Effects of ginsenoside Rg1 on the expression of toll-like receptor 3, 4 and their signalling transduction factors in the NG108-15 murine neuroglial cell line

Mechanisms with network pharmacology approach of Ginsenosides in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by memory loss, cognitive disorder, language dysfunction, and mental disability. The main neuropathological changes in AD mainly include amyloid plaque deposition, neurofibrillary tangles, synapse loss, and neuron reduction. However, the current anti-AD drugs do not demonstrate a favorable effect in altering the pathological course of AD. Moreover, long-term use of these drugs is usually accompanied with various side effects. Ginsenosides are the major active constituents of ginseng and have protective effects on AD through various mechanisms in both in vivo and in vitro studies. In this review, we focused on discussing the therapeutic potential effects and the mechanisms of pharmacological activities of ginsenosides in AD, to provide new insight for further research and clinical application of ginsenosides in the future. Recent studies on the pharmacological effects and mechanisms of ginsenosides were retrieved from Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure, National Science and Technology Library, Wanfang Data, Elsevier, ScienceDirect, PubMed, SpringerLink, and the Web of Science database up to April 2023 using relevant keywords. Network pharmacology and bioinformatics analysis were used to predict the therapeutic effects and mechanisms of ginsenosides against AD. Ginsenosides presented a wide range of therapeutic and biological activities, including alleviating Aβ deposition, decreasing tau hyperphosphorylation, regulating the cholinergic system, resisting oxidative stress, modulating Ca2+ homeostasis, as well as anti-inflammation and anti-apoptosis in neurons, respectively. For further developing the therapeutic potential as well as clinical applications, the network pharmacology approach was combined with a summary of published studies.

Recent advances in anti-inflammatory active components and action mechanisms of natural medicines

Inflammation is a series of reactions caused by the body's resistance to external biological stimuli. Inflammation affects the occurrence and development of many diseases. Anti-inflammatory drugs have been used widely to treat inflammatory diseases, but long-term use can cause toxic side-effects and affect human functions. As immunomodulators with long-term conditioning effects and no drug residues, natural products are being investigated increasingly for the treatment of inflammatory diseases. In this review, we focus on the inflammatory process and cellular mechanisms in the development of diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease, atherosclerosis, and coronavirus disease-2019. Also, we focus on three signaling pathways (Nuclear factor-kappa B, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription-3) to explain the anti-inflammatory effect of natural products. In addition, we also classified common natural products based on secondary metabolites and explained the association between current bidirectional prediction progress of natural product targets and inflammatory diseases.

Ginsenoside Rb1 protects hippocampal neurons in depressed rats based on mitophagy-regulated astrocytic pyroptosis

BACKGROUND

Astrocytes play a vital role in offering functional support for neurons, which are related to the pathogenic mechanism of depression. Ginsenoside Rb1 (GRb1) is demonstrated with antidepressant-like activities.

PURPOSE

We aimed to investigate whether GRb1 can inhibit mitophagy-mediated astrocytic pyroptosis to protect neurons in depression.

STUDY DESIGN

Model rats were subjected to chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) for determining the in vivo antidepressant activity of GRb1.

METHODS

The mitophagy-mediated antipyroptosis role of GRb1 was assessed in lipopolysaccharide (LPS) + ATP-stimulated astrocytes. The mechanism by which GRb1 protects synaptic plasticity was investigated using hippocampal neurons incubated in an astrocyte medium. The rat depressive-like behaviors were determined through sucrose preference, forced swimming, and the open-field tests. Escitalopram was used in the anti-depression control of GRb1. Cyclosporin A (CsA), a mitophagy inhibitor, and interleukin (IL)-1β were used to reverse the role of GRb1 in mitophagy and pyroptosis, respectively.

RESULTS

GRb1 inhibited LPS-induced inflammation and activation in the astrocytes and repressed nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) pathway. Also, GRb1 repressed LPS + ATP-promoted astrocytic pyroptosis. During GRb1 treatment, the activation of mitophagy with a decrease in ROS was observed in LPS + ATPs-stimulated astrocytes. CsA enhanced GRb1-decreased ROS and promoted astrocytic pyroptosis. The GRb1-treated astrocyte medium suppressed neuron death and increased neuron viability and synaptic density. Escitalopram and GRb1 improved the depressive-like behaviors of the rats. GRb1 activated mitophagy and inhibited astrocytic activation and pyroptosis in rats with depression. It also reduced impairments in synaptic structures and increased synaptic density in depressive-like rats. IL-1β increased astrocytic pyroptosis and reversed GRb1-enhanced synaptic plasticity in the rats exposed to CUMS. There were no statistical changes in depressive-like behaviors between GRb1 and Escitalopram groups.

CONCLUSION

GRb1 modulates mitophagy and the NF-κB pathway to inhibit astrocytic pyroptosis, thereby maintaining neurological homeostasis by repressing inflammation and enhancing synaptic plasticity.

Decoding the role of gut microbiota in Alzheimer's pathogenesis and envisioning future therapeutic avenues

Alzheimer's disease (AD) emerges as a perturbing neurodegenerative malady, with a profound comprehension of its underlying pathogenic mechanisms continuing to evade our intellectual grasp. Within the intricate tapestry of human health and affliction, the enteric microbial consortium, ensconced within the milieu of the human gastrointestinal tract, assumes a role of cardinal significance. Recent epochs have borne witness to investigations that posit marked divergences in the composition of the gut microbiota between individuals grappling with AD and those favored by robust health. The composite vicissitudes in the configuration of the enteric microbial assembly are posited to choreograph a participatory role in the inception and progression of AD, facilitated by the intricate conduit acknowledged as the gut-brain axis. Notwithstanding, the precise nature of this interlaced relationship remains enshrouded within the recesses of obscurity, poised for an exhaustive revelation. This review embarks upon the endeavor to focalize meticulously upon the mechanistic sway exerted by the enteric microbiota upon AD, plunging profoundly into the execution of interventions that govern the milieu of enteric microorganisms. In doing so, it bestows relevance upon the therapeutic stratagems that form the bedrock of AD's management, all whilst casting a prospective gaze into the horizon of medical advancements.

Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of ginsenoside Rg1 for hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes mellitus: systematic reviews and meta-analyses of animal studies

Background: According to existing laboratory data, ginsenoside Rg1 may help cure diabetes and its complications by reducing oxidative stress (OS) and managing inflammation. However, this conclusion lacks reliability and is unclear. As a result, the purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to evaluate the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of ginsenoside Rg1 in the treatment of diabetes and its complications. Methods: We searched for relevant studies published through December 2022, including electronic bibliographic databases such as PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science, CNKI, and Wanfang. The SYstematic Review Center for Laboratory Animal Experimentation Risk of Bias (SYRCLE RoB) tool was used to conduct a meta-analysis to assess the methodological quality of animal research. The meta-analysis was conducted using RevMan5.4 software, following the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. This study is registered in the International Systems Review Prospective Registry (PROSPERO) as CRD42023386830. Results: Eighteen eligible studies involving 401 animals were included. Ginsenoside Rg1 was significantly correlated with blood glucose (BG), insulin levels, body weight, superoxide dismutase (SOD), malondialdehyde (MDA), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels. In addition, according to subgroup analysis, the hypoglycemic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects of ginsenoside Rg1 in type 2 diabetic animals were not affected by experimental species, modeling, experimental drug dosage, or course of treatment. Conclusion: This meta-analysis presents a summary of the hypoglycemic effects of ginsenoside Rg1, which are achieved through anti-inflammatory and antioxidant mechanisms. These findings provide evidence-based support for the medical efficacy of ginsenoside Rg1. Specifically, ginsenoside Rg1 reduced MDA levels and restored SOD activity to exert its antioxidant activity. It had a positive effect on the reduction of IL-6 and TNF-α levels. However, the inclusion of studies with low methodological quality and the presence of publication bias may undermine the validity of the results. Further investigation with a more rigorous experimental design and comprehensive studies is necessary to fully understand the specific glycemic mechanisms of ginsenosides. Systematic Review Registration: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/, identifier https://CRD42023386830.

Ginsenoside Rg1 in neurological diseases: From bench to bedside

Ginseng has been used in China as a superior medicinal material for thousands of years that can nourish the five internal organs, calm the mind and benefit wisdom. Due to its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and neuroprotective activities, one of the active components of ginseng, ginsenoside Rg1, has been extensively investigated in the remedy of brain disorders, especially dementia and depression. In this review, we summarized the research progress on the action mechanisms of Rg1 ameliorating depression-like behaviors, including inhibition of hyperfunction of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, regulation of synaptic plasticity and gut flora. Rg1 may alleviate Alzheimer's disease in the early phase, as well as in the middle-late phases through repairing dendrite, axon and microglia- and astrocyte-related inflammations. We also proposed that Rg1 could regulate memory state (the imbalance of working and aversive memory) caused by distinct stimuli. These laboratory studies would further the clinical trials on Rg1. From the prospective of drug development, we discussed the limitations of the present investigations and proposed our ideas to increase permeability and bioavailability of Rg1. Taken together, Rg1 has the potential to treat neuropsychiatric disorders, but a future in-depth investigation of the mechanisms is still required. In addition, drug development will benefit from the clinical trials in one specific neuropsychiatric disorder.

In vitro evaluation of ginsenoside Rg1 immunostimulating effect in bovine mononuclear cells

The aim of this study was to evaluate the immunomodulatory effect of ginsenoside Rg1 on mammary secretion and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (MSMC and PBMC, respectively). The mRNA expression of TLR2, TLR4 and selected cytokines were evaluated on MSMC after Rg1 treatment. Also, TLR2 and TLR4 protein expression was evaluated on MSMC and PBMC after Rg1 treatment. Phagocytic activity and capacity, ROS production and MHC-II expression were evaluated on MSMC and PBMC after Rg1 treatment and co-culture with Staphylococcus aureus strain 5011. Rg1 induced mRNA expression of TLR2, TLR4, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-8 in groups treated with different concentrations and at different times in MSMC, and induced TLR2 and TLR4 protein expression in MSMC and PBMC. Rg1 increased phagocytic capacity and ROS production in MSMC and PBMC. Rg1 increased MHC-II expression by PBMC. However, Rg1 pre-treatment had no effect on cells co-cultured with S. aureus. In conclusion, Rg1 was able to stimulate several sensing and effector activities in these immune cells.

Anti-Aging of the Nervous System and Related Neurodegenerative Diseases With Chinese Herbal Medicine

Human beings have always pursued a prolonged lifespan, while the aging of the nervous system is associated with a large variety of diseases. Pathological aging of the nervous system results in a series of neurodegenerative diseases and can cause disability and death in the elderly. Therefore, there is an urgent need for the prevention and treatment of nervous system aging. Chinese herbal medicines have a long history, featuring rich and safe ingredients, and have great potential for the development of anti-aging treatment. We searched the publications on PubMed with key words "anti-aging of the nervous system" and "Chinese herbal medicine" in recent 10 years, and found sixteen Chinese herbal medicines. Then by comparing their popularity of use as well as active components based on the research articles, five common Chinese herbal medicines namely Ginseng Radix, Lycii Fructus, Astragali Radix, Coptidis Rhizoma and Ginkgo Folium, were confirmed to be the most related to anti-nervous system aging and neural degenerative diseases. At the same time, the active ingredients, research models, action mechanisms and curative effects of these five common Chinese herbal medicines were reviewed. From the five common Chinese herbal medicines reviewed in this paper, many encouraging effects of Chinese herbal medicines on treating nervous system aging and related diseases were revealed and more potent herbs would be explored with the help of the proposed possible mechanisms.

Biodistribution and pharmacokinetic evaluation of Korean Red Ginseng components using radioisotopes in a rat model

Background

Although many studies have evaluated the efficacy and pharmacokinetics of Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) components (Rg1, Rb1, Rg3, Rd, etc.), few have examined the in vivo pharmacokinetics of the radiolabeled components. This study investigated the pharmacokinetics of ginsenosides and their metabolite compound K (CK), 20(s)-protopanaxadiol (PPD), and 20(s)-protopanaxatriol (PPT) using radioisotopes in rat oral administration.

Methods

Sprague-Dawley rats were dosed orally once with 10 mg/kg of the tritium(3H) radiolabeled samples, and then the blood was collected from the tail vein after 0.25, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24, 48, 96, and 168 h. Radioactivity in the organs, feces, urine, and carcass was determined using a liquid scintillation counter (LSC) and a bio-imaging analyzer system (BAS).

Results and conclusion

After oral administration, as the ³H-labeled ginsenosides were converted to metabolites, C_max and half-life increased, and T_max decreased. Interestingly, Rb1 and CK showed similar values, and after a single oral administration of components, the cumulative excretion ratio of urine and feces was 88.9%-92.4%. Although most KRG components were excreted within 96-168 h of administration, small amounts of components were detected in almost all tissues and mainly distributed to the liver except for the digestive tract when observed through autoradiography. This study demonstrated that KRG components were distributed to various organs in the rats. Further studies could be conducted to prove the bioavailability and transmission of KRG components to confirm the mechanism of KRG efficacy.

[Ginsenosides affect the system of Toll-like receptors in the brain of rats under conditions of long-term alcohol withdrawal]

Long-term alcohol consumption causes the development of neuroinflammation in various brain structures. One of the mechanisms involved in this process is the increased activity of TLR-signaling intracellular pathways. Studies confirm the ability of ginseng extract or its individual ginsenosides to reduce the increased activity of TLR-signaling pathways. The aim of our study was to study the effect of the amount of ginsenosides obtained from the extract of the Panax japonicus cell line on the state of the TLR-signaling system in the nucleus accumbens and hippocampus of the rat brain in a model of long-term alcohol consumption during alcohol withdrawal. The results of the study showed that ginsenosides were able to make changes in the TLR signaling system, which has been altered by long-term alcohol consumption. A significant effect of ginsenosides on the level of TLR3 and TLR4 mRNA in the nucleus accumbens was found, while in the hippocampus, ginsenosides significantly affected the level of TLR7 mRNA. The effect of ginsenosides on the level of mRNA of transcription factors and cytokines involved in TLR-signaling was evaluated. Thus, results of our study confirm that ginsenosides are able to influence the state of TLR-signaling pathways, but this effect is multidirectional in relation to different brain structures. In the future, it seems interesting to evaluate the role of individual ginsenosides in relation to genes of TLR-signaling, as well as the effect of ginsenosides on other brain structures.

New insights into the role and mechanisms of ginsenoside Rg1 in the management of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder in the elderly characterized by memory loss and cognitive dysfunction. The pathogenesis of AD is complex. One-targeted anti-AD drugs usually fail to delay AD progression. Traditional Chinese medicine records have documented the use of the roots of Panax ginseng (ginseng roots) and its prescriptions to treat dementia. Ginsenoside Rg1, the main ginsenoside component of ginseng roots, exhibits a certain therapeutic effect in the abovementioned diseases, suggesting its potential in the management of AD. Therefore, we combed the pathogenesis of AD and currently used anti-AD drugs, and reviewed the availability, pharmacokinetics, and pharmaceutic studies of ginsenoside Rg1. This review summarizes the therapeutic effects and mechanisms of ginsenoside Rg1 and its deglycosylated derivatives in AD in vivo and in vitro. The main mechanisms include improvement in Aβ and Tau pathologies, regulation of synaptic function and intestinal microflora, and reduction of inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis. The underlying mechanisms mainly involve the regulation of PKC, MAPK, PI3K/Akt, CDK5, GSK-3β, BDNF/TrkB, PKA/CREB, FGF2/Akt, p21WAF1/CIP1, NF-κB, NLRP1, TLR3, and TLR4 signaling pathways. As the effects and underlying mechanisms of ginsenoside Rg1 on AD have not been systematically reviewed, we have provided a comprehensive review and shed light on the future directions in the utilization of ginsenoside Rg1 and ginseng roots as well as the development of anti-AD drugs.

Current Progress on Neuroprotection Induced by Artemisia, Ginseng, Astragalus, and Ginkgo Traditional Chinese Medicines for the Therapy of Alzheimer's Disease

Aging is associated with the occurrence of diverse degenerative changes in various tissues and organs and with an increased incidence of neurological disorders, especially neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). In recent years, the search for effective components derived from medicinal plants in delaying aging and preventing and treating neurodegenerative diseases has been increasing and the number of related publications shows a rising trend. Here, we present a concise, updated review on the preclinical and clinical research progress in the assessment of the therapeutic potential of different traditional Chinese medicines and derived active ingredients and their effect on the signaling pathways involved in AD neuroprotection. Recognized by their multitargeting ability, these natural compounds hold great potential in developing novel drugs for AD.

Ginsenoside Rg1 improves Alzheimer's disease by regulating oxidative stress, apoptosis, and neuroinflammation through Wnt/GSK-3β/β-catenin signaling pathway

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disorder that can cause cognitive impairment. Ginsenoside Rg1 (Rg1) has a significant neuroprotective effect on animals with memory impairment. However, the mechanism of how Rg1 mediates the Wnt signaling pathway and improves cognitive function by regulating oxidative stress, apoptosis, and neuroinflammation is still unclear. In this study, the spatial memory ability of tree shrews was tested by Morris water maze, the expression levels of amyloid protein (Aβ1-42), ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 (iba-1), nitrotyrosine (NT), and 8-hydroxyguanine (8-OHG) were detected by immunohistochemistry. Subsequently, the activity of catalase (CAT) and the glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) was, respectively, measured by the ammonium molybdate method and the 5,5'-dithiobis (2-nitrobenzoic acid). Furthermore, the malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration was determined by the thiobarbituric acid test. Finally, the expression levels of Beta-secretase (BACE1), superoxide dismutase (SOD), BCL2-Associated X (Bax), B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2), caspase-anti-apoptotic factor Cleaved-caspase-3 (Caspase-3), microtubule-associated proteins 2 (MAP2), Neuronal nuclear antigen (NeuN), as well as the phosphorylation of GSK-3β and β-catenin were detected by Western blot. This study implied that Rg1 reduced the phosphorylation of Tau protein, the deposition of Aβ1-42, and the expression of BACE1. It also showed that Rg1 increased the antioxidant activity of SOD, CAT, GPx, and instead reduced the oxidation products of NT, 8-OHG, and MDA, as wells as the inflammatory factor interleukin-1 and iba-1. It further showed that Rg1 increased the ratio of Bcl-2 to Bax and expression of neuronal markers MAP2 and NeuN, but instead reduced the expression of Caspase-3, GSK-3β, and β-catenin. In conclusion, by regulating the Wnt/GSK-3β/β-catenin signaling pathway, Rg1 of moderate and high dose could alleviate oxidative stress damage, improve neuroinflammation, protect neurons, finally improve the cognitive impairment of the AD tree shrew. This study provides theoretical basis for the Rg1 clinical application in AD.

Host defense against Neospora caninum infection via IL-12p40 production through TLR2/TLR3-AKT-ERK signaling pathway in C57BL/6 mice

Neospora caninum is an intracellular parasite which can cause neosporosis and significant economic losses in both dairy and beef industries worldwide. A better understanding of the immune response by host cells against N. caninum could help to design better strategies for the prevention and treatment of neosporosis. Although previous studies have shown TLR2/TLR3 were involved in controlling N. caninum infection in mice, the precise mechanisms of the AKT and MAPK pathways controlled by TLR2/TLR3 to regulate N. caninum-induced IL-12p40 production and the role of TLR2/TLR3 in anti-N. caninum infection in bovine macrophages remain unclear. In the present study, TLR2^-/- mice displayed more parasite burden and lower level of IL-12p40 production compared to TLR3^-/- mice. N. caninum could activate AKT and ERK signaling pathways in WT mouse macrophages, which were inhibited in TLR2^-/- and TLR3^-/- mouse macrophages. In N. caninum-infected WT mouse macrophages, AKT inhibitor or AKT siRNA could decrease the phosphorylation of ERK. AKT or ERK inhibitors reduced the production of IL-12p40 and increased the number of parasites. The productions of ROS, NO, and GBP2 were significantly reduced in TLR2^-/- and TLR3^-/- mouse macrophages. Supplementation of rIL-12p40 inhibited N. caninum proliferation and rescued the productions of IFN-γ, NO, and GBP2 in WT, TLR2^-/-, and TLR3^-/- mouse macrophages. In bovine macrophages, the expressions of TLR2, TLR3, and IL-12p40 mRNA were significantly enhanced by N. caninum, and N. caninum proliferation was inhibited by TLR2/TLR3 agonists. Taken together, the proliferation of N. caninum in mouse macrophages was controlled by the TLR2/TLR3-AKT-ERK signal pathway via increased IL-12p40 production, which in turn lead to the productions of NO, GBP2, and IFN-γ during N. caninum infection. And in bovine macrophages, TLR2 and TLR3 contributed to inhibiting N. caninum proliferation via increased IL-12p40 production.

Neuroprotective Potentials of Panax Ginseng Against Alzheimer's Disease: A Review of Preclinical and Clinical Evidences

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a neurodegenerative disorder, is a major health concern in the increasingly aged population worldwide. Currently, no clinically effective drug can halt the progression of AD. Panax ginseng C.A. Mey. is a well-known medicinal plant that contains ginsenosides, gintonin, and other components and has neuroprotective effects against a series of pathological cascades in AD, including beta-amyloid formation, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction. In this review, we summarize the effects and mechanisms of these major components and formulas containing P. ginseng in neuronal cells and animal models. Moreover, clinical findings regarding the prevention and treatment of AD with P. ginseng or its formulas are discussed. This review can provide new insights into the possible use of ginseng in the prevention and treatment of AD.

Improving Alzheimer's disease by altering gut microbiota in tree shrews with ginsenoside Rg1

Ginsenoside Rg1 (GRg1) has neuroprotective effects on Alzheimer's disease (AD). The occurrence and progression of AD are closely related to gut microbiota. Few studies have learned the direct relationship between GRg1 and gut microbiota. In this study, we found an original way to research this relationship by using GRg1 in the AD model of tree shrews. Morris water maze and immunohistochemistry were performed to test the cognition repairing function of GRg1 by tree shrews and 16S ribosomal RNA sequencing was used to explore the composition and abundance of gut microbiota. After GRg1 treatment, the result of Morris water maze showed an improvement in cognitive function, and immunohistochemistry revealed a decrease in tau protein. Moreover, 16SrRNA sequencing results showed the abundances of Proteobacteria and Verrucomicrobia were significantly different, and Lactobacillaceae was significantly increased in the GRg1 treatment group. It also showed that the gut microbiome with middle and high doses of GRg1 was close to the normal group. In conclusion, this study suggests that GRg1 at middle and high doses may change the abundance of gut microbiota to improve AD, and thatProteobacteria and Verrucomicrobia are key microbiota. This is the first report that has ever studied the relationship between GRg1 and gut microbiota in tree shrews.

Effects of Ginseng on Neurological Disorders

Ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer), a famous traditional medicinal herb, has been widely used for many centuries. Numerous studies have shown that ginseng has a positive effect on the prevention and treatment of neurological disorders. In this review, we summarized the effects of ginseng in treating neurological diseases, particularly the anti-depressant effects of ginseng. Furthermore, its potential mechanism was also outlined. Therefore, this review may provide new insight into the treatment of ginseng on neurological diseases.

Natural Products and Their Bioactive Compounds: Neuroprotective Potentials against Neurodegenerative Diseases

In recent years, natural products, which originate from plants, animals, and fungi, together with their bioactive compounds have been intensively explored and studied for their therapeutic potentials for various diseases such as cardiovascular, diabetes, hypertension, reproductive, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases. Neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis are characterized by the progressive dysfunction and loss of neuronal structure and function that resulted in the neuronal cell death. Since the multifactorial pathological mechanisms are associated with neurodegeneration, targeting multiple mechanisms of actions and neuroprotection approach, which involves preventing cell death and restoring the function to damaged neurons, could be promising strategies for the prevention and therapeutic of neurodegenerative diseases. Natural products have emerged as potential neuroprotective agents for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. This review focused on the therapeutic potential of natural products and their bioactive compounds to exert a neuroprotective effect on the pathologies of neurodegenerative diseases.

Protective Effect of Ginsenoside Rg1 on Oxidative Damage Induced by Hydrogen Peroxide in Chicken Splenic Lymphocytes

Previous investigation showed that ginsenoside Rg1 (Rg1) extracted from Panax ginseng C.A. Mey has antioxidative effect on oxidative stress in chickens. The present study was designed to investigate the protective effects of Rg1 on chicken lymphocytes against hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress and the potential mechanisms. Cell viability, apoptotic cells, malondialdehyde, activity of superoxide dismutase, mitochondrial membrane potential, and [Ca²⁺]i concentration were measured, and transcriptome analysis and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction were used to investigate the effect of Rg1 on gene expression of the cells. The results showed that treatment of lymphocytes with H₂O₂ induced oxidative stress and apoptosis. However, pretreatment of the cells with Rg1 dramatically enhanced cell viability, reduced apoptotic cells, and decreased oxidative stress induced by H₂O₂. In addition, Rg1 reduced these H₂O₂-dependent decreases in mitochondrial membrane potential and reversed [Ca²⁺]i overload. Transcriptome analysis showed that 323 genes were downregulated and 105 genes were upregulated in Rg1-treated cells. The differentially expressed genes were involved in Toll-like receptors, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor signaling pathway, and cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction. The present study indicated that Rg1 may act as an antioxidative agent to protect cell damage caused by oxidative stress via regulating expression of genes such as RELT, EDA2R, and TLR4.

Anti-inflammatory mechanism of ginsenoside Rg1: Proteomic analysis of milk from goats with mastitis induced with lipopolysaccharide

Previous investigation showed that intravenous injection of ginsenoside Rg1 had a therapeutic effect on Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide-induced mastitis in lactating goats and it protected animals from lipopolysaccharide challenge via toll-like receptor 4 signaling pathway. The present study was to use proteomic approach to explore the anti-inflammatory mechanisms of Rg1. Nine dairy goats were randomly divided into three groups with 3 animals in each: groups 1 and 2 received intra-mammary infusion of lipopolysaccharide and then intravenously injected with saline or Rg1 solution; animals in group 3 were first intramammarily and then intravenously administered saline solution, and served as a control group. Milk whey at 6 h post lipopolysaccharide challenge was prepared for tandem mass tags based quantitative proteomic analysis. The results showed that 791 proteins were totally identified from the whey. Of them, 98 proteins between groups 1 (lipopolysaccharide + Saline) and 3 (Saline + Saline), and 34 proteins between groups 2 (lipopolysaccharide + Rg1) and 1 were significantly different. Group 1 than group 3 had significantly more inflammatory factors such as interleukin 6, acute phase proteins, blood coagulation factors, complement proteins, and oxidative stress markers while these factors were reduced in group 2 treated with Rg1. In addition, proteins in group 2 associated with peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor γ activation and recovery of milk fat and production were upregulated compared to group 1. Therefore, Rg1 may exert its anti-inflammatory effect on lipopolysaccharide-induced mastitis in goats via modulating expression of proteins relating to peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor γ and toll-like receptor 4 signaling pathway.

Therapeutic effect of ginsenoside Rg1 on mastitis experimentally induced by lipopolysaccharide in lactating goats

Escherichia coli is a cause of subclinical and clinical mastitis in dairy cattle and goats, and sometimes causes severe clinical disease that may result in death of the animal. Previous investigation showed that ginsenoside Rg1 extracted from Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer (Araliaceae) has an anti-inflammatory effect on the sepsis induced by E. coli lipopolysaccharide via competitive binding to toll-like receptor 4. We hypothesized that intravenous injection of Rg1 had therapeutic effect on mastitis experimentally induced by intramammary infusion of lipopolysaccharide in lactating goats. In this study, 9 lactating goats were randomly assigned to 1 of the 3 groups: (1) lipopolysaccharide intramammary infusion + saline intravenous injection, (2) lipopolysaccharide intramammary infusion + Rg1 intravenous injection, and (3) saline intramammary administration + saline intravenous injection. Because no adverse clinical signs were observed after intramammary infusion of saline and intravenous injection of Rg1 in a preliminary experiment, and available qualified goats were limited in this study, this treatment was not included in this study. One udder half of each goat received intramammary infusion of lipopolysaccharide (50 μg/kg of body weight; groups 1 and 2) or saline solution (group 3), and the other half was infused with 2 mL of saline solution at h 0. Afterward, intravenous injections of saline solution (groups 1 and 3) or Rg1 (2.5 mg/kg of body weight; group 2) were administered at h 2 and 4 post-lipopolysaccharide challenge. Blood and milk samples were collected 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 48, and 72 h post-lipopolysaccharide challenge, and clinical signs were monitored hourly after lipopolysaccharide challenge within the first 10 h and at the same time points as blood samples. The results showed that Rg1 treatment downregulated rectal temperature, udder skin temperature, udder girth, milk somatic cell count, and N-acetyl-β-d-glucosaminidase and upregulated milk production, lactose, and recovered blood components, such as white blood cells, neutrophils, lymphocytes, total proteins, albumin, and globulin. Considering the positive therapeutic effect on lipopolysaccharide-induced mastitis in goats presented in this study as well as the anti-inflammatory activity found previously, the botanical Rg1 deserves further study as a therapeutic agent in the treatment of E. coli mastitis in dairy animals.

Ginsenoside Rg1 and Acori Graminei Rhizoma Attenuates Neuron Cell Apoptosis by Promoting the Expression of miR-873-5p in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) severely threatens human health in their old age, however the potential etiology underlying it is still unclear. Both Ginsenoside Rg1 (GRg1) and Acori graminei Rhizoma (AGR) are the traditional Chinese herbal drug, while their potential role in AD remains need further identification. Both SAMP1 and SAMP8 mice were employed as the control and AD mice. Morris water maze method was used to detect the cognitive function of the mice, TUNEL assay was performed to determine cell apoptosis. Real-time PCR and western blot were carried out to measure gene expression. The relationship between miR-873-5p and HMOX1 was determined using luciferase reporter assay. Comparing with SAMP1, the cognitive function was impaired and cell apoptosis was increased in SAMP8 mice. GRg1 + AGR treatment significantly attenuated the symptom of AD. The expression of miR-873-5p was decreased, while HMOX1 was increased in SAMP8 mice. GRg1 + AGR treatment significantly promoted the expression of miR-873-5p, but decreased HMOX1. MiR-873-5p targets HMOX1 to regulate its expression. Aβ1-42 stimulation decreased the expression of miR-873-5p, but increased HMOX1 in PC12 cells. GRg1 + AGR treatment reversed the effect of Aβ1-42, while miR-873-5p inhibitor abolished the effect of GRg1 + AGR. In vivo experiments confirmed the protect role of GRg1 + AGR in AD. GRg1 + AGR suppressed neuron cell apoptosis by regulating the expression of miR-873-5p in AD.

Nonsaponin fraction of Korean Red Ginseng attenuates cytokine production via inhibition of TLR4 expression

Background

Ginsenosides of Korean Red Ginseng extracts (RGE) and its saponin components suppress secretion of inflammasome-mediating cytokines, whereas the nonsaponin fraction (NS) of RGE oppositely stimulates cytokine secretion. Although direct exposure of NS to macrophages in mice induces cytokine production, oral administration of NS has not been studied in inflammasome-related disease in animal models.

Methods

Mice were fed RGE or NS for 7 days and then developed peritonitis. Peritoneal cytokines were measured, and peritoneal exudate cells (PECs) were collected to assay expression levels of a set of toll-like receptors (TLRs) and cytokines in response to NS ingestion. In addition, the role of intestinal bacteria in NS-fed mice was assessed. The effect of preexposure to NS in bone marrow–derived macrophages (BMDMs) on cytokine production was further confirmed.

Results

NS ingestion attenuated secretion of peritoneal cytokines resulting from peritonitis. In addition, the isolated PECs from NS-fed mice presented lower TLR transcription levels than PECs from control diet–fed mice. BMDMs treated with NS showed downregulation of TLR4 mRNA and protein expression, which was mediated by the TLR4-MyD88-NFκB signal pathway. BMDMs pretreated with NS produced less cytokines in response to TLR4 ligands.

Conclusion

NS administration directly inhibits TLR4 expression in inflammatory cells such as macrophages, thereby reducing secretion of cytokines during peritonitis.

Atorvastatin Attenuates Cognitive Deficits and Neuroinflammation Induced by Aβ1-42 Involving Modulation of TLR4/TRAF6/NF-κB Pathway

Inflammatory damage aggravates the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and the mechanism of inflammatory damage may provide a new therapeutic window for the treatment of AD. Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-mediated signaling can regulate the inflammatory process. However, changes in TLR4 signaling pathway induced by beta-amyloid (Aβ) have not been well characterized in brain, especially in the hippocampus. In the present study, we explored the changes of TLR4 signaling pathway induced by Aβ in the hippocampus and the role of atorvastatin in modulating this signal pathway and neurotoxicity induced by Aβ. Experimental AD rats were induced by intrahippocampal injection of Aβ_1-42, and the rats were treated with atorvastatin by oral gavage from 3 weeks before to 6 days after injections of Aβ_1-42. To determine the spatial learning and memory ability of rats in the AD models, Morris water maze (MWM) was performed. The expression of the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), ionized calcium binding adapter molecule-1 (Iba-1), TLR4, tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6), and nuclear transcription factor (NF)-κB (NF-κB) protein in the hippocampus was detected by immunohistochemistry and Western blot. Compared to the control group, increased expression of TLR4, TRAF6, and NF-κB was observed in the hippocampus at 7 days post-injection of Aβ (P < 0.01). Furthermore, atorvastatin treatment significantly ameliorated cognitive deficits of rats, attenuated microglia and astrocyte activation, inhibited apoptosis, and down-regulated the expression of TLR4, TRAF6, and NF-κB, both at the mRNA and protein levels (P < 0.01). TLR4 signaling pathway is thus actively involved in Aβ-induced neuroinflammation and atorvastatin treatment can exert the therapeutic benefits for AD via the TLR4 signaling pathway.

Emerging signals modulating potential of ginseng and its active compounds focusing on neurodegenerative diseases

Common features of neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) include progressive dysfunctions and neuronal injuries leading to deterioration in normal brain functions. At present, ginseng is one of the most frequently used natural products. Its use has a long history as a cure for various diseases because its extracts and active compounds exhibit several pharmacological properties against several disorders. However, the pathophysiology of NDDs is not fully clear, but researchers have found that various ion channels and specific signaling pathways might have contributed to the disease pathogenesis. Apart from the different pharmacological potentials, ginseng and its active compounds modulate various ion channels and specific molecular signaling pathways related to the nervous system. Here, we discuss the signal modulating potential of ginseng and its active compounds mainly focusing on those relevant to NDDs.

Controllable encapsulation of α-mangostin with quaternized β-cyclodextrin grafted chitosan using high shear mixing

In this study, the inclusion complex formation between α-mangostin and water-soluble quaternized β-CD grafted-chitosan (QCD-g-CS) was investigated. Inclusion complex formation with encapsulation efficiency (%EE) of 5, 15 and 75% can be varied using high speed homogenizer. Tuning %EE plays a role on physicochemical and biological properties of α-mangostin/QCD-g-CS complex. Molecular dynamics simulations indicate that α-mangostin is included within the hydrophobic β-CD cavity and being absorbed on the QCD-g-CS surface, with these results being confirmed by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Probing the release characteristics of the inclusion complex at various %EE (5%, 15% and 75%) in simulated saliva (pH 6.8) demonstrated that α-mangostin release rates were dependent on % EE (order 5% > 15% > 75%). Additionally, higher antimicrobial and anti-inflammation activities were observed for the inclusion complex than those of free α-mangostin due to enhance the solubility of α-mangostin through the inclusion complex with QCD-g-CS.

Ginsenoside Rg1 attenuates adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats via modulation of PPAR-γ/NF-κB signal pathway

Ginsenoside Rg1, the main active compound in Panax ginseng, has already been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects. However, the protective effects of Rg1 on rheumatoid arthritis (RA) remain unclear. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects and mechanisms of Rg1 on adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) in rats. AIA rats were given Rg1 at doses of 5, 10, and 20 mg/kg intraperitoneally for 14 days to observe the anti-arthritic effects. The results showed that Rg1 significantly alleviated joint swelling and injuries. Rg1 can also significantly reduce the level of TNF-α and IL-6, increase PPAR-γ protein expression, inhibit IκBα phosphorylation and NF-κB nuclear translocation in the inflammatory joints of AIA rats and RAW264.7 cells stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The results indicate that Rg1 has therapeutic effects on AIA rats, and the mechanism might be associated with its anti-inflammatory effects by up-regulating PPAR-γ and subsequent inhibition of NF-κB signal pathway.

Beneficial effects of Panax ginseng for the treatment and prevention of neurodegenerative diseases: past findings and future directions

In recent years, several therapeutic drugs have been rationally designed and synthesized based on the novel knowledge gained from investigating the actions of biologically active chemicals derived from foods, plants, and medicinal herbs. One of the major advantages of these naturalistic chemicals is their ability to interact with multiple targets in the body resulting in a combined beneficial effect. Ginseng is a perennial herb (Araliaceae family), a species within the genus Panax, and a highly valued and popular medicinal plant. Evidence for the medicinal and health benefits of Panax ginseng and its components in preventing neurodegeneration has increased significantly in the past decade. The beneficial effects of P. ginseng on neurodegenerative diseases have been attributed primarily to the antioxidative and immunomodulatory activities of its ginsenoside components. Mechanistic studies on the neuroprotective effects of ginsenosides revealed that they act not only as antioxidants but also as modulators of intracellular neuronal signaling and metabolism, cell survival/death genes, and mitochondrial function. The goal of the present paper is to provide a brief review of recent knowledge and developments concerning the beneficial effects as well as the mechanism of action of P. ginseng and its components in the treatment and prevention of neurodegenerative diseases.

Analyses of mRNA Profiling through RNA Sequencing on a SAMP8 Mouse Model in Response to Ginsenoside Rg1 and Rb1 Treatment

Ginsenoside Rg1 and Rb1 are the major ingredients in two medicines called QiShengLi (Z20027165) and QiShengJing (Z20027164) approved by China. These ingredients are believed to mitigate forgetfulness. Numerous studies have confirmed that GRg1 and GRb1 offer protection against Alzheimer's disease (AD), and our morris water maze (MWM) experiment also indicated that GRg1 and GRb1 may attenuate memory deficits in the 7-month-old SAMP8 mice; however, comprehensive understanding of their roles in AD remains limited. This study systematically explored the mechanism at the genome level of the anti-AD effects of GRg1 and GRb1 in a senescence-accelerated mouse prone 8 (SAMP8) model through deep RNA sequencing. A total of 74,885 mRNA transcripts were obtained. Expression analysis showed that 1,780 mRNA transcripts were differentially expressed in SAMP8 mice compared with the SAMP8+GRg1 mice. Moreover, 1,066 significantly dysregulated mRNA transcripts were identified between SAMP8 and SAMP8+GRb1 mice. Analyses according to gene ontology and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes revealed that oral administration of GRg1 and GRb1 improved the learning performance of the SAMP8 mouse model from various aspects, such as nervous system development and mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathway. The most probable AD-related transcriptional responses after medication were predicted and discussed in detail. This study is the first to provide a systematic dissection of mRNA profiling in SAMP8 mouse brain in response to GRg1 and GRb1 treatment. We explained their efficacy thoroughly from the source (gene-level explanation). The findings serve as a theoretical basis for the exploration of GRg1 and GRb1 as functional drugs with anti-AD activity.

Molecular signaling of ginsenosides Rb1, Rg1, and Rg3 and their mode of actions

Ginseng has gained its popularity as an adaptogen since ancient days because of its triterpenoid saponins, known as ginsenosides. These triterpenoid saponins are unique and classified as protopanaxatriol and protopanaxadiol saponins based on their glycosylation patterns. They play many protective roles in humans and are under intense research as various groups continue to study their efficacy at the molecular level in various disorders. Ginsenosides Rb1 and Rg1 are the most abundant ginsenosides present in ginseng roots, and they confer the pharmacological properties of the plant, whereas ginsenoside Rg3 is abundantly present in Korean Red Ginseng preparation, which is highly known for its anticancer effects. These ginsenosides have a unique mode of action in modulating various signaling cascades and networks in different tissues. Their effect depends on the bioavailability and the physiological status of the cell. Mostly they amplify the response by stimulating phosphotidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase/protein kinase B pathway, caspase-3/caspase-9-mediated apoptotic pathway, adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase, and nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells signaling. Furthermore, they trigger receptors such as estrogen receptor, glucocorticoid receptor, and N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor. This review critically evaluates the signaling pathways attenuated by ginsenosides Rb1, Rg1, and Rg3 in various tissues with emphasis on cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Chotosan improves Aβ1-42-induced cognitive impairment and neuroinflammatory and apoptotic responses through the inhibition of TLR-4/NF-κB signaling in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Recently, the focus on neuroinflammation is intensified as its complex pathophysiological role has emerged in multiple central nervous system(CNS) disorders. Chotosan (CTS), known as a traditional herbal formula, is often utilized to treat relevant nervous system diseases in China. It was demonstrated effectively to alleviate cognitive deficit associated with aging, diabetes, hypoperfusion and cerebral ischemia. However, the effects of CTS on Aβ1-42-induced cognitive dysfunction remain unclear. Here, we further investigated the effects of chotosan on memory performance, neuroinflammation and apoptotic responses.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The learning and memory ability is evaluated by Morris water maze (MWM) task and Y-maze test following intrahippocampal infusion of aggregated Aβ1-42. The expression level of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR-4), NF-κB p65, Bcl-2 and Bax was examined by Western blot. TLR-4 level is also assessed by immunohistochemistry (IHC). Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was conducted to determine the generation of inflammatory mediators. The caspase-3 activity is analyzed by commercial kits.

RESULTS

The repeated treatment with CTS (750mg/kg or 375mg/kg per day) for 3 weeks significantly restored Aβ1-42-induced memory impairment in mice. Meanwhile, this treatment also remarkably reduced TLR-4 and NF-κB p65 expression accompanying with the diminished release of proinflammatory cytokines including TNF-α and IL-1β in hippocampus. The neuronal apoptosis is also inhibited as evidenced by increase in Bcl-2/Bax ratio and decrease in pro-apoptotic protein caspase-3 activity compared to that of the model mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results show for the first time that chotosan can ameliorate Aβ1-2-induced memory dysfunction via inhibiting neuroinflammation and apoptosis at least partially mediated by TLR-4/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Anti-inflammatory properties of lipoxin A4 protect against diabetes mellitus complicated by focal cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury

Lipoxin A4 can alleviate cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury by reducing the inflammatory reaction, but it is currently unclear whether it has a protective effect on diabetes mellitus complicated by focal cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury. In this study, we established rat models of diabetes mellitus using an intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin. We then induced focal cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury by occlusion of the middle cerebral artery for 2 hours and reperfusion for 24 hours. After administration of lipoxin A4 via the lateral ventricle, infarction volume was reduced, the expression levels of pro-inflammatory factors tumor necrosis factor alpha and nuclear factor-kappa B in the cerebral cortex were decreased, and neurological functioning was improved. These findings suggest that lipoxin A4 has strong neuroprotective effects in diabetes mellitus complicated by focal cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury and that the underlying mechanism is related to the anti-inflammatory action of lipoxin A4.

Ginsenoside Rg1 prevents cerebral and cerebellar injury induced by obstructive jaundice in rats via inducing expression of TIPE-2

The aim of the study was to analyze the effect of Ginsenoside Rg1 (Rg1) on cerebral and cerebellar injury in experimental obstructive jaundice (OJ). OJ was done by ligature and section of extrahepatic biliary duct. Rg1 was injected intraperitoneally (10 mg kg(-1)d(-1) or 20 mg kg(-1) d(-1)). Comparison of serum total bile salts (TBA), total bilirubin (TBil), direct bilirubin (DBil), TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β among groups. Malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) were determined, also apoptosis and mRNA and protein levels of TIPE2 (TNF-α-inducible protein 8-like 2) were tested in cerebrum and cerebellum. Our results showed that Rg1 reduced MDA and apoptosis in cerebrum and cerebellum induced by OJ, also GSH and antioxidant enzyme activity were raised obviously in rats treated with Rg1. Moreover, decreased mRNA and protein levels of TIPE2 in OJ rats and Rg1 could improve the decreased mRNA and protein levels of TIPE2 in OJ rats. In conclusion, Rg1 decreased oxidative stress and apoptosis, also recovered the antioxidant status and mRNA and protein levels of TIPE2 in the cerebrum and cerebellum of OJ rats.

Anti-inflammatory effects of vina-ginsenoside R2 and majonoside R2 isolated from Panax vietnamensis and their metabolites in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophages

Panax vietnamensis Ha et Grushv., with its main constituents vina-ginsenoside R2 (VR2) and majonoside R2 (MR2), is used in traditional folk medicine in the hill tribes of Vietnam for anti-fatigue, anti-inflammatory, and life-saving purposes. In a preliminary study, VR2 and MR2 were shown to be metabolized to pseudoginsenoside RT4 (PRT4) and ocotillol by human gut microbiota. Therefore, we measured the anti-inflammatory effects of VR2, MR2, and their metabolites in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated mouse peritoneal macrophages. Among these ginsenosides, only VR2 exhibited cytotoxicity against peritoneal macrophages. MR2, PRT4, and ocotillol inhibited LPS-stimulated transcription factor (NF)-κB activation, and expression of the proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin (IL)-1. However, these ginsenosides did not inhibit peptidoglycan-induced NF-κB activation in the macrophages. These three ginsenosides also inhibited LPS-stimulated cyclooxygenase-2 and inducible NO synthase expression, and phosphorylation of NF-κB signal molecules IL-1 receptor-associated kinase 1 and tumor growth factor-β-activated kinase 1 in peritoneal macrophages. Treatment with either PRT4 or ocotillol inhibited the Alexa Fluor 488-conjugated LPS-mediated shift of macrophages, as observed by flow cytometry. They also potently inhibited the binding of LPS to TLR4 on peritoneal macrophages, both with and without transfected MyD88 siRNA. Among the tested ginsenosides, ocotillol exhibited the strongest inhibitory effect on inflammation in LPS-stimulated macrophages via the NF-κB signaling pathway. Based on these findings, orally administered VR2 and MR2 of P. vietnamensis may be metabolized to ocotillol via PRT4, and the metabolites, particularly ocotillol, may inhibit inflammation by inhibiting the binding of LPS to TLR4 on macrophages.

Ginseng Berry Extract Promotes Maturation of Mouse Dendritic Cells

Ginseng extract has been shown to possess certain anti-virus, anti-tumor and immune-activating effects. However, the immunostimulatory effect of ginseng berry extract (GB) has been less well characterized. In this study, we investigated the effect of GB on the activation of mouse dendritic cells (DCs) in vitro and in vivo. GB treatment induced up-regulation of co-stimulatory molecules in bone marrow-derived DCs (BMDCs). Interestingly, GB induced a higher degree of co-stimulatory molecule up-regulation than ginseng root extract (GR) at the same concentrations. Moreover, in vivo administration of GB promoted up-regulation of CD86, MHC class I and MHC class II and production of IL-6, IL-12 and TNF-α in spleen DCs. GB also promoted the generation of Th1 and Tc1 cells. Furthermore, Toll like receptor 4 (TLR4) and myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (MyD88) signaling pathway were essential for DC activation induced by GB. In addition, GB strongly prompted the proliferation of ovalbumin (OVA)-specific CD4 and CD8 T cells. Finally, GB induced DC activation in tumor-bearing mice and the combination of OVA and GB treatment inhibited B16-OVA tumor cell growth in C57BL/6 mice. These results demonstrate that GB is a novel tumor therapeutic vaccine adjuvant by promoting DC and T cell activation.

Anti-inflammatory effects of ginsenoside Rg1 and its metabolites ginsenoside Rh1 and 20(S)-protopanaxatriol in mice with TNBS-induced colitis

Ginsenoside Rg1, one of the main constituents of Panax ginseng, exhibits anti-inflammatory effect. In a preliminary study, it was observed that ginsenoside Rg1 was metabolized to 20(S)-protopanaxtriol via ginsenosides Rh1 and F1 by gut microbiota. We further investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of ginsenoside Rg1 and its metabolites in vitro and in vivo. Ginsenosides Rg1, Rh1, and 20(S)-protopanaxtriol inhibited the activation of NF-κB activation, phosphorylation of transforming growth factor beta-activated kinase 1 and interleukin (IL)-1 receptor-associated kinase, and expression of tumor necrosis factor-α and IL-1β in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated macrophages. They also inhibited the binding of LPS to toll-like receptor 4 on the macrophages. Orally administered ginsenoside Rg1, Rh1, or 20(S)-protopanaxtriol inhibited 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colon shortening, myeloperoxidase activity, and expression of IL-1β, IL-17, and tumor necrosis factor-α in mice with TNBS-induced colitis. They did not only inhibit TNBS-induced NF-κB activation, but also restored TNBS-induced Th17/Treg imbalance. They restored IL-10 and Foxp3 expression. Moreover, they inhibited Th17 cell differentiation in vitro. Of these metabolites, in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory effect of 20(S)-protopanaxtriol was the most potent, followed by Rh1. These findings suggest that ginsenoside Rg1 is metabolized to 20(S)-protopanaxtriol via ginsenosides Rh1 and F1 and these metabolites particularly 20(S)-protopanaxtriol, may ameliorate inflammatory disease such as colitis by inhibiting the binding of LPS to TLR4 on macrophages and restoring the Th17/Treg imbalance.