A Novel Precision Approach to Overcome the "Addiction Pandemic" by Incorporating Genetic Addiction Risk Severity (GARS) and Dopamine Homeostasis Restoration

A Complex Relationship Among the Circadian Rhythm, Reward Circuit and Substance Use Disorder (SUD)

The human brain not only controls the various physiological functions but is also the prime regulator of circadian rhythms, rewards, and behaviors. Environmental factors, professional stress, and social disintegration are regarded as the initial causative factors of addiction behavior. Shift work, artificial light exposure at night, and chronic and acute jet lag influence circadian rhythm dysfunction. The result is impaired neurotransmitter release, dysfunction of neural circuits, endocrine disturbance, and metabolic disorder, leading to advancement in substance use disorder. There is a bidirectional relationship between chronodisruption and addiction behavior. Circadian rhythm dysfunction, neuroadaptation in the reward circuits, and alteration in clock gene expression in the mesolimbic areas influence substance use disorder (SUD), and chronotherapy has potential benefits in the treatment strategies. This review explores the relationship among the circadian rhythm dysfunction, reward circuit, and SUD. The impact of chronotherapy on SUD has also been discussed.

The First Pilot Epigenetic Type Improvement of Neuropsychiatric Symptoms in a Polymorphic Dopamine D2 (-DRD2/ANKK (Taq1A)), OPRM1 (A/G), DRD3 (C/T), and MAOA (4R) Compromised Preadolescence Male with Putative PANDAS/CANS: Positive Clinical Outcome with Precision-Guided DNA Testing and Pro-Dopamine Regulation (KB220) and Antibacterial Therapies

Pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with or without streptococcal and other bacterial infections (PANDAS/CANS) are emerging as a featured pediatric disorder. Although there is some controversy regarding treatment approaches, especially related to the behavioral sequelae, we have hypothesized in other published work that it is characterized by the rapid onset of Reward Deficiency Syndrome (RDS) in children. We propose utilizing a multi-systems biological approach involving the coupling of genetic addiction risk testing and pro-dopamine regulation (KB220/POLYGEN®) to help induce "dopamine homeostasis" in patients with PANDAS, especially those with known DNA-induced hypodopaminergia. This case study examines a 12-year-old Caucasian male with no prior psychiatric issues who presented with a sudden onset of severe anxiety, depression, emotional liability, and suicidal ideation. The patient underwent genotyping and the genetic addiction risk score (GARS) testing, which revealed risk polymorphisms in the dopamine D2 (-DRD2/ANKK (Taq1A), OPRM1 (A/G), DRD3 (C/T), and MAOA (4R) genes. These polymorphisms have been linked to hypodopaminergia. The patient was subsequently placed on research ID-KB220ZPBMPOLY (POLYGEN®), and albeit the possibility of bias, based upon self and parental assessment, a marked rapid improvement in psychiatric symptoms was observed. In the second phase of treatment (102 days utilizing KB220), the patient received standard antibody testing, which was positive for Lyme. Antibacterial therapy started immediately, and KB220z was discontinued to provide a wash-out period. A monotonic trend analysis was performed on each outcome measure, and a consistently decreasing trend was observed utilizing antibacterial therapy. Our recommendation, albeit only one case, is to utilize and further research a combined therapeutic approach, involving precision-guided DNA testing and pro-dopamine regulation along with antibacterial therapy, as well as glutathione to address offensive enhanced cytokines, in patients with suspected PANDAS/CANS.

Differential DNA methylation in iPSC-derived dopaminergic neurons: a step forward on the role of SNORD116 microdeletion in the pathophysiology of addictive behavior in Prader-Willi syndrome

INTRODUCTION

A microdeletion including the SNORD116 gene (SNORD116 MD) has been shown to drive the Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) features. PWS is a neurodevelopmental disorder clinically characterized by endocrine impairment, intellectual disability and psychiatric symptoms such as a lack of emotional regulation, impulsivity, and intense temper tantrums with outbursts. In addition, this syndrome is associated with a nutritional trajectory characterized by addiction-like behavior around food in adulthood. PWS is related to the genetic loss of expression of a minimal region that plays a potential role in epigenetic regulation. Nevertheless, the role of the SNORD116 MD in DNA methylation, as well as the impact of the oxytocin (OXT) on it, have never been investigated in human neurons.

METHODS

We studied the methylation marks in induced pluripotent stem-derived dopaminergic neurons carrying a SNORD116 MD in comparison with those from an age-matched adult healthy control. We also performed identical neuron differentiation in the presence of OXT. We performed a genome-wide DNA methylation analysis from the iPSC-derived dopaminergic neurons by reduced-representation bisulfite sequencing. In addition, we performed RNA sequencing analysis in these iPSC-derived dopaminergic neurons differentiated with or without OXT.

RESULTS

The analysis revealed that 153,826 cytosines were differentially methylated between SNORD116 MD neurons and control neurons. Among the differentially methylated genes, we determined a list of genes also differentially expressed. Enrichment analysis of this list encompassed the dopaminergic system with COMT and SLC6A3. COMT displayed hypermethylation and under-expression in SNORD116 MD, and SLC6A3 displayed hypomethylation and over-expression in SNORD116 MD. RT-qPCR confirmed significant over-expression of SLC6A3 in SNORD116 MD neurons. Moreover, the expression of this gene was significantly decreased in the case of OXT adjunction during the differentiation.

CONCLUSION

SNORD116 MD dopaminergic neurons displayed differential methylation and expression in the COMT and SLC6A3 genes, which are related to dopaminergic clearance.

Summary Document Research on RDS Anti-addiction Modeling: Annotated Bibliography

Annotated bibliography of genetic addiction risk severity (GARS) publications, pro-dopamine regulation in nutraceuticals (KB220 nutraceutical variants), and policy documents. Further research is required to encourage the field to consider "Reward Deficiency Syndrome (RDS) Anti-addiction Modeling" which involves early risk identification by means of genetic assessment similar to GARS, followed by induction of dopamine homeostasis by means of genetically guided pro-dopamine regulation similar to KB220. These results suggest that genetically based treatments may be a missing piece in the treatment of substance use disorder (SUD).

Invited Expert Opinion- Bioinformatic and Limitation Directives to Help Adopt Genetic Addiction Risk Screening and Identify Preaddictive Reward Dysregulation: Required Analytic Evidence to Induce Dopamine Homeostatsis

Addiction, albeit some disbelievers like Mark Lewis [1], is a chronic, relapsing brain disease, resulting in unwanted loss of control over both substance and non- substance behavioral addictions leading to serious adverse consequences [2]. Addiction scientists and clinicians face an incredible challenge in combatting the current opioid and alcohol use disorder (AUD) pandemic throughout the world. Provisional data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) shows that from July 2021-2022, over 100,000 individuals living in the United States (US) died from a drug overdose, and 77,237 of those deaths were related to opioid use [3]. This number is expected to rise, and according to the US Surgeon General it is highly conceivable that by 2025 approximately 165,000 Americans will die from an opioid overdose. Alcohol abuse, according to data from the World Health Organization (WHO), results in 3 million deaths worldwide every year, which represents 5.3% of all deaths globally [4].

Association between body mass index and treatment completion in extended-release naltrexone-treated patients with opioid dependence

Background

Excessive consumption of opioids is associated with impaired metabolic function including increased body mass index (BMI). Opioid antagonist naltrexone (NTX) is an effective treatment for opioid use disorder (OUD) that has the potential to mitigate such metabolic disturbances. Understanding the relationship between treatment adherence and BMI in NTX-treated OUD patients may provide valuable insights into optimizing clinical outcomes.

Methods

Patients with opioid dependence were offered up to three monthly injections of extended-release (XR) NTX. Treatment completers (n = 41) were defined as those who had received all three XR-NTX injections, and non-completers (n = 20) as those missing at least one injection. Logistic regression was performed to examine the association between pre-treatment BMI and treatment completion.

Results

BMI was positively associated with treatment completion. This association remained significant after adjusting for potentially confounding variables.

Conclusion

Our findings suggest that baseline BMI may serve as a potential predictor of XR-NTX treatment adherence in patients with OUD and could help healthcare providers and policy makers alike in developing strategies to improve retention and tailor interventions for specific patient subgroups.

Future Newborns with Opioid-Induced Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome (NAS) Could Be Assessed with the Genetic Addiction Risk Severity (GARS) Test and Potentially Treated Using Precision Amino-Acid Enkephalinase Inhibition Therapy (KB220) as a Frontline Modality Instead of Potent Opioids

In this nonsystematic review and opinion, including articles primarily selected from PubMed, we examine the pharmacological and nonpharmacological treatments of neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS) in order to craft a reasonable opinion to help forge a paradigm shift in the treatment and prevention of primarily opioid-induced NAS. Newborns of individuals who use illicit and licit substances during pregnancy are at risk for withdrawal, also known as NAS. In the US, the reported prevalence of NAS has increased from 4.0 per 1000 hospital births in 2010 to 7.3 per 1000 hospital births in 2017, which is an 82% increase. The management of NAS is varied and involves a combination of nonpharmacologic and pharmacologic therapy. The preferred first-line pharmacological treatment for NAS is opioid therapy, specifically morphine, and the goal is the short-term improvement in NAS symptomatology. Nonpharmacological therapies are individualized and typically focus on general care measures, the newborn-parent/caregiver relationship, the environment, and feeding. When used appropriately, nonpharmacologic therapies can help newborns with NAS avoid or reduce the amount of pharmacologic therapy required and the length of hospitalization. In addition, genetic polymorphisms of the catechol-o-methyltransferase (COMT) and mu-opioid receptor (OPRM1) genes appear to affect the length of stay and the need for pharmacotherapy in newborns with prenatal opioid exposure. Therefore, based on this extensive literature and additional research, this team of coauthors suggests that, in the future, in addition to the current nonpharmacological therapies, patients with opioid-induced NAS should undergo genetic assessment (i.e., the genetic addiction risk severity (GARS) test), which can subsequently be used to guide DNA-directed precision amino-acid enkephalinase inhibition (KB220) therapy as a frontline modality instead of potent opioids.

Genetic Addiction Risk and Psychological Profiling Analyses for "Preaddiction" Severity Index

Since 1990, when our laboratory published the association of the DRD2 Taq A1 allele and severe alcoholism in JAMA, there has been an explosion of genetic candidate association studies, including genome-wide association studies (GWAS). To develop an accurate test to help identify those at risk for at least alcohol use disorder (AUD), a subset of reward deficiency syndrome (RDS), Blum's group developed the genetic addiction risk severity (GARS) test, consisting of ten genes and eleven associated risk alleles. In order to statistically validate the selection of these risk alleles measured by GARS, we applied strict analysis to studies that investigated the association of each polymorphism with AUD or AUD-related conditions, including pain and even bariatric surgery, as a predictor of severe vulnerability to unwanted addictive behaviors, published since 1990 until now. This analysis calculated the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium of each polymorphism in cases and controls. Pearson's χ2 test or Fisher's exact test was applied to compare the gender, genotype, and allele distribution if available. The statistical analyses found the OR, 95% CI for OR, and the post risk for 8% estimation of the population's alcoholism prevalence revealed a significant detection. Prior to these results, the United States and European patents on a ten gene panel and eleven risk alleles have been issued. In the face of the new construct of the "preaddiction" model, similar to "prediabetes", the genetic addiction risk analysis might provide one solution missing in the treatment and prevention of the neurological disorder known as RDS.

DNA Directed Pro-Dopamine Regulation Coupling Subluxation Repair, H-Wave® and Other Neurobiologically Based Modalities to Address Complexities of Chronic Pain in a Female Diagnosed with Reward Deficiency Syndrome (RDS): Emergence of Induction of “Dopamine Homeostasis” in the Face of the Opioid Crisis

Addiction is a complex multifactorial condition. Established genetic factors can provide clear guidance in assessing the risk of addiction to substances and behaviors. Chronic stress can accumulate, forming difficult to recognize addiction patterns from both genetic and epigenetic (environmental) factors. Furthermore, psychological/physical/chemical stressors are typically categorized linearly, delaying identification and treatment. The patient in this case report is a Caucasian female, aged 36, who presented with chronic pain and partial disability following a surgically repaired trimalleolar fracture. The patient had a history of unresolved attention deficit disorder and an MRI scan of her brain revealed atrophy and functional asymmetry. In 2018, the patient entered the Bajaj Chiropractic Clinic, where initial treatment focused on re-establishing integrity of the spine and lower extremity biomechanics and graduated into cognitive behavior stabilization assisted by DNA pro-dopamine regulation guided by Genetic Addiction Risk Severity testing. During treatment (2018–2021), progress achieved included: improved cognitive clarity, focus, sleep, anxiety, and emotional stability in addition to pain reduction (75%); elimination of powerful analgesics; and reduced intake of previously unaddressed alcoholism. To help reduce hedonic addictive behaviors and pain, coupling of H-Wave with corrective chiropractic care seems prudent. We emphasize the importance of genetic assessment along with attempts at inducing required dopaminergic homeostasis via precision KB220PAM. It is hypothesized that from preventive care models, a new standard is emerging including self-awareness and accountability for reward deficiency as a function of hypodopaminergia. This case study documents the progression of a patient dealing with the complexities of an injury, pain management, cognitive impairment, anxiety, depression, and the application of universal health principles towards correction versus palliative care.

Prenatal Effects of Nicotine on Obesity Risks: A Narrative Review

Nicotine usage by mothers throughout pregnancy has been observed to relate to numerous deleterious effects in children, especially relating to obesity. Children who have prenatally been exposed to nicotine tend to have lower birth weights, with an elevated risk of becoming overweight throughout development and into their adolescent and adult life. There are numerous theories as to how this occurs: catch-up growth theory, thrifty phenotype theory, neurotransmitter or endocrine imbalances theory, and a more recent examination on the genetic factors relating to obesity risk. In addition to the negative effect on bodyweight and BMI, individuals with obesity may also suffer from numerous comorbidities involving metabolic disease. These may include type 1 and 2 diabetes, high cholesterol levels, and liver disease. Predisposition for obesity with nicotine usage may also be associated with genetic risk alleles for obesity, such as the DRD2 A1 variant. This is important for prenatally nicotine-exposed individuals as an opportunity to provide early prevention and intervention of obesity-related risks.

Precision Behavioral Management (PBM) and Cognitive Control as a Potential Therapeutic and Prophylactic Modality for Reward Deficiency Syndrome (RDS): Is There Enough Evidence?

This brief commentary aims to provide an overview of the available and relatively new precision management of reward deficiencies manifested as substance and behavioral disorders. Current and future advances, concepts, and the substantial evidential basis of this potential therapeutic and prophylactic treatment modality are presented. Precision Behavioral Management (PBM), conceptualized initially as Precision Addiction Management (PAM), certainly deserves consideration as an important modality for the treatment of impaired cognitive control in reward processing as manifested in people with neurobiologically expressed Reward Deficiency Syndrome (RDS).

Hypothesizing in the Face of the Opioid Crisis Coupling Genetic Addiction Risk Severity (GARS) Testing with Electrotherapeutic Nonopioid Modalities Such as H-Wave Could Attenuate Both Pain and Hedonic Addictive Behaviors

In the United States, amid the opioid overdose epidemic, nonaddicting/nonpharmacological proven strategies are available to treat pain and manage chronic pain effectively without opioids. Evidence supporting the long-term use of opioids for pain is lacking, as is the will to alter the drug-embracing culture in American chronic pain management. Some pain clinicians seem to prefer classical analgesic agents that promote unwanted tolerance to analgesics and subsequent biological induction of the "addictive brain". Reward genes play a vital part in modulation of nociception and adaptations in the dopaminergic circuitry. They may affect various sensory and affective components of the chronic pain syndromes. The Genetic Addiction Risk Severity (GARS) test coupled with the H-Wave at entry in pain clinics could attenuate pain and help prevent addiction. The GARS test results identify high-risk for both drug and alcohol, and H-Wave can be initiated to treat pain instead of opioids. The utilization of H-Wave to aid in pain reduction and mitigation of hedonic addictive behaviors is recommended, notwithstanding required randomized control studies. This frontline approach would reduce the possibility of long-term neurobiological deficits and fatalities associated with potent opioid analgesics.

Reward Deficiency Syndrome (RDS): A Cytoarchitectural Common Neurobiological Trait of All Addictions

Alcohol and other substance use disorders share comorbidity with other RDS disorders, i.e., a reduction in dopamine signaling within the reward pathway. RDS is a term that connects addictive, obsessive, compulsive, and impulsive behavioral disorders. An estimated 2 million individuals in the United States have opioid use disorder related to prescription opioids. It is estimated that the overall cost of the illegal and legally prescribed opioid crisis exceeds one trillion dollars. Opioid Replacement Therapy is the most common treatment for addictions and other RDS disorders. Even after repeated relapses, patients are repeatedly prescribed the same opioid replacement treatments. A recent JAMA report indicates that non-opioid treatments fare better than chronic opioid treatments. Research demonstrates that over 50 percent of all suicides are related to alcohol or other drug use. In addition to effective fellowship programs and spirituality acceptance, nutrigenomic therapies (e.g., KB220Z) optimize gene expression, rebalance neurotransmitters, and restore neurotransmitter functional connectivity. KB220Z was shown to increase functional connectivity across specific brain regions involved in dopaminergic function. KB220/Z significantly reduces RDS behavioral disorders and relapse in human DUI offenders. Taking a Genetic Addiction Risk Severity (GARS) test combined with a the KB220Z semi-customized nutrigenomic supplement effectively restores dopamine homeostasis (WC 199).