Biological Importance of Cotton By-Products Relative to Chemical Constituents of the Cotton Plant

Integrating genetic assortment and molecular insights for climate-resilient breeding to unravel drought tolerance in cotton

This study addresses the challenges posed by rainfall variability, leading to water deficits during critical stages of crop growth, resulting in a drastic reduction of cotton yield. In a comprehensive evaluation, thirty cotton genotypes, including five Gossypium arboreum (wild) and twenty-five Gossypium hirsutum (cultivated), were grown under rainfed and irrigated conditions. Drought tolerance indices (DTI) were evaluated, categorizing genotypes based on their resilience. Further, in-vitro screening at the seedling stage (20 days) under PEG-induced drought identified tolerant genotypes exhibiting elevated levels of free proline (19.07±5.31 mg.g-100fr.wt.), amino acids (34.59±6.51 mg.g-100fr.wt.), soluble proteins (13.73±2.65 mg.g-1fr.wt.), and glycine betaine (10.95±3.62 mg.g-100fr.wt.), in their leaves, positively correlating (p<0.001) with relative water content (87.70±3.45 %). Molecular analysis using drought-specific simple sequence repeats (SSR) markers revealed significant genetic variability in a cotton genotypes, with lower observed and higher expected heterozygosity. F statistics exposed a higher level of gene flow corresponding to low differentiation among populations. Among the genotypes group, wild GAM-67 and cultivated Deviraj emerged as the most potent, exhibiting the higher DTI and diverse gene pools. Study exhibited higher total gene diversity in drought-tolerant wild GAM-67 (0.8501) and greater expected heterozygosity (0.626) and gene flow (0.6731) in cultivated Deviraj, underlining their robust genetic adaptability to drought conditions. The integrated approach of field evaluations, in-vitro screening, and molecular analyses explained substantial genetic diversity, with the identification of promising genotypes displaying higher drought tolerance indices, elevated levels of stress-related biochemical osmolytes, and pronounced genetic adaptability, thereby contributing to the advancement of breeding initiatives for enhanced drought resilience in cotton.

Furfural as a low-volume, high-value asset from agricultural residues: A review on production, agricultural applications and environmental sustainability

This comprehensive review explores furfural production from agricultural residues, focusing on its significance as a low-volume, high-value asset crucial for environmental sustainability. It covers diverse production technologies, recent advancements, and applications in agriculture, evaluating furfural's potential to enhance crop resilience and yield. Showing its role in a circular economy, the review discusses how furfural can replace conventional petrochemical processes, thereby reducing environmental impact. Case studies, such as successful implementations with cotton biomass byproducts, illustrate furfural's practical applications and environmental benefits. The study underscores the need for ongoing research, supportive policies, and furfural's growing role in sustainable agriculture and industry. It is focused on furfural's essential contribution to promoting environmental stewardship and sustainable practices. By examining furfural's role as a value-added product from agricultural residues, this review provides insights into its economic viability and potential challenges.

Unraveling the genetic and molecular basis of heat stress in cotton

Human activities and climate change have resulted in frequent and intense weather fluctuations, leading to diverse abiotic stresses on crops which hampers greatly their metabolic activities. Heat stress, a prevalent abiotic factor, significantly influences cotton plant biological activities resulting in reducing yield and production. We must deepen our understanding of how plants respond to heat stress across various dimensions, encompassing genes, RNAs, proteins, metabolites for effective cotton breeding. Multi-omics methods, primarily genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and phenomics, proves instrumental in studying cotton's responses to abiotic stresses. Integrating genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomic is imperative for our better understanding regarding genetics and molecular basis of heat tolerance in cotton. The current review explores fundamental omics techniques, covering genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, to highlight the progress made in cotton omics research.

Exploring anticancer properties of the phytoconstituents and comparative analysis of their chemical space parameters with USFDA-approved synthetic anticancer agents

The present review article thoroughly analyses natural products and their derived phytoconstituents as a rich source of plausible anticancer drugs. The study thoroughly explores the chemical components derived from various natural sources, thus emphasizing their unique structural characteristics and therapeutic potential as an anticancer agent. The review contains the critical chemical constituents' in-depth molecular mechanisms, their source's chemical structures and the categories. The review also comprises an exhaustive and comprehensive analysis of different chemical spacing parameters of the anticancer agents derived from natural products. It compares them with USFDA-approved synthetic anticancer drugs up to 2020, thus providing a meaningful understanding of the relationship between natural and synthetic compounds portraying the anticancer assets. The review also delves more deeply into the chemical analysis of the heterocyclic moieties from the natural product arena, illustrating the anticancer mechanisms. The present article is, therefore, expected to serve as a valuable resource for natural product and medicinal chemists, encouraging and promoting an integrated approach to exploit the potential of natural products in drug discovery development and translational research, which have a prerequisite of bench to bedside approach. The work could guide researchers toward innovative approaches for the ever-evolving field of anticancer drug discovery.

Antioxidant defense in cotton under environmental stresses: Unraveling the crucial role of a universal defense regulator for enhanced cotton sustainability

Cotton (Gossypium spp.) is a globally significant crop that provides natural fibers for the textile industry and also an important oil and biopharmaceutical resources. However, the production of cotton faces substantial challenges due to various biotic and abiotic stress factors that can negatively impact cotton growth, yield, and fiber quality. This review offers a comprehensive overview of the effects of biotic stress factors, such as insect pests, bacterial, fungal, and viral pathogens, and nematodes, as well as abiotic stress factors, including extreme hot and cold temperature, drought, toxicity induced by heavy metal and salinity, on the antioxidant systems in cotton. We discuss the crucial antioxidants, such as glutathione, proline, and phenolics, and highlight major antioxidant enzymes, including ascorbate peroxidase (APX), superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione reductase (GR), and their roles in cotton's response to these stress factors. Furthermore, we explore the potential mechanisms and the crosstalk between different stress factors signaling pathways. We also examine the implications of stress-induced changes in antioxidant levels and enzyme activities for cotton productivity and breeding strategies. Additionally, we shed light on the unanswered questions, research gaps, and future perspectives in this field, paving the way for further investigations to enhance our understanding of cotton's antioxidant defenses and develop novel strategies for improving cotton stress tolerance and yield stability.

Salicylic acid-functionalised chitosan nanoparticles restore impaired sucrose metabolism in the developing anther of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) under heat stress

Nanotechnology provides tremendous potential in agriculture, mitigating climate change impact and improving abiotic stress management strategy. Chitosan nanoparticles (NCS) were synthesised using the ion gelation method and characterised for size (75.5nm in particle size analyser), shape (spherical under scanning electron microscopy) and stability (132.2mV zeta potential). Further, salicylic acid was incorporated into NCS to craft salicylic acid-functionalised chitosan nanoparticles (SA-NCS) and illustrated for size (517nm), shape (spherical) and stability (197.1mV). The influence of the exogenous application of SA-NCS (0.08%) was studied at the reproductive stage of three genotypes of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum ): (1) heat-tolerant Solar-651 BGII; (2) moderately heat-tolerant Solar-701 BGII; and (3) heat-susceptible Solar-805 BGII, exposed to different temperature regimes: (1) H1 (optimal), 32/20±2°C; (2) H2 (sub-optimal), 38/24±2°C; H3 (supra-optimal), 45/30±2°C. Heat stress significantly reduces carbon-fixing Rubisco, enzymes related to sucrose metabolism and pollen tube length. Considering three genotypes and reproductive stages (sepal and anther tissues), activities of Rubisco (sepals), invertase (sepals), sucrose phosphate synthase (anthers), sucrose content (sepals) and pollen tube length were elevated under high-temperature regimes, signifying better source to sink transposition of sucrose influenced by SA-NCS. The study provides new insights into SA-NCS to improve source-sink imbalance and restore sucrose metabolism for better growth of reproductive structure under heat stress in cotton.

Regulatory roles of noncoding RNAs in callus induction and plant cell dedifferentiation

Plant regulatory noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) have emerged as key modulators of gene expression during callus induction. Their further study may promote the design of innovative plant tissue culture protocols. The use of plants by humans has recently taken on a new and expanding insight due to the advent of genetic engineering technologies. In this context, callus cultures have shown remarkable potential for synthesizing valuable biomolecules, crop improvement, plant micropropagation, and biodiversity preservation. A crucial stage in callus production is the conversion of somatic cells into totipotent cells; compelling evidence indicates that stress factors, transcriptional regulators, and plant hormones can trigger this biological event. Besides, posttranscriptional regulators of gene expression might be essential participants in callus induction. However, research related to the analysis of noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) that modulate callogenesis and plant cell dedifferentiation in vitro is still at an early stage. During the last decade, some relevant studies have enlightened the fact that different classes of ncRNAs, such as microRNAs (miRNAs), small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), and long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are implicated in plant cell dedifferentiation through regulating the expression levels of diverse gene targets. Hence, understanding the molecular relevance of these ncRNAs in the aforesaid biological processes might represent a promising source of new biotechnological approaches for callus culture and plant improvement. In this current work, we review the experimental evidence regarding the prospective roles of ncRNAs in callus induction and plant cell dedifferentiation to promote this field of study.

Bio-based phytic acid@polyurushiol‑titanium complex coated cotton fabrics with durable flame retardancy for oil-water separation

Bio-based hydrophobic coating modified cotton fabrics with durable flame retardancy are of high interest in the application of oil-water separation for not only avoiding the use of hazardous substances but also improving the fire safety during use. Herein, phytic acid@Polyurushiol‑titanium complex coated cotton fabric was developed using the facile dip-coating method involving the sequential immersion in the solution of poly(ethyleneimine), phytic acid, titanium oxide, and urushiol. The underlying coating accommodated abundance of phytic acid, which imparted excellent flame retardancy to cotton fabric, and the top coating composed of the polyurushiol‑titanium complex endowed cotton fabric with high hydrophobicity that the water contact angle (WCA) was up to 149.8°. The hydrophobicity also guaranteed effective protection of the underlying phytic acid against chemical solvents and abrasion. Besides, the hydrophobic coating allowed cotton fabric for good self-cleaning and effective oil-water separation. Therefore, the preparation of phytic acid@polyurushiol‑titanium complex coated cotton fabric offers a promising approach to construct durable biomass-coated cellulose-based fabric with multifunctionality.

NMR-Based Metabolomics: A New Paradigm to Unravel Defense-Related Metabolites in Insect-Resistant Cotton Variety through Different Multivariate Data Analysis Approaches

Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) is an economically important crop and is widely cultivated around the globe. However, the major problem of cotton is its high vulnerability to biotic and abiotic stresses. It has been around three decades since the cotton plant was genetically engineered with genes encoding insecticidal proteins (mainly Cry proteins) with an aim to protect it against insect attack. Several studies have been reported on the impact of these genes on cotton production and fiber quality. However, the metabolites responsible for conferring resistance in genetically modified cotton need to be explored. The current work aims to unveil the key metabolites responsible for insect resistance in Bt cotton and also compare the conventional multivariate analysis methods with deep learning approaches to perform clustering analysis. We aim to unveil the marker compounds which are responsible for inducing insect resistance in cotton plants. For this purpose, we employed 1H-NMR spectroscopy to perform metabolite profiling of Bt and non-Bt cotton varieties, and a total of 42 different metabolites were identified in cotton plants. In cluster analysis, deep learning approaches (linear discriminant analysis (LDA) and neural networks) showed better separation among cotton varieties compared to conventional methods (principal component analysis (PCA) and orthogonal partial least square discriminant analysis (OPLSDA)). The key metabolites responsible for inter-class separation were terpinolene, α-ketoglutaric acid, aspartic acid, stigmasterol, fructose, maltose, arabinose, xylulose, cinnamic acid, malic acid, valine, nonanoic acid, citrulline, and shikimic acid. The metabolites which regulated differently with the level of significance p < 0.001 amongst different cotton varieties belonged to the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA), Shikimic acid, and phenylpropanoid pathways. Our analyses underscore a biosignature of metabolites that might involve in inducing insect resistance in Bt cotton. Moreover, novel evidence from our study could be used in the metabolic engineering of these biological pathways to improve the resilience of Bt cotton against insect/pest attacks. Lastly, our findings are also in complete support of employing deep machine learning algorithms as a useful tool in metabolomics studies.

Cottonseed oil: A review of extraction techniques, physicochemical, functional, and nutritional properties

Seed oils are the richest source of vitamin-E-active compounds, which contribute significantly to antioxidant activities. Cottonseed oil (CS-O) is attaining more consideration owing to its high fiber content and stability against auto-oxidation. CS-O has gained a good reputation in the global edible oil market due to its distinctive fatty acid profile, anti-inflammatory, and cardio-protective properties. CS-O can be extracted from cottonseed (CS) by microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), aqueous/solvent extraction (A/SE), aqueous ethanol extraction (A-EE), subcritical water extraction, supercritical carbon dioxide extraction (SC-CO₂), and enzyme-assisted extraction (E-AE). In this review, the importance, byproducts, physicochemical characteristics, and nutritional profile of CS-O have been explained in detail. This paper also provides a summary of scientific studies existing on functional and phytochemical characteristics of CS-O. Its consumption and health benefits are also deliberated to discover its profitability and applications. CS-O contains 26-35% saturated, 42-52% polyunsaturated, and 18-24% monounsaturated FA. There is approximately 1000 ppm of tocopherols in unprocessed CS-O, but up to one-third is lost during processing. Moreover, besides being consumed as cooking oil, CS-O discovers applications in many fields such as biofuel, livestock, cosmetics, agriculture, and chemicals. This paper provides a comprehensive review of CS-O, its positive benefits, fatty acid profile, extraction techniques, and health applications.HighlightsCS-O is a rich source of exceptional fatty acids.Various techniques to extract the CS-O are discussed.Numerous physicochemical properties of CS-O for the potential market are assessed.It has a wide range of functional properties.Nutritional quality and health benefits are also evaluated.

Utilizing Nutritional and Polyphenolic Compounds in Underutilized Plant Seeds for Health Application

Plants represent a significant part of the human diet. Humans have utilized every part of plants for survival, and seeds are no exception. Seeds offer high protein, unsaturated fats, fibre, essential vitamins, and minerals for various food applications. They are also a promising reservoir of bioactive compounds, where various phytochemicals, such as polyphenolic compounds, capable of maintaining and improving well-being, are present in abundant quantities. Plants from Malvaceae and Cannabaceae families are known for their fibre-rich stems that benefit humankind by serving numerous purposes. For many centuries they have been exploited extensively for various commercial and industrial uses. Their seeds, which are often regarded as a by-product of fibre processing, have been scientifically discovered to have an essential role in combating hypercholesterolemia, diabetes, cancer, and oxidative stress. Maximizing the use of these agricultural wastes can be a promising approach to creating a more sustainable world, in accordance with the concept of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Role of WRKY Transcription Factors in Regulation of Abiotic Stress Responses in Cotton

Environmental factors are the major constraints in sustainable agriculture. WRKY proteins are a large family of transcription factors (TFs) that regulate various developmental processes and stress responses in plants, including cotton. On the basis of Gossypium raimondii genome sequencing, WRKY TFs have been identified in cotton and characterized for their functions in abiotic stress responses. WRKY members of cotton play a significant role in the regulation of abiotic stresses, i.e., drought, salt, and extreme temperatures. These TFs either activate or repress various signaling pathways such as abscisic acid, jasmonic acid, salicylic acid, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK), and the scavenging of reactive oxygen species. WRKY-associated genes in cotton have been genetically engineered in Arabidopsis, Nicotiana, and Gossypium successfully, which subsequently enhanced tolerance in corresponding plants against abiotic stresses. Although a few review reports are available for WRKY TFs, there is no critical report available on the WRKY TFs of cotton. Hereby, the role of cotton WRKY TFs in environmental stress responses is studied to enhance the understanding of abiotic stress response and further improve in cotton plants.

Anti-Candida Properties of Gossypium hirsutum L.: Enhancement of Fungal Growth, Biofilm Production and Antifungal Resistance

(1) Background: Candida is a genus of yeasts with notable pathogenicity and significant ability to develop antimicrobial resistance. Gossypium hirsutum L., a medicinal plant that is traditionally used due to its antimicrobial properties, has demonstrated significant antifungal activity. Therefore, this study investigated the chemical composition and anti-Candida effects of aqueous (AELG) and hydroethanolic (HELG) extracts obtained from the leaves of this plant. (2) Methods: The extracts were chemically characterized by UPLC–QTOF-MS/MS, and their anti-Candida activities were investigated by analyzing cell viability, biofilm production, morphological transition, and enhancement of antifungal resistance. (3) Results: The UPLC–QTOF-MS/MS analysis revealed the presence of twenty-one compounds in both AELG and HELG, highlighting the predominance of flavonoids. The combination of the extracts with fluconazole significantly reduced its IC₅₀ values against Candida albicans INCQS 40006, Candida tropicalis INCQS 40042, and C. tropicalis URM 4262 strains, indicating enhanced antifungal activity. About biofilm production, significant inhibition was observed only for the AELG-treated C. tropicalis URM 4262 strain in comparison with the untreated control. Accordingly, this extract showed more significant inhibitory effects on the morphological transition of the INCQS 40006 and URM 4387 strains of C. albicans (4) Conclusions: Gossypium hirsutum L. presents promising antifungal effects, that may be potentially linked to the combined activity of chemical constituents identified in its extracts.

Ethnobotanical and antimicrobial activities of the Gossypium (Cotton) genus: A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The Malvaceae family, an important group of plants that have the Gossypium (cotton) genus has been used in folk medicine to treat microbial diseases and symptoms.

AIMS OF THE STUDY

This article aims to understand its ethnobotany expression in communities and scientific elucidation of antimicrobial activities of this genus through literature review.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The bibliographic survey was carried out from 1999 to 2019 with keywords combinations such as "Gossypium + ethnobotanical", " Gossypium + medicinal ", "Gossypium + the biological activity" in scientific databases as Pubmed, Scopus, Web of Science, DOAJ, Scielo, Bireme.

RESULTS

After data analysis, we found that the Gossypium genus, specifically Gossypium hirsutum, G. barbadense, G. herbaceum, G. arboreum are the species most cited in the treatment of microbial diseases and symptoms in communities all over the world. In light of scientific elucidation of biological activities, the Gossypium genus has been used to treat protozoal, bacterial, fungal, and viral diseases.

CONCLUSIONS

The review demonstrated that the Gossypium genus is a promising source of biological activities against microbial diseases, especially in the treatment of protozoal diseases like malaria.

Pilot scale demonstration of a two-stage pretreatment and bioethanol fermentation process for cotton gin trash

A two-stage dilute acid and steam explosion (SE) pretreatment process was developed and evaluated at pilot scale for ethanol production from cotton gin trash (CGT). Optimal conditions for CGT processing were defined as 1:6 solids to liquids ratio with 9% H₂SO₄ wt. on solids at 180 °C for 15 min. during stage 1 with ensuing pressed fibres successively exposed to SE at 200 °C for 5 min during stage 2. SE fibres were highly acquiescent to enzyme hydrolysis (76%) in the presence of PEG 6000, yielding 381 g glucose kg^-1 fibre. Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) trials validated the selected process option and additional fed-batch SSFs confirmed titres above the minimum 4% ww^-1 benchmark for economically viable distillation. The practicality of converting CGT to ethanol was demonstrated at pilot scale with titres above 4% ww^-1 and a conversion efficiency of 60% t^-1 dry GCT.

Changes in secondary metabolites and fiber quality of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) seed under consecutive water stress and in silico analysis of cellulose synthase and xyloglucan endotransglucosylase

Global warming has led to severe drought conditions. The selection of plant varieties that can withstand drought and produce increased yields are of utmost importance. In the current study, secondary metabolites, seed trait and fiber characteristic of cottonseeds (Gossypium hirsutum) exposed to double and third water stress exposure was investigated. Total phenol and tannin content in W₁S₃₃ increased significantly after third water stress exposure. Accumulation of wax was enhanced in seeds of W₃S₃₃ and W₃S₃₄ that were subjected to third water stress. Fiber quality parameters decreased when cottonseeds were rainfed. High irrigation resulted in fragile and delicate fiber. Seeds grown under 66% FC irrigation saved water and produced seeds that had the potential of producing high quality fibers. In silico analysis was performed on cellulose synthase A (CesA) and xyloglucan endotransglycosylase (XET) enzymes present in Gossypium hirsutum. The intracellular locations of the CesA and XET1 enzymes are the plasma membrane and cell wall, respectively. Proline is conserved in the C-terminal of the CesA enzyme and plays an important role in enzyme functionality. This study provides a better understanding as to the mechanisms by which the plant can tolerate and combat water stress conditions as well as reduce water consumption. In order to grow cotton seeds with desirable morphometric characteristics and optimal fibers under water stress exposure and in dry areas, it is better to use seeds that are irrigated under optimal irrigation conditions, ie 66% FC.

Glutathione S-transferases GhGSTF1 and GhGSTF2 involved in the anthocyanin accumulation in Gossypium hirsutum L

The glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) are important enzymes of secondary metabolism in plants. In this study, two putative GSTs, GhGSTF1 and GhGSTF2, were identified as anthocyanin-related GSTs by the transcriptome data of the leaves of Gossypium hirsutum L. TM-1 and T586. The quantitative real-time PCR showed that GhGSTF1 and GhGSTF2 were highly expressed in red leaves and stems of Gossypium hirsutum L. T586. Orthologous genes of GhGSTF2 in two Gossypium barbadense L. 3-79 and Xinhai21 contain bases deletion in N-terminal (GbGSTF2a) and C-terminal (GbGSTF2b) respectively. Among which, GhGSTF1 and GhGSTF2 can restore pigmentation in hypocotyls of Arabidopsis thaliana mutant tt19-7 while GbGSTF2a and GbGSTF2b cannot. Furthermore, in vitro assays showed the recombinant GhGSTF1 and GhGSTF2 had Glutathione S-transferase activities. Fluorescence quenching assays showed that Cya could obviously quench the fluorescence of GhGSTF1, GhGSTF2, GbGSTF2a and GbGSTF2b to lower levels as compared to C3G. Moreover, the transient dual-luciferase assays showed that the promoters of GhGSTF1 and GhGSTF2 could be activated by GhPAP1D at different levels. GUS staining assays showed that their promoters have different activities to light. This study indicated that GhGSTF1 and GhGSTF2 play important roles in anthocyanin accumulation and the regulatory mechanism of anthocyanin accumulation in allotetraploid Gossypium are complicated.

Chemical volatiles present in cotton gin trash: A by-product of cotton processing

Cotton gin trash (CGT), a waste product of cotton gins, make up about 10% of each bale of cotton bolls ginned. The current study investigates high value volatile compounds in CGT to add value to this by-product. The volatile compounds in CGT and different parts of the cotton plant were extracted using various methods, identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) or nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and then quantified by gas chromatography-flame ionisation detection (GC-FID) against available standards. Terpenoids including monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids were found to be the most abundant, making up 64.66% (area under peak) of total volatiles extracted by hydro-distillation. The major extractable terpenoids in CGT were α-pinene (13.69-23.05 μg/g), β-caryophyllene (3.99-74.32 μg/g), α-humulene (2.00-25.71 μg/g), caryophyllene oxide (41.50-102.08 μg/g) and β-bisabolol (40.05-137.32 μg/g). Recoveries varied between different extraction methods. The terpenoids were found to be more abundant in the calyx (659.12 μg/g) and leaves (627.72 μg/g) than in stalks (112.97 μg/g) and stems (24.24 μg/g) of the cotton plant, indicating the possible biological origin of CGT volatiles. This study is the first to identify and quantify the different terpenoids present in CGT and significantly, β-bisabolol, an abundant compound (sesquiterpene alcohol) which may have valuable biological prospects. These findings therefore contribute to identifying alternative management strategies and uses of CGT.

Mapping the Secretome and Its N-Linked Glycosylation of Pleurotus eryngii and Pleurotus ostreatus Grown on Hemp Stalks

Our previous research showed that Pleurotus eryngii and Pleurotus ostreatus were effective fungi for pretreatment of industrial hemp stalks to improve enzymatic saccharification. The secretomes of these two fungi were analyzed to search for the effective enzyme cocktails degrading hemp lignin during the pretreatment process. In total, 169 and 155 proteins were identified in Pleurotus eryngii and Pleurotus ostreatus, respectively, and 50% of the proteins involved in lignocellulose degradation were CAZymes. Because most of the extracellular proteins secreted by fungi are glycosylated proteins, the N-linked glycosylation of enzymes could be mapped. In total, 27 and 24 N-glycosylated peptides were detected in Pleurotus eryngii and Pleurotus ostreatus secretomes, respectively. N-Glycosylated peptides of laccase, GH92, exoglucanase, phenol oxidase, α-galactosidase, carboxylic ester hydrolase, and pectin lyase were identified. Deglycosylation could decrease enzymatic saccharification of hemp stalks. The activities of laccase, α-galactosidase, and phenol oxidase and the thermal stability of laccase were reduced after deglycosylation.

Subtle regulation of cotton resistance to Verticillium wilt mediated by MAPKK family members

Verticillium wilt caused by soil-borne fungus of Verticillium dahliae Kleb. is one of the most devastating diseases of cotton. Since the hierarchically organized mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade plays pivotal roles in signaling plant defense against pathogen attack, and the key nodes of MAPKKs (MKKs) may serve as for the convergence and divergence of signals in MAPK cascades, the possible relations between MAPK signaling and cotton Verticillium resistance were examined in this study. A total of 24 MKK genes were identified in the Gossypium hirsutum L. genome and then classified based on phylogenetic analysis. Then the regulation roles of all types of cotton MKKs in activation of cotton disease resistance were tested with the virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) method. The results showed that three types of MKKs (GhMKK4, GhMKK6 and GhMKK9) positively regulate, while GhMKK10 negatively regulate the cotton resistance to Verticillium wilt. Further, more subtle regulation of cotton resistance mediated by MKK genes were revealed. In GhMKK9, only Gh_A12G2448 and Gh_D12G2574 displayed positive regulation of cotton resistance; whereas only Gh_A12G1883 and Gh_D12G2062 displayed negative regulation of cotton resistance in GhMKK10. All these results show that MKK members in MAPK signal cascades play dual roles in subtly regulating of cotton resistance to Verticillium wilt.

One-Bath Pretreatment for Enhanced Color Yield of Ink-Jet Prints Using Reactive Inks

In order to facilely increase the color yield of ink-jet prints using reactive inks, one-bath pretreatment of cotton fabrics with pretreatment formulation containing sodium alginate, glycidyltrimethylammonium chloride (GTA), sodium hydroxide, and urea is designed for realizing sizing and cationization at the same time. The pretreatment conditions, including the concentrations of GTA and alkali, baking temperature, and time are optimized based on the result of thecolor yield on cationic cotton for magenta ink. The mechanism for color yield enhancement on GTA-modified fabrics is discussed and the stability of GTA in the print paste is investigated. Scanning electron microscopey, tear strength, and thermogravimetric analysis of the modified and unmodified cotton are studied and compared. Using the optimal pretreatment conditions, color yield on the cationic cotton for magenta, cyan, yellow, and black reactive inks are increased by 128.7%, 142.5%, 71.0%, and 38.1%, respectively, compared with the corresponding color yield on the uncationized cotton. Much less wastewater is produced using this one-bath pretreatment method. Colorfastness of the reactive dyes on the modified and unmodified cotton is compared and boundary clarity between different colors is evaluated by ink-jet printing of colorful patterns.