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Calvanese M, D’Angelo C, Tutino ML, Lauro C. Whole-Cell Biosensor for Iron Monitoring as a Potential Tool for Safeguarding Biodiversity in Polar Marine Environments. Mar Drugs 2024; 22:299. [PMID: 39057408 PMCID: PMC11277574 DOI: 10.3390/md22070299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2024] [Revised: 06/05/2024] [Accepted: 06/24/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Iron is a key micronutrient essential for various essential biological processes. As a consequence, alteration in iron concentration in seawater can deeply influence marine biodiversity. In polar marine environments, where environmental conditions are characterized by low temperatures, the role of iron becomes particularly significant. While iron limitation can negatively influence primary production and nutrient cycling, excessive iron concentrations can lead to harmful algal blooms and oxygen depletion. Furthermore, the growth of certain phytoplankton species can be increased in high-iron-content environments, resulting in altered balance in the marine food web and reduced biodiversity. Although many chemical/physical methods are established for inorganic iron quantification, the determination of the bio-available iron in seawater samples is more suitably carried out using marine microorganisms as biosensors. Despite existing challenges, whole-cell biosensors offer other advantages, such as real-time detection, cost-effectiveness, and ease of manipulation, making them promising tools for monitoring environmental iron levels in polar marine ecosystems. In this review, we discuss fundamental biosensor designs and assemblies, arranging host features, transcription factors, reporter proteins, and detection methods. The progress in the genetic manipulation of iron-responsive regulatory and reporter modules is also addressed to the optimization of the biosensor performance, focusing on the improvement of sensitivity and specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marzia Calvanese
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples “Federico II”, Complesso Universitario Monte S. Angelo, Via Cintia 4, 80126 Naples, Italy; (M.C.); (C.D.); (M.L.T.)
- Istituto Nazionale Biostrutture e Biosistemi (I.N.B.B), Viale Medaglie D’Oro 305, 00136 Roma, Italy
| | - Caterina D’Angelo
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples “Federico II”, Complesso Universitario Monte S. Angelo, Via Cintia 4, 80126 Naples, Italy; (M.C.); (C.D.); (M.L.T.)
| | - Maria Luisa Tutino
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples “Federico II”, Complesso Universitario Monte S. Angelo, Via Cintia 4, 80126 Naples, Italy; (M.C.); (C.D.); (M.L.T.)
- Istituto Nazionale Biostrutture e Biosistemi (I.N.B.B), Viale Medaglie D’Oro 305, 00136 Roma, Italy
| | - Concetta Lauro
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples “Federico II”, Complesso Universitario Monte S. Angelo, Via Cintia 4, 80126 Naples, Italy; (M.C.); (C.D.); (M.L.T.)
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2
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Gomes AF, Sousa E, Resende DISP. A Practical Toolkit for the Detection, Isolation, Quantification, and Characterization of Siderophores and Metallophores in Microorganisms. ACS OMEGA 2024; 9:26863-26877. [PMID: 38947835 PMCID: PMC11209696 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.4c03042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2024] [Revised: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 07/02/2024]
Abstract
Siderophores are well-recognized low-molecular-weight compounds produced by numerous microorganisms to acquire iron from the surrounding environments. These secondary metabolites can form complexes with other metals besides iron, forming soluble metallophores; because of that, they are widely investigated in either the medicinal or environmental field. One of the bottlenecks of siderophore research is related to the identification of new siderophores from microbial sources. Herein we have compiled a comprehensive range of standard and updated methodologies that have been developed over the past few years to provide a comprehensive toolbox in this area to current researchers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana F.
R. Gomes
- LQOF
- Laboratório de Química Orgânica e Farmacêutica,
Departamento de Ciências Químicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Rua de Jorge de Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
- CIIMAR-
Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Emília Sousa
- LQOF
- Laboratório de Química Orgânica e Farmacêutica,
Departamento de Ciências Químicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Rua de Jorge de Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
- CIIMAR-
Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Diana I. S. P. Resende
- LQOF
- Laboratório de Química Orgânica e Farmacêutica,
Departamento de Ciências Químicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Rua de Jorge de Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
- CIIMAR-
Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal
- ICBAS
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto, Rua de Jorge de Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
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3
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Puente‐Sánchez F, Macías‐Pérez LA, Campbell KL, Royo‐Llonch M, Balagué V, Sánchez P, Tamames J, Mundy CJ, Pedrós‐Alió C. Bacterioplankton taxa compete for iron along the early spring-summer transition in the Arctic Ocean. Ecol Evol 2024; 14:e11546. [PMID: 38895568 PMCID: PMC11183961 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.11546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2023] [Revised: 05/21/2024] [Accepted: 05/26/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Microbial assemblages under the sea ice of the Dease Strait, Canadian Arctic, were sequenced for metagenomes of a small size fraction (0.2-3 μm). The community from early March was typical for this season, with Alpha- and Gammaproteobacteria as the dominant taxa, followed by Thaumarchaeota and Bacteroidetes. Toward summer, Bacteroidetes, and particularly the genus Polaribacter, became increasingly dominant, followed by the Gammaproteobacteria. Analysis of genes responsible for microbial acquisition of iron showed an abundance of ABC transporters for divalent cations and ferrous iron. The most abundant transporters, however, were the outer membrane TonB-dependent transporters of iron-siderophore complexes. The abundance of iron acquisition genes suggested this element was essential for the microbial assemblage. Interestingly, Gammaproteobacteria were responsible for most of the siderophore synthesis genes. On the contrary, Bacteroidetes did not synthesize siderophores but accounted for most of the transporters, suggesting a role as cheaters in the competition for siderophores as public goods. This cheating ability of the Bacteroidetes may have contributed to their dominance in the summer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Puente‐Sánchez
- Department of Systems BiologyCentro Nacional de Biotecnología, CSICMadridSpain
- Microbial Ecology Division, Department of Aquatic Sciences and AssessmentSwedish University of Agricultural SciencesUppsalaSweden
- Present address:
Department of Aquatic Sciences and AssessmentSwedish University for Agricultural Sciences (SLU)UppsalaSweden
| | - Luis Alberto Macías‐Pérez
- Department of Systems BiologyCentro Nacional de Biotecnología, CSICMadridSpain
- Present address:
Department of Evolutionary and Integrative EcologyLeibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB)BerlinGermany
| | - Karley L. Campbell
- UiT The Arctic University of NorwayTromsøNorway
- Centre for Earth Observation Science, University of ManitobaWinnipegManitobaCanada
- Present address:
UiT The Arctic University of NorwayTromsøNorway
| | - Marta Royo‐Llonch
- Department of Marine Biology and OceanographyInstitut de Ciències del Mar, CSICBarcelonaSpain
| | - Vanessa Balagué
- Department of Marine Biology and OceanographyInstitut de Ciències del Mar, CSICBarcelonaSpain
| | - Pablo Sánchez
- Department of Marine Biology and OceanographyInstitut de Ciències del Mar, CSICBarcelonaSpain
| | - Javier Tamames
- Department of Systems BiologyCentro Nacional de Biotecnología, CSICMadridSpain
| | | | - Carlos Pedrós‐Alió
- Department of Systems BiologyCentro Nacional de Biotecnología, CSICMadridSpain
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4
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Long Q, Zhou W, Zhou H, Tang Y, Chen W, Liu Q, Bian X. Polyamine-containing natural products: structure, bioactivity, and biosynthesis. Nat Prod Rep 2024; 41:525-564. [PMID: 37873660 DOI: 10.1039/d2np00087c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
Covering: 2005 to August, 2023Polyamine-containing natural products (NPs) have been isolated from a wide range of terrestrial and marine organisms and most of them exhibit remarkable and diverse activities, including antimicrobial, antiprotozoal, antiangiogenic, antitumor, antiviral, iron-chelating, anti-depressive, anti-inflammatory, insecticidal, antiobesity, and antioxidant properties. Their extraordinary activities and potential applications in human health and agriculture attract increasing numbers of studies on polyamine-containing NPs. In this review, we summarized the source, structure, classification, bioactivities and biosynthesis of polyamine-containing NPs, focusing on the biosynthetic mechanism of polyamine itself and representative polyamine alkaloids, polyamine-containing siderophores with catechol/hydroxamate/hydroxycarboxylate groups, nonribosomal peptide-(polyketide)-polyamine (NRP-(PK)-PA), and NRP-PK-long chain poly-fatty amine (lcPFAN) hybrid molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingshan Long
- Hunan Provincial Engineering and Technology Research Center for Agricultural Microbiology Application, Hunan Institute of Microbiology, Changsha, 410009, China.
| | - Wen Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Chemical Drugs and Pharmaceutics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural, Affairs, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Haibo Zhou
- Helmholtz International Lab for Anti-Infectives, Shandong University-Helmholtz Institute of Biotechnology, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China.
| | - Ying Tang
- Hunan Provincial Engineering and Technology Research Center for Agricultural Microbiology Application, Hunan Institute of Microbiology, Changsha, 410009, China.
| | - Wu Chen
- College of Plant Protection, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, 410128, China.
| | - Qingshu Liu
- Hunan Provincial Engineering and Technology Research Center for Agricultural Microbiology Application, Hunan Institute of Microbiology, Changsha, 410009, China.
| | - Xiaoying Bian
- Helmholtz International Lab for Anti-Infectives, Shandong University-Helmholtz Institute of Biotechnology, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China.
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5
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Choi SI, Men X, Oh G, Im JH, Choi YE, Yang JM, Cho JH, Lee OH. Identification of marker compounds in fermented Benincasa hispida and validation of the method for its analysis. Food Chem X 2024; 21:101208. [PMID: 38370299 PMCID: PMC10869751 DOI: 10.1016/j.fochx.2024.101208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2023] [Revised: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Fermentation is a process that improves health functionality by inducing the production and increase of bioactive compounds. In this study, to standardize the fermentation process for Benincasa hispida, marker compounds that are increased or produced during fermentation were identified based on UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS. Analysis method verification and content analysis were conducted using HPLC-PDA. The marker compounds produced or increased in content were identified as 2-furoic acid, 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid, and rubinaphthin A by comparing their retention times, UV and MS spectra, and molecular formulas with those reported in previous studies. In addition, the increase in the content of the marker compounds by fermentation was confirmed, and the analytical method was validated by measuring its specificity, linearity, limit of detection and quantitation, precision, and accuracy. These results suggest that the developed fermentation process, marker compound identification, and verified analysis method can be applied to develop potential functional food ingredients from fermented B. hispida.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sun-Il Choi
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Xiao Men
- Department of Food Biotechnology and Environmental Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Geon Oh
- Department of Food Biotechnology and Environmental Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji-Hyun Im
- Department of Food Biotechnology and Environmental Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Ye-Eun Choi
- Haram Central Research Institute, Cheongju 28160, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung-Mo Yang
- Haram Central Research Institute, Cheongju 28160, Republic of Korea
| | - Ju-Hyun Cho
- Haram Central Research Institute, Cheongju 28160, Republic of Korea
| | - Ok-Hwan Lee
- Department of Food Biotechnology and Environmental Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Republic of Korea
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6
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Brauner M, Briggs BR. Microbial iron acquisition is influenced by spatial and temporal conditions in a glacial influenced river and estuary system. Environ Microbiol 2023; 25:3450-3465. [PMID: 37956696 PMCID: PMC10872409 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.16541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
In Arctic regions, glaciers are major sources of iron to rivers and streams; however, estuaries are considered iron sinks due to the coagulation and flocculation processes that occur at higher salinities. It is unknown how iron dynamics in a glacial influenced river and estuary environment affect microbial mechanisms for iron acquisition. Microbial taxonomic and functional sequencing was performed on samples taken throughout the year from the Kenai River and the estuary, Alaska. Despite distinct iron, sodium, and other nutrient concentrations, the river and estuary did not have statistically different microbial communities nor was time of sampling significant. However, ferrous iron transport (Feo) system genes were more abundant in river environments, while siderophore genes were more abundant and diverse in estuary environments. Siderophore transport and iron storage genes were found in all samples, but gene abundance and distribution were potentially influenced by physical drivers such as discharge rates and nutrient distributions. Differences in iron metabolism between river and estuary ecosystems indicate environmental conditions drive microbial mechanisms to sequester iron. This could have implications for iron transport as the Arctic continues to warm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan Brauner
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alaska Anchorage, 3211 Providence Dr CPSB 101, Anchorage, Alaska
| | - Brandon R. Briggs
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alaska Anchorage, 3211 Providence Dr CPSB 101, Anchorage, Alaska
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7
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de la Fuente MC, Ageitos L, Lages MA, Martínez-Matamoros D, Forero AM, Balado M, Lemos ML, Rodríguez J, Jiménez C. Structural Requirements for Ga 3+ Coordination in Synthetic Analogues of the Siderophore Piscibactin Deduced by Chemical Synthesis and Density Functional Theory Calculations. Inorg Chem 2023; 62:7503-7514. [PMID: 37140938 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.3c00787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Stereoselective total synthesis of several analogues of piscibactin (Pcb), the siderophore produced by different pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria, was performed. The acid-sensitive α-methylthiazoline moiety was replaced by a more stable thiazole ring, differing in the configuration of the OH group at the C-13 position. The ability of these Pcb analogues to form complexes with Ga3+ as a mimic of Fe3+ showed that the configuration of the hydroxyl group at C-13 as 13S is crucial for the chelation of Ga3+ to preserve the metal coordination, while the presence of a thiazole ring instead of the α-methylthiazoline moiety does not affect such coordination. A complete 1H and 13C NMR chemical shift assignment of the diastereoisomer mixtures around C9/C10 was done for diagnostic stereochemical disposition. Additionally, density functional theory calculations were performed not only for confirming the stereochemistry of the Ga3+ complex among the six possible diastereoisomers but also for deducing the ability of these to form octahedral coordination spheres with gallium. Finally, the lack of antimicrobial activity of Pcb and Pcb thiazole analogue Ga3+ complexes against Vibrio anguillarum agrees with one of the roles of siderophores in protecting pathogens from metal ion toxicity. The efficient metal coordination shown by this scaffold suggests its possible use as a starting point for the design of new chelating agents or vectors for the development of new antibacterials that exploit the "Trojan horse" strategy using the microbial iron uptake mechanisms. The results obtained will be of great help in the development of biotechnological applications for these types of compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Carmen de la Fuente
- CICA─Centro Interdisciplinar de Química e Bioloxía, Departamento de Química, Facultade de Ciencias, Universidade da Coruña, A Coruña 15071, Spain
| | - Lucía Ageitos
- CICA─Centro Interdisciplinar de Química e Bioloxía, Departamento de Química, Facultade de Ciencias, Universidade da Coruña, A Coruña 15071, Spain
| | - Marta A Lages
- Departamento de Microbiología y Parasitología, Instituto de Acuicultura, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain
| | - Diana Martínez-Matamoros
- CICA─Centro Interdisciplinar de Química e Bioloxía, Departamento de Química, Facultade de Ciencias, Universidade da Coruña, A Coruña 15071, Spain
| | - Abel M Forero
- CICA─Centro Interdisciplinar de Química e Bioloxía, Departamento de Química, Facultade de Ciencias, Universidade da Coruña, A Coruña 15071, Spain
| | - Miguel Balado
- Departamento de Microbiología y Parasitología, Instituto de Acuicultura, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain
| | - Manuel L Lemos
- Departamento de Microbiología y Parasitología, Instituto de Acuicultura, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain
| | - Jaime Rodríguez
- CICA─Centro Interdisciplinar de Química e Bioloxía, Departamento de Química, Facultade de Ciencias, Universidade da Coruña, A Coruña 15071, Spain
| | - Carlos Jiménez
- CICA─Centro Interdisciplinar de Química e Bioloxía, Departamento de Química, Facultade de Ciencias, Universidade da Coruña, A Coruña 15071, Spain
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8
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Chen J, Guo Y, Wu Q, Wang W, Pan J, Chen M, Jiang H, Yin Q, Zhang G, Wei B, Zhang H, Wang H. Discovery of New Siderophores from a Marine Streptomycetes sp. via Combined Metabolomics and Analysis of Iron-Chelating Activity. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2023; 71:6584-6593. [PMID: 37076425 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c00234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The marine-derived Streptomyces sp. FIMYZ-003 strain was found to produce novel siderophores with yields negatively correlated with the iron concentration in the medium. Mass spectrometry (MS)-based metabolomics coupled with metallophore assays identified two novel α-hydroxycarboxylate-type siderophores, fradiamines C and D (3 and 4), together with two related known siderophores, fradiamines A and B (1 and 2). Their chemical structures were elucidated by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and MS experiments. The annotation of a putative fra biosynthetic gene cluster enabled us to propose the biosynthetic pathway of fradiamines A-D. Furthermore, the solution-phase iron-binding activity of fradiamines was evaluated using metabolomics, confirming them as general iron scavengers. Fradiamines A-D exhibited Fe(III) binding activity equivalent to that of deferoxamine B mesylate. Growth analysis of pathogenic microbes demonstrated that fradiamine C promoted the growth of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, but fradiamines A, B, and D did not. The results indicate that fradiamine C may serve as a novel iron carrier applicable to antibiotic delivery strategies to treat and prevent foodborne pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianwei Chen
- College of Pharmaceutical Science & Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Yuqi Guo
- College of Pharmaceutical Science & Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Qihao Wu
- College of Pharmaceutical Science & Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Wei Wang
- College of Pharmaceutical Science & Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Jiangwei Pan
- College of Pharmaceutical Science & Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Minghong Chen
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Screening for Novel Microbial Products, Fujian Institute of Microbiology, Fuzhou 350007, China
| | - Hong Jiang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Screening for Novel Microbial Products, Fujian Institute of Microbiology, Fuzhou 350007, China
| | - Qunjian Yin
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Ecosystem and Bioresource, Fourth Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Beihai 536000 Guangxi, China
| | - Gaiyun Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biogenetic Resources, Third Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, Xiamen 361005, China
| | - Bin Wei
- College of Pharmaceutical Science & Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Huawei Zhang
- College of Pharmaceutical Science & Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Hong Wang
- College of Pharmaceutical Science & Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
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9
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Microbial community structure and exploration of bioremediation enzymes: functional metagenomics insight into Arabian Sea sediments. Mol Genet Genomics 2023; 298:627-651. [PMID: 36933058 DOI: 10.1007/s00438-023-01995-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 01/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023]
Abstract
Deep-sea sediments provide important information on oceanic biogeochemical processes mediated by the microbiome and their functional roles which could be unravelled using genomic tools. The present study aimed to delineate microbial taxonomic and functional profiles from Arabian Sea sediment samples through whole metagenome sequencing using Nanopore technology. Arabian Sea is considered as a major microbial reservoir with significant bio-prospecting potential which needs to be explored extensively using recent advances in genomics. Assembly, co-assembly, and binning methods were used to predict Metagenome Assembled Genomes (MAGs) which were further characterized by their completeness and heterogeneity. Nanopore sequencing of Arabian Sea sediment samples generated around 1.73 tera basepairs of data. Proteobacteria (78.32%) was found to be the most dominant phylum followed by Bacteroidetes (9.55%) and Actinobacteria (2.14%) in the sediment metagenome. Further, 35 MAGs from assembled and 38 MAGs of co-assembled reads were generated from long-read sequence dataset with major representations from the genera Marinobacter, Kangiella, and Porticoccus. RemeDB analysis revealed a high representation of pollutant-degrading enzymes involved in hydrocarbon, plastic and dye degradation. Validation of enzymes with long nanopore reads using BlastX resulted in better characterization of complete gene signatures involved in hydrocarbon (6-monooxygenase and 4-hydroxyacetophenone monooxygenase) and dye degradation (Arylsulfatase). Enhancing the cultivability of deep-sea microbes predicted from the uncultured WGS approaches by I-tip method resulted in isolation of facultative extremophiles. This study presents a comprehensive insight into the taxonomic and functional profiles of Arabian Sea sediments, indicating a potential hotspot for bioprospection.
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10
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Messersmith RE, Sage FC, Johnson JK, Langevin SA, Forsyth ER, Hart MT, Hoffman CM. Iron Sequestration by Galloyl-Silane Nano Coatings Inhibits Biofilm Formation of Sulfitobacter sp. Biomimetics (Basel) 2023; 8:biomimetics8010079. [PMID: 36810410 PMCID: PMC9944052 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics8010079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Microbially-induced corrosion is the acceleration of corrosion induced by bacterial biofilms. The bacteria in the biofilms oxidize metals on the surface, especially evident with iron, to drive metabolic activity and reduce inorganic species such as nitrates and sulfates. Coatings that prevent the formation of these corrosion-inducing biofilms significantly increase the service life of submerged materials and significantly decrease maintenance costs. One species in particular, a member of the Roseobacter clade, Sulfitobacter sp., has demonstrated iron-dependent biofilm formation in marine environments. We have found that compounds that contain the galloyl moiety can prevent Sulfitobacter sp. biofilm formation by sequestering iron, thus making a surface unappealing for bacteria. Herein, we have fabricated surfaces with exposed galloyl groups to test the effectiveness of nutrient reduction in iron-rich media as a non-toxic method to reduce biofilm formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reid E. Messersmith
- Research and Exploratory Development Department, The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, 11100 Johns Hopkins Road, Laurel, MD 20723, USA
| | - F. Connor Sage
- Asymmetric Operations Sector, The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, 11100 Johns Hopkins Road, Laurel, MD 20723, USA
| | - James K. Johnson
- Asymmetric Operations Sector, The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, 11100 Johns Hopkins Road, Laurel, MD 20723, USA
| | - Spencer A. Langevin
- Research and Exploratory Development Department, The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, 11100 Johns Hopkins Road, Laurel, MD 20723, USA
| | - Ellen R. Forsyth
- Asymmetric Operations Sector, The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, 11100 Johns Hopkins Road, Laurel, MD 20723, USA
| | - Meaghan T. Hart
- Research and Exploratory Development Department, The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, 11100 Johns Hopkins Road, Laurel, MD 20723, USA
| | - Christopher M. Hoffman
- Research and Exploratory Development Department, The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, 11100 Johns Hopkins Road, Laurel, MD 20723, USA
- Correspondence:
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11
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Le Han H, Jiang L, Thu Tran TN, Muhammad N, Kim SG, Tran Pham VP, Ng YJ, Khoo KS, Chew KW, Phuong Nguyen TD. Whole-genome analysis and secondary metabolites production of a new strain Brevibacillus halotolerans 7WMA2: A potential biocontrol agent against fungal pathogens. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 307:136004. [PMID: 35970213 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Revised: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The extensive usage of synthetic fungicides against fungal diseases has caused adverse impacts on both human and agricultural crops. Therefore, the current study aims to establish a new bacterium 7WMA2, as a biocontrol agent to achieve better antifungal results. The strain 7WMA2 was isolated from marine sediment, displayed a broad spectrum of several fungi that includes Alternaria alternata, Cladosporium sp., Candida albicans, Fusarium oxysporum, Trichosporon pullulans, and Trichophyton rubrum. The 16S rRNA phylogeny inferred that strain 7WMA2 was a member of Brevibacillus. The phylogenetic and biochemical analyses revealed that the strain 7WMA2 belongs to the species of Brevibacillus halotolerans. The complete genome sequence of Brevibacillus halotolerans 7WMA2 consists of a circular chromosome of 5,351,077 bp length with a GC content of 41.39 mol %, including 4433 CDS, 111 tRNA genes, and 36 rRNA genes. The genomic analysis showed 23 putative biosynthetic secondary metabolite gene clusters responsible for non-ribosomal peptides, polyketides and siderophores. The antifungal compounds concentrated from cell-free fermentation broth demonstrated strong inhibition of fungi, and the compounds are considerably thermal stable and adaptable to pH range 2-12. This complete genome sequence has provided insight for further exploration of antagonistic ability and its secondary metabolite compounds indicated feasibility as biological control agents against fungal infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ho Le Han
- Biological Resource Center/Korean Collection for Type Cultures (KCTC), Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Jeongeup, 56212, Republic of Korea; Scientific Management Department, Dong A University, Da Nang City, Viet Nam
| | - Lingmin Jiang
- Biological Resource Center/Korean Collection for Type Cultures (KCTC), Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Jeongeup, 56212, Republic of Korea
| | - Thi Ngoc Thu Tran
- The University of Danang, University of Technology and Education, Danang City 550000, Viet Nam
| | - Neak Muhammad
- Biological Resource Center/Korean Collection for Type Cultures (KCTC), Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Jeongeup, 56212, Republic of Korea; University of Science and Technology (UST), Daejeon, 34113, Republic of Korea
| | - Song-Gun Kim
- Biological Resource Center/Korean Collection for Type Cultures (KCTC), Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Jeongeup, 56212, Republic of Korea; University of Science and Technology (UST), Daejeon, 34113, Republic of Korea.
| | | | - Yan Jer Ng
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Jalan Broga, 43500, Semenyih, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
| | - Kuan Shiong Khoo
- Faculty of Applied Sciences, UCSI University, UCSI Heights, 56000 Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Kit Wayne Chew
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University Malaysia, Jalan Sunsuria, Bandar Sunsuria, 43900, Sepang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.
| | - Thi Dong Phuong Nguyen
- The University of Danang, University of Technology and Education, Danang City 550000, Viet Nam.
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12
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Production and Potential Genetic Pathways of Three Different Siderophore Types in Streptomyces tricolor Strain HM10. FERMENTATION 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/fermentation8080346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Siderophores are iron-chelating low-molecular-weight compounds that bind iron (Fe3+) with a high affinity for transport into the cell. The newly isolated strain Streptomyces tricolor HM10 secretes a pattern of secondary metabolites. Siderophore molecules are the representatives of such secondary metabolites. S. tricolor HM10 produces catechol, hydroxamate, and carboxylate types of siderophores. Under 20 μM FeCl3 conditions, S. tricolor HM10 produced up to 6.00 µg/mL of catechol siderophore equivalent of 2,3-DHBA (2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid) after 4 days from incubation. In silico analysis of the S. tricolor HM10 genome revealed three proposed pathways for siderophore biosynthesis. The first pathway, consisting of five genes, predicted the production of catechol-type siderophore similar to petrobactin from Bacillus anthracis str. Ames. The second proposed pathway, consisting of eight genes, is expected to produce a hydroxamate-type siderophore similar to desferrioxamine B/E from Streptomyces sp. ID38640, S. griseus NBRC 13350, and/or S. coelicolor A3(2). The third pathway exhibited a pattern identical to the carboxylate xanthoferrin siderophore from Xanthomonas oryzae. Thus, Streptomyces strain HM10 could produce three different types of siderophore, which could be an incentive to use it as a new source for siderophore production in plant growth-promoting, environmental bioremediation, and drug delivery strategy.
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13
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Chen J, Zhang H, Wang S, Du Y, Wei B, Wu Q, Wang H. Inhibitors of Bacterial Extracellular Vesicles. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:835058. [PMID: 35283837 PMCID: PMC8905621 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.835058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria can secrete extracellular vesicles (EVs), which contain numerous active substances. EVs mediate bacterial interactions with their hosts or other microbes. Bacterial EVs play a double-edged role in infections through various mechanisms, including the delivery of virulence factors, modulating immune responses, mediating antibiotic resistance, and inhibiting competitive microbes. The spread of antibiotic resistance continues to represent a difficult clinical challenge. Therefore, the investigation of novel therapeutics is a valuable research endeavor for targeting antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections. As a pathogenic substance of bacteria, bacterial EVs have gained increased attention. Thus, EV inhibitors are expected to function as novel antimicrobial agents. The inhibition of EV production, EV activity, and EV-stimulated inflammation are considered potential pathways. This review primarily introduces compounds that effectively inhibit bacterial EVs and evaluates the prospects of their application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianwei Chen
- College of Pharmaceutical Science and Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China.,State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicines, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau SAR, China
| | - Hongfang Zhang
- College of Pharmaceutical Science and Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China
| | - Siqi Wang
- College of Pharmaceutical Science and Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yujie Du
- College of Pharmaceutical Science and Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China
| | - Bin Wei
- College of Pharmaceutical Science and Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qiang Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicines, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau SAR, China
| | - Hong Wang
- College of Pharmaceutical Science and Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Marine Fishery Resources Exploitment and Utilization of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China
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14
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Iqbal S, Vohra MS, Janjua HA. Whole-genome sequence and broad-spectrum antibacterial activity of Chryseobacterium cucumeris strain MW-6 isolated from the Arabian Sea. 3 Biotech 2021; 11:489. [PMID: 34790513 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-021-03039-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
In the current study, Chryseobacterium cucumeris strain MW-6 isolated from Arabian seawater exhibited broad-spectrum antibacterial activity against indicator bacterial pathogens. The partially extracted antibacterial metabolites with ethyl acetate revealed promising activity against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhimurium, Listeria monocytogenes, and Staphylococcus aureus. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were determined against indicator strains that ranged from 65-90 µg/ml. The genome size of C. cucumeris MW-6 is 4.81 Mbs containing 4227 coding DNA sequences, 74 tRNAs, 3 rRNAs, and 3 ncRNAs genes with 36.90% GC contents. The genome harbors nine putative biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) involved in the biosynthesis of lanthipeptide, NRPS-like, RiPPs-like, terpene, microviridin, T1PKS (hg1E-KS), resorcinol, and siderophore. Additionally, the strain encodes genes for sodium/proton antiporter, glutathione, superoxide dismutase, and cold shock protein to survive under stress conditions such as osmotic, oxidative, and cold shock. These putative BGCs and stress-related genes can be associated with in-vitro antibacterial activities and adaptation of this strain to the marine environment. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-021-03039-5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sajid Iqbal
- Department of Industrial Biotechnology, Atta-ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences (ASAB), National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, H-12 Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Sufyan Vohra
- Department of Industrial Biotechnology, Atta-ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences (ASAB), National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, H-12 Pakistan
| | - Hussnain Ahmed Janjua
- Department of Industrial Biotechnology, Atta-ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences (ASAB), National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, H-12 Pakistan
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15
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Shen Q, Dai G, Ravichandran V, Liu Y, Zhong L, Sui H, Ren X, Jiao N, Zhang Y, Zhou H, Bian X. Saccharochelins A-H, Cytotoxic Amphiphilic Siderophores from the Rare Marine Actinomycete Saccharothrix sp. D09. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2021; 84:2149-2156. [PMID: 34323485 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.1c00155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Siderophores are secreted by microorganisms to survive in iron-depleted conditions, and they also possess tremendous therapeutic potential. Genomic-inspired isolation facilitated the identification of eight amphiphilic siderophores, saccharochelins A-H (1-8), from a rare marine-derived Saccharothrix species. Saccharochelins feature a series of fatty acyl groups appended to the same tetrapeptide skeleton. With the help of gene disruption and heterologous expression, we identified the saccharochelin biosynthetic pathway. The diversity of saccharochelins originates from the flexible specificity of the starter condensation (CS) domain at the beginning of the nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) toward various fatty acyl substrates. Saccharochelins showed cytotoxicity against several human tumor cell lines, with IC50 values ranging from 2.3 to 17 μM. Additionally, the fatty acid side chains of the saccharochelins remarkably affected the cytotoxicity, suggesting changing the N-terminal acyl groups of lipopeptides may be a promising approach to produce more potent derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiyao Shen
- Helmholtz International Lab for Anti-infectives, Shandong University-Helmholtz Institute of Biotechnology, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
- Institute of Marine Science and Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Guangzhi Dai
- Helmholtz International Lab for Anti-infectives, Shandong University-Helmholtz Institute of Biotechnology, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Vinothkannan Ravichandran
- Helmholtz International Lab for Anti-infectives, Shandong University-Helmholtz Institute of Biotechnology, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Yang Liu
- Helmholtz International Lab for Anti-infectives, Shandong University-Helmholtz Institute of Biotechnology, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Lin Zhong
- Helmholtz International Lab for Anti-infectives, Shandong University-Helmholtz Institute of Biotechnology, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Haiyan Sui
- Core Facilities for Life and Environmental Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Xiangmei Ren
- Core Facilities for Life and Environmental Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Nianzhi Jiao
- Institute of Marine Science and Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Youming Zhang
- Helmholtz International Lab for Anti-infectives, Shandong University-Helmholtz Institute of Biotechnology, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Haibo Zhou
- Helmholtz International Lab for Anti-infectives, Shandong University-Helmholtz Institute of Biotechnology, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Xiaoying Bian
- Helmholtz International Lab for Anti-infectives, Shandong University-Helmholtz Institute of Biotechnology, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
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16
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Krachler R, Krachler RF. Northern High-Latitude Organic Soils As a Vital Source of River-Borne Dissolved Iron to the Ocean. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:9672-9690. [PMID: 34251212 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c01439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Organic soils in the Arctic-boreal region produce small aquatic humic ligands (SAHLs), a category of naturally occurring complexing agents for iron. Every year, large amounts of SAHLs-loaded with iron mobilized in river basins-reach the oceans via river runoff. Recent studies have shown that a fraction of SAHLs belong to the group of strong iron-binding ligands in the ocean. That means, their Fe(III) complexes withstand dissociation even under the conditions of extremely high dilution in the open ocean. Fe(III)-loaded SAHLs are prone to UV-photoinduced ligand-to-metal charge-transfer which leads to disintegration of the complex and, as a consequence, to enhanced concentrations of bioavailable dissolved Fe(II) in sunlit upper water layers. On the other hand, in water depths below the penetration depth of UV, the Fe(III)-loaded SAHLs are fairly resistant to degradation which makes them ideally suited as long-lived molecular transport vehicles for river-derived iron in ocean currents. At locations where SAHLs are present in excess, they can bind to iron originating from various sources. For example, SAHLs were proposed to contribute substantially to the stabilization of hydrothermal iron in deep North Atlantic waters. Recent discoveries have shown that SAHLs, supplied by the Arctic Great Rivers, greatly improve dissolved iron concentrations in the Arctic Ocean and the North Atlantic Ocean. In these regions, SAHLs play a critical role in relieving iron limitation of phytoplankton, thereby supporting the oceanic sink for anthropogenic CO2. The present Critical Review describes the most recent findings and highlights future research directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regina Krachler
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria; http://anorg-chemie.univie.ac.at
| | - Rudolf F Krachler
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria; http://anorg-chemie.univie.ac.at
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17
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Hawula ZJ, Davis RA, Wallace DF, Rishi G, Subramaniam VN. In vitro identification and characterisation of iron chelating catechol-containing natural products and derivatives. Biometals 2021; 34:855-866. [PMID: 33913062 DOI: 10.1007/s10534-021-00312-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Iron is an essential component for multiple biological processes. Its regulation within the body is thus tightly controlled. Dysregulation of iron levels within the body can result in several disorders associated with either excess iron accumulation, including haemochromatosis and thalassaemia, or iron deficiency. In cases of excess body iron, therapy involves depleting body iron levels either by venesection, typically for haemochromatosis, or using iron chelators for thalassemia. However, the current chelation options for people with iron overload are limited, with only three iron chelators approved for clinical use. This presents an opportunity for improved therapeutics to be identified and developed. The aim of this study was to examine multiple compounds from within the Davis open access natural product-based library (512 compounds) for their ability to chelate iron. In silico analysis of this library initially identified nine catechol-containing compounds and two closely related compounds. These compounds were subsequently screened using an in vitro DNA breakage assay and their ability to chelate biological iron was also examined in an iron-loaded hepatocyte cellular assay. Toxicity was assessed in hepatocyte and breast cancer cell lines. One compound, RAD362 [N-(3-aminopropyl)-3,4-dihydroxybenzamide] was able to protect against DNA damage, likely through the prevention of free radicals generated via the Fenton reaction; RAD362 treatment resulted in decreased ferritin protein levels in iron-loaded hepatocytes. Lastly, RAD362 resulted in significantly less cell death than the commonly used iron chelator deferoxamine. This is the first study to identify compound RAD362 as an iron chelator and potential therapeutic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary J Hawula
- Faculty of Health, School of Biomedical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 60 Musk Avenue, Kelvin Grove, Brisbane, QLD, 4059, Australia
| | - Rohan A Davis
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Environment and Science, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Daniel F Wallace
- Faculty of Health, School of Biomedical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 60 Musk Avenue, Kelvin Grove, Brisbane, QLD, 4059, Australia
| | - Gautam Rishi
- Faculty of Health, School of Biomedical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 60 Musk Avenue, Kelvin Grove, Brisbane, QLD, 4059, Australia.
| | - V Nathan Subramaniam
- Faculty of Health, School of Biomedical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 60 Musk Avenue, Kelvin Grove, Brisbane, QLD, 4059, Australia.
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18
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Butler A, Harder T, Ostrowski AD, Carrano CJ. Photoactive siderophores: Structure, function and biology. J Inorg Biochem 2021; 221:111457. [PMID: 34010741 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2021.111457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Revised: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 04/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
It is well known that bacteria and fungi have evolved sophisticated systems for acquiring the abundant but biologically inaccessible trace element iron. These systems are based on high affinity Fe(III)-specific binding compounds called siderophores which function to acquire, transport, and process this essential metal ion. Many hundreds of siderophores are now known and their numbers continue to grow. Extensive studies of their isolation, structure, transport, and molecular genetics have been undertaken in the last three decades and have been comprehensively reviewed many times. In this review we focus on a unique subset of siderophores that has only been recognized in the last 20 years, namely those whose iron complexes display photoactivity. This photoactivity, which typically results in the photooxidation of the siderophore ligand with concomitant reduction of Fe(III) to Fe(II), seemingly upsets the siderophore paradigm of forming and transporting only extremely stable Fe(III) complexes into microbial cells. Here we review their structure, synthesis, photochemistry, photoproduct coordination chemistry and explore the potential biological and ecological consequences of this photoactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison Butler
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106 United States
| | - Tilmann Harder
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, University of Bremen, and Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Germany
| | | | - Carl J Carrano
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, San Diego State University, United States.
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19
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Cleto S, Haslinger K, Prather KLJ, Lu TK. Natural combinatorial genetics and prolific polyamine production enable siderophore diversification in Serratia plymuthica. BMC Biol 2021; 19:46. [PMID: 33722216 PMCID: PMC7962358 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-021-00971-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Iron is essential for bacterial survival. Bacterial siderophores are small molecules with unmatched capacity to scavenge iron from proteins and the extracellular milieu, where it mostly occurs as insoluble Fe3+. Siderophores chelate Fe3+ for uptake into the cell, where it is reduced to soluble Fe2+. Siderophores are key molecules in low soluble iron conditions. The ability of bacteria to synthesize proprietary siderophores may have increased bacterial evolutionary fitness; one way that bacteria diversify siderophore structure is by incorporating different polyamine backbones while maintaining the catechol moieties. RESULTS We report that Serratia plymuthica V4 produces a variety of siderophores, which we term the siderome, and which are assembled by the concerted action of enzymes encoded in two independent gene clusters. Besides assembling serratiochelin A and B with diaminopropane, S. plymuthica utilizes putrescine and the same set of enzymes to assemble photobactin, a siderophore found in the bacterium Photorhabdus luminescens. The enzymes encoded by one of the gene clusters can independently assemble enterobactin. A third, independent operon is responsible for biosynthesis of the hydroxamate siderophore aerobactin, initially described in Enterobacter aerogenes. Mutant strains not synthesizing polyamine-siderophores significantly increased enterobactin production levels, though lack of enterobactin did not impact the production of serratiochelins. Knocking out SchF0, an enzyme involved in the assembly of enterobactin alone, significantly reduced bacterial fitness. CONCLUSIONS This study shows the natural occurrence of serratiochelins, photobactin, enterobactin, and aerobactin in a single bacterial species and illuminates the interplay between siderophore biosynthetic pathways and polyamine production, indicating routes of molecular diversification. Given its natural yields of diaminopropane (97.75 μmol/g DW) and putrescine (30.83 μmol/g DW), S. plymuthica can be exploited for the industrial production of these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Cleto
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Synthetic Biology Center, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Kristina Haslinger
- Synthetic Biology Center, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Biology, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Kristala L J Prather
- Synthetic Biology Center, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Timothy K Lu
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- Synthetic Biology Center, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
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20
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Wu Q, Throckmorton K, Maity M, Chevrette MG, Braun DR, Rajski SR, Currie CR, Thomas MG, Bugni TS. Bacillibactins E and F from a Marine Sponge-Associated Bacillus sp. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2021; 84:136-141. [PMID: 33337146 PMCID: PMC7856188 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.0c01170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Chemical investigation of a marine sponge-associated Bacillus sp. led to the discovery of bacillibactins E and F (1 and 2). Despite containing the well-established cyclic triester core of iron-binding natural products such as enterobactin, bacillibactins E and F (1 and 2) are the first bacterial siderophores that contain nicotinic and benzoic acid moieties. The structures of the new compounds, including their absolute configurations, were determined by extensive spectroscopic analyses and Marfey's method. A plausible biosynthetic pathway to 1 and 2 is proposed; this route bears great similarity to other previously established bacillibactin-like pathways but appears to differentiate itself by a promiscuous DhbE, which likely installs the nicotinic moiety of 1 and the benzoic acid group of 2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qihao Wu
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Division, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53705, United States
| | - Kurt Throckmorton
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - Mitasree Maity
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Division, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53705, United States
| | - Marc G Chevrette
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
- Laboratory of Genetics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
- Department of Plant Pathology, Wisconsin Institutes for Discovery, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53715, United States
| | - Doug R Braun
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Division, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53705, United States
| | - Scott R Rajski
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Division, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53705, United States
| | - Cameron R Currie
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - Michael G Thomas
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - Tim S Bugni
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Division, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53705, United States
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21
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Carroll AR, Copp BR, Davis RA, Keyzers RA, Prinsep MR. Marine natural products. Nat Prod Rep 2021; 38:362-413. [PMID: 33570537 DOI: 10.1039/d0np00089b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 66.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
This review covers the literature published in 2019 for marine natural products (MNPs), with 719 citations (701 for the period January to December 2019) referring to compounds isolated from marine microorganisms and phytoplankton, green, brown and red algae, sponges, cnidarians, bryozoans, molluscs, tunicates, echinoderms, mangroves and other intertidal plants and microorganisms. The emphasis is on new compounds (1490 in 440 papers for 2019), together with the relevant biological activities, source organisms and country of origin. Pertinent reviews, biosynthetic studies, first syntheses, and syntheses that led to the revision of structures or stereochemistries, have been included. Methods used to study marine fungi and their chemical diversity have also been discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony R Carroll
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia. and Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Brent R Copp
- School of Chemical Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Rohan A Davis
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia and School of Enivironment and Science, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Robert A Keyzers
- Centre for Biodiscovery, School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Michèle R Prinsep
- Chemistry, School of Science, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand
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22
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Sutak R, Camadro JM, Lesuisse E. Iron Uptake Mechanisms in Marine Phytoplankton. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:566691. [PMID: 33250865 PMCID: PMC7676907 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.566691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Oceanic phytoplankton species have highly efficient mechanisms of iron acquisition, as they can take up iron from environments in which it is present at subnanomolar concentrations. In eukaryotes, three main models were proposed for iron transport into the cells by first studying the kinetics of iron uptake in different algal species and then, more recently, by using modern biological techniques on the model diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum. In the first model, the rate of uptake is dependent on the concentration of unchelated Fe species, and is thus limited thermodynamically. Iron is transported by endocytosis after carbonate-dependent binding of Fe(III)' (inorganic soluble ferric species) to phytotransferrin at the cell surface. In this strategy the cells are able to take up iron from very low iron concentration. In an alternative model, kinetically limited for iron acquisition, the extracellular reduction of all iron species (including Fe') is a prerequisite for iron acquisition. This strategy allows the cells to take up iron from a great variety of ferric species. In a third model, hydroxamate siderophores can be transported by endocytosis (dependent on ISIP1) after binding to the FBP1 protein, and iron is released from the siderophores by FRE2-dependent reduction. In prokaryotes, one mechanism of iron uptake is based on the use of siderophores excreted by the cells. Iron-loaded siderophores are transported across the cell outer membrane via a TonB-dependent transporter (TBDT), and are then transported into the cells by an ABC transporter. Open ocean cyanobacteria do not excrete siderophores but can probably use siderophores produced by other organisms. In an alternative model, inorganic ferric species are transported through the outer membrane by TBDT or by porins, and are taken up by the ABC transporter system FutABC. Alternatively, ferric iron of the periplasmic space can be reduced by the alternative respiratory terminal oxidase (ARTO) and the ferrous ions can be transported by divalent metal transporters (FeoB or ZIP). After reoxidation, iron can be taken up by the high-affinity permease Ftr1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Sutak
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, BIOCEV, Vestec, Czechia
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The Structural Diversity of Marine Microbial Secondary Metabolites Based on Co-Culture Strategy: 2009-2019. Mar Drugs 2020; 18:md18090449. [PMID: 32867339 PMCID: PMC7551240 DOI: 10.3390/md18090449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Revised: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Marine microorganisms have drawn great attention as novel bioactive natural product sources, particularly in the drug discovery area. Using different strategies, marine microbes have the ability to produce a wide variety of molecules. One of these strategies is the co-culturing of marine microbes; if two or more microorganisms are aseptically cultured together in a solid or liquid medium in a certain environment, their competition or synergetic relationship can activate the silent biosynthetic genes to produce cryptic natural products which do not exist in monocultures of the partner microbes. In recent years, the co-cultivation strategy of marine microbes has made more novel natural products with various biological activities. This review focuses on the significant and excellent examples covering sources, types, structures and bioactivities of secondary metabolites based on co-cultures of marine-derived microorganisms from 2009 to 2019. A detailed discussion on future prospects and current challenges in the field of co-culture is also provided on behalf of the authors’ own views of development tendencies.
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Thomas CS, Braun DR, Olmos JL, Rajski SR, Phillips GN, Andes D, Bugni TS. Pyridine-2,6-Dithiocarboxylic Acid and Its Metal Complexes: New Inhibitors of New Delhi Metallo -Lactamase-1. Mar Drugs 2020; 18:md18060295. [PMID: 32498259 PMCID: PMC7374359 DOI: 10.3390/md18060295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Revised: 05/22/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae continue to threaten human health worldwide with few effective treatment options. New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase (NDM) enzymes are a contributing element that drive resistance to many β-lactam- and carbapenem-based antimicrobials. Many NDM inhibitors are known, yet none are clinically viable. In this study, we present and characterize a new class of NDM-1 inhibitors based on a pyridine-2,6-dithiocarboxylic acid metal complex scaffold. These complexes display varied and unique activity profiles against NDM-1 in kinetic assays and serve to increase the effectiveness of meropenem, an established antibacterial, in assays using clinical Enterobacteriaceae isolates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris S. Thomas
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Division, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA; (C.S.T.); (D.R.B.); (S.R.R.)
| | - Doug R. Braun
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Division, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA; (C.S.T.); (D.R.B.); (S.R.R.)
| | - Jose Luis Olmos
- Department of Biosciences, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA; (J.L.O.J.); (G.N.P.J.)
| | - Scott R. Rajski
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Division, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA; (C.S.T.); (D.R.B.); (S.R.R.)
| | - George N. Phillips
- Department of Biosciences, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA; (J.L.O.J.); (G.N.P.J.)
- Department of Chemistry, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - David Andes
- Department of Medicine, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA;
| | - Tim S. Bugni
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Division, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA; (C.S.T.); (D.R.B.); (S.R.R.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-608-263-2519
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Aguila-Torres P, Maldonado J, Gaete A, Figueroa J, González A, Miranda R, González-Stegmaier R, Martin C, González M. Biochemical and Genomic Characterization of the Cypermethrin-Degrading and Biosurfactant-Producing Bacterial Strains Isolated from Marine Sediments of the Chilean Northern Patagonia. Mar Drugs 2020; 18:md18050252. [PMID: 32414006 PMCID: PMC7281626 DOI: 10.3390/md18050252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Revised: 05/09/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Pesticides cause severe environmental damage to marine ecosystems. In the last ten years, cypermethrin has been extensively used as an antiparasitic pesticide in the salmon farming industry located in Northern Patagonia. The objective of this study was the biochemical and genomic characterization of cypermethrin-degrading and biosurfactant-producing bacterial strains isolated from cypermethrin-contaminated marine sediment samples collected in southern Chile (MS). Eleven strains were isolated by cypermethrin enrichment culture techniques and were identified by 16S rDNA gene sequencing analyses. The highest growth rate on cypermethrin was observed in four isolates (MS13, MS15a, MS16, and MS19) that also exhibited high levels of biosurfactant production. Genome sequence analyses of these isolates revealed the presence of genes encoding components of bacterial secondary metabolism, and the enzymes esterase, pyrethroid hydrolase, and laccase, which have been associated with different biodegradation pathways of cypermethrin. These novel cypermethrin-degrading and biosurfactant-producing bacterial isolates have a biotechnological potential for biodegradation of cypermethrin-contaminated marine sediments, and their genomes contribute to the understanding of microbial lifestyles in these extreme environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Aguila-Torres
- Laboratorio de Microbiología Molecular, Escuela de Tecnología Médica, Universidad Austral de Chile, Puerto Montt 5504335, Chile;
- Correspondence: (P.A.-T.); (M.G.); Tel.: +56-65-2277118 (P.A.-T.); +56-2-29781440 (M.G.)
| | - Jonathan Maldonado
- Laboratorio de Bioinformática y Expresión Génica, Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimentos, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 7810000, Chile; (J.M.); (A.G.)
- Center for Genome Regulation, Santiago 7810000, Chile
- Laboratorio de Biología de Sistemas de Plantas, Departamento Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8331150, Chile
| | - Alexis Gaete
- Laboratorio de Bioinformática y Expresión Génica, Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimentos, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 7810000, Chile; (J.M.); (A.G.)
- Center for Genome Regulation, Santiago 7810000, Chile
| | - Jaime Figueroa
- Instituto de Bioquímica y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia 5090000, Chile; (J.F.); (R.G.-S.)
| | - Alex González
- Laboratorio de Microbiología Ambiental y extremófilos, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas y Biodiversidad, Universidad de los Lagos, Osorno 5290000, Chile;
| | - Richard Miranda
- Escuela de Ingeniería Civil Industrial, Universidad Austral de Chile, Puerto Montt 5500000, Chile;
| | - Roxana González-Stegmaier
- Instituto de Bioquímica y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia 5090000, Chile; (J.F.); (R.G.-S.)
- Laboratorio Medicina Traslacional, Instituto Clínico Oncológico, Fundación Arturo López Pérez, Santiago 8320000, Chile
| | - Carolina Martin
- Laboratorio de Microbiología Molecular, Escuela de Tecnología Médica, Universidad Austral de Chile, Puerto Montt 5504335, Chile;
| | - Mauricio González
- Laboratorio de Bioinformática y Expresión Génica, Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimentos, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 7810000, Chile; (J.M.); (A.G.)
- Center for Genome Regulation, Santiago 7810000, Chile
- Correspondence: (P.A.-T.); (M.G.); Tel.: +56-65-2277118 (P.A.-T.); +56-2-29781440 (M.G.)
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Perlatti B, Lan N, Jiang Y, An Z, Bills G. Identification of Secondary Metabolites from Aspergillus pachycristatus by Untargeted UPLC-ESI-HRMS/MS and Genome Mining. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25040913. [PMID: 32085602 PMCID: PMC7071103 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25040913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Aspergillus pachycristatus is an industrially important fungus for the production of the antifungal echinocandin B and is closely related to model organism A. nidulans. Its secondary metabolism is largely unknown except for the production of echinocandin B and sterigmatocystin. We constructed mutants for three genes that regulate secondary metabolism in A. pachycristatus NRRL 11440, and evaluated the secondary metabolites produced by wild type and mutants strains. The secondary metabolism was explored by metabolic networking of UPLC-HRMS/MS data. The genes and metabolites of A. pachycristatus were compared to those of A.nidulans FGSC A4 as a reference to identify compounds and link them to their encoding genes. Major differences in chromatographic profiles were observable among the mutants. At least 28 molecules were identified in crude extracts that corresponded to nine characterized gene clusters. Moreover, metabolic networking revealed the presence of a yet unexplored array of secondary metabolites, including several undescribed fellutamides derivatives. Comparative reference to its sister species, A. nidulans, was an efficient way to dereplicate known compounds, whereas metabolic networking provided information that allowed prioritization of unknown compounds for further metabolic exploration. The mutation of global regulator genes proved to be a useful tool for expanding the expression of metabolic diversity in A. pachycristatus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Perlatti
- Texas Therapeutic Institute, The Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77054, USA; (N.L.); (Z.A.); (G.B.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Nan Lan
- Texas Therapeutic Institute, The Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77054, USA; (N.L.); (Z.A.); (G.B.)
| | - Yongying Jiang
- Institute for Applied Cancer Science, M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77054, USA;
| | - Zhiqiang An
- Texas Therapeutic Institute, The Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77054, USA; (N.L.); (Z.A.); (G.B.)
| | - Gerald Bills
- Texas Therapeutic Institute, The Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77054, USA; (N.L.); (Z.A.); (G.B.)
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