient

BACKGROUND

Autoimmune hemolytic anaemia is rare in the paediatric population. Differentiation of the underlying aetiology is complicated by heterogeneity in diagnostic criteria and testing strategies. Paroxysmal cold hemoglobinuria (PCH) is an uncommon form of paediatric autoimmune hemolytic anaemia. Identification of the causative biphasic hemolysin requires clinical recognition and access to the Donath-Landsteiner (DL) test.

CASE PRESENTATION

We report a young paediatric patient with no significant past medical history who presented with severe anaemia, jaundice, and dark urine following a respiratory illness. Initial laboratory evaluation showed a haemoglobin of 3.6 g/dL with plasma free haemoglobin 170 mg/dL (reference range <5 mg/dL), 3+ hemoglobinuria (reference range = 0), and direct antiglobulin testing (DAT) positive for complement component 3 (C3) only. Haemoglobin continued to decline following RBC transfusions using a blood warmer for presumed cold agglutinin syndrome. Subsequent testing at the reference laboratory revealed a DAT positive for C3 and immunoglobulin isotype G (IgG) and an eluate pan-agglutinin most consistent with a warm autoantibody, but the patient's anaemia was non-responsive to glucocorticoids and blood warmer cessation. However, a maximum cold agglutinin titre of 4 and absent thermal amplitude substantially weakened the evidence for the clinical significance of the cold autoantibodies. Consultation with the institutional transfusion medicine specialist prompted collection for the DL test, which demonstrated a definitive biphasic hemolysin consistent with PCH.

DISCUSSION

Conflicting clinical and immunohematologic evidence can obscure the aetiology of autoimmune hemolysis, including concurrent warm and/or cold autoantibodies. Clinical correlation, consultation with the institutional transfusion service, and access to specialised testing are essential to establish the correct diagnosis.

Anemia and Associated Risk Factors in Pediatric Patients

Anemia is the most common hematologic abnormality identified in children and represents a major global health problem. A delay in diagnosis and treatment might place patients with anemia at risk for the development of rare but serious complications, including chronic and irreversible cognitive impairment. Identified risk factors contributing to the development of anemia in children include the presence of nutritional deficiencies, environmental factors, chronic comorbidities, and congenital disorders of hemoglobin or red blood cells. Pediatricians, especially those in the primary care setting, serve a particularly critical role in the identification and care of those children affected by anemia. Prompt recognition of these risk factors is crucial for developing appropriate and timely therapeutic interventions and prevention strategies.

Human adenovirus associated with severe cold agglutinin syndrome: a rare complication in Pediatrics

OBJECTIVE

The objectives of this study were to describe the first pediatric case of cold agglutinin syndrome (CAS) triggered by human adenovirus and review the literature.

CASE DESCRIPTION

This case report involves a previously healthy, 2½-year-old female child with human adenovirus isolated in a nasal swab. At 72 h after admission, the patient progressed to a severe episode of anemia (hemoglobin level: 2.6 g/dL). The laboratory findings were consistent with CAS. The patient received blood transfusion, vitamin supplementation, adequate hydration, and thermal protection. At her last follow-up, 1 year after her initial presentation, she remains clinically well without signs of hemolysis.

COMMENTS

While severe CAS is extremely uncommon in the pediatric emergency department, human adenovirus infection is a common illness in pediatrics. Recently, the adenovirus has been associated with new complications (acute hepatitis and fulminant liver failure). Pediatric physicians and hematologists should be aware of unusual evolution, signs, and symptoms of this infection that warrant more urgent medical attention. In this case, the hematologic complication suspicion was the key to early diagnosis and adequate management.

Ultrastructural analysis of nucleated erythrocyte in patients with autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA)

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) is a group of diseases characterized by immune-mediated lysis of mature red blood cells (RBCs). It is mainly classified into primary and secondary types based on etiology and mechanisms underlying autoantibody production. AIHA is diagnosed using morphological observation of bone marrow smears under a light microscope and monospecific direct antiglobulin test to detect hemolysis. Here, we retrospectively studied ultrastructural abnormalities of nucleated erythroid cells in bone marrows from 10 patients with AIHA using transmission electron microscopy. Our results revealed severe damage and injury to nucleated erythroid cells, including morphological irregularity, pyknosis, karyolysis, expansion of perinuclear cisternae and cytoplasmic lysis. These results indicate that aberrant immunity attacks not only mature RBCs but also nucleated erythroid cells, and ineffective hematopoiesis is partly involved in the pathogenesis of AIHA.

Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia in the Pediatric Age Group: The Egyptian Experience

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) is a common disease entity among adults; however, it is rare among the pediatric age group. Evidence is scarce regarding pediatric AIHA in the literature. The objective of this study is to assess the frequency of AIHA and describe the clinical and laboratory characteristics and treatment outcomes of a cohort of children with AIHA in Egypt. A retrospective study was conducted on 50 children with AIHA who were registered and followed up at the New Children's Hospital in Cairo, Egypt, between January 2010 and January 2021. The study group comprised 60% females and 40% males. Their median age was 8.25 years. All patients showed low hemoglobin levels with a mean of 5.40 ± 1.34 g/dl and a median reticulocyte count of 10 (IQR: 8-15). Twelve (24%) patients were diagnosed with Evans syndrome, and a positive Coombs test was detected in 46 patients (92%). The frequency of primary AIHA was 40%, whereas it was 60% for secondary AIHA. The first line of therapy for acute attacks was high-dose IV steroids which responded well in 38 (76%) patients. Secondary AIHA was more common among our children (60%). AIHA is more prevalent in females (60%). The clinical and laboratory characteristics matched previous reports.

Diagnosis and Management of Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemias

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) is usually categorized, as other immune-mediated cytopenias, in so-called benign hematology, and it is consequently managed in various settings, namely, internal medicine, transfusion centers, hematology and, more rarely, onco-hematology departments [...].

Celiac Disease With Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia and Autoimmune Hepatitis in a Young Child: Case Report and Literature Review

Celiac disease (CD) is a chronic autoimmune condition with intestinal and extra-intestinal features. Extra intestinal features including hematological, neurological, and endocrine symptoms are seen more frequently in elder children. A 4 years 7 months old male child presented in clinic with history of abdominal pain and diarrhea on and off for 1 year. On examination, he was hemodynamically stable, pale, and malnourished with distended abdomen. He was investigated for CD, Anti TTG IgA <0.1 (positive >10), Anti TTG IgG 13 (positive >10). To confirm celiac disease, Esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) was done which was consistent with diagnosis of Celiac disease (MARSH Type 3a). Gluten free diet was advised. Later, after 12 days he again presented with jaundice, fever, anorexia, and dark colored urine and irritability. He was admitted for fulminant hepatic failure, his workup revealed direct hyperbilirubenemia, ANA +ve, and hyper IgG. Liver biopsy confirmed autoimmune hepatitis. Further workup for anemia showed reticulocyte count 7.1, LDH 423, direct and indirect coombs test was positive confirming autoimmune hemolytic anemia. Child responded well to Azathioprine and prednisolone with clinical improvement. We report a rare presentation of celiac disease with polyautoimmunity in a young child. Case reports of autoimmune hepatitis with CD patients have been reported in adult patients. Association of celiac disease with autoimmune hemolytic anemia and autoimmune hepatitis is a distinct and rare condition.

Autoimmunity in Primary Immunodeficiencies (PID)

Primary immunodeficiency (PID) may impact any component of the immune system. The number of PID and immune dysregulation disorders is growing steadily with advancing genetic detection methods. These expansive recognition methods have changed the way we characterize PID. While PID were once characterized by their susceptibility to infection, the increase in genetic analysis has elucidated the intertwined relationship between PID and non-infectious manifestations including autoimmunity. The defects permitting opportunistic infections to take hold may also lead the way to the development of autoimmune disease. In some cases, it is the non-infectious complications that may be the presenting sign of PID autoimmune diseases, such as autoimmune cytopenia, enteropathy, endocrinopathies, and arthritis among others, have been reported in PID. While autoimmunity may occur with any PID, this review will look at certain immunodeficiencies most often associated with autoimmunity, as well as their diagnosis and management strategies.

Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia in Children: Laboratory Investigation, Disease Associations, and Treatment Strategies

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia is a relatively uncommon pediatric clinical condition. As such, the evaluation and management of these cases can be challenging for even the most seasoned pediatrician. In this review, the 3 major forms of autoimmune hemolytic anemia in children will be discussed: warm autoimmune hemolytic anemia, cold agglutinin disease, and paroxysmal cold hemoglobinuria. After a general description of the laboratory approach to these entities, the pathophysiology of these disease processes, including important disease associations, will be described, and treatment strategies will be discussed. This will provide the reader with a rational approach to identifying and managing pediatric patients with these uncommon autoimmune conditions.

Diagnosis and clinical management of red cell membrane disorders

Heterogeneous red blood cell (RBC) membrane disorders and hydration defects often present with the common clinical findings of hemolytic anemia, but they may require substantially different management, based on their pathophysiology. An accurate and timely diagnosis is essential to avoid inappropriate interventions and prevent complications. Advances in genetic testing availability within the last decade, combined with extensive foundational knowledge on RBC membrane structure and function, now facilitate the correct diagnosis in patients with a variety of hereditary hemolytic anemias (HHAs). Studies in patient cohorts with well-defined genetic diagnoses have revealed complications such as iron overload in hereditary xerocytosis, which is amenable to monitoring, prevention, and treatment, and demonstrated that splenectomy is not always an effective or safe treatment for any patient with HHA. However, a multitude of variants of unknown clinical significance have been discovered by genetic evaluation, requiring interpretation by thorough phenotypic assessment in clinical and/or research laboratories. Here we discuss genotype-phenotype correlations and corresponding clinical management in patients with RBC membranopathies and propose an algorithm for the laboratory workup of patients presenting with symptoms and signs of hemolytic anemia, with a clinical case that exemplifies such a workup.

Splenomegaly in Children and Adolescents

In contrast to other lymphoid tissues making up the immune system, the spleen as its biggest organ is directly linked into the blood circulation. Beside its main task to filter out microorganism, proteins, and overaged or pathologically altered blood cells, also humoral and cellular immune responses are initiated in this organ. The spleen is not palpable during a physical examination in most but not all healthy patients. A correct diagnosis of splenomegaly in children and adolescents must take into account age-dependent size reference values. Ultrasound examination is nowadays used to measure the spleen size and to judge on reasons for morphological alterations in associated with an increase in organ size. An enormous amount of possible causes has to be put in consideration if splenomegaly is diagnosed. Among these are infectious agents, hematologic disorders, infiltrative diseases, hyperplasia of the white pulp, congestion, and changes in the composition and structure of the white pulp by immunologically mediated diseases. This review attempts to discuss a comprehensive list of differential diagnoses to be considered clinically in children and young adolescents.