Bee Venom: Overview of Main Compounds and Bioactivities for Therapeutic Interests

Melittin alleviates sepsis-induced acute kidney injury by promoting GPX4 expression to inhibit ferroptosis

OBJECTIVES

Melittin, the main component of bee venom, is a natural anti-inflammatory substance, in addition to its ability to fight cancer, antiviral, and useful in diabetes treatment. This study seeks to determine whether melittin can protect renal tissue from sepsis-induced damage by preventing ferroptosis and explore the protective mechanism.

METHODS

In this study, we investigated the specific protective mechanism of melittin against sepsis-induced renal injury by screening renal injury indicators and ferroptosis -related molecules and markers in animal and cellular models of sepsis.

RESULTS

Our results showed that treatment with melittin attenuated the pathological changes in mice with lipopolysaccharide-induced acute kidney injury. Additionally, we found that melittin attenuated ferroptosis in kidney tissue by enhancing GPX4 expression, which ultimately led to the reduction of kidney tissue injury. Furthermore, we observed that melittin enhanced NRF2 nuclear translocation, which consequently upregulated GPX4 expression. our findings suggest that melittin may be a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of sepsis-associated acute kidney injury by inhibiting ferroptosis through the GPX4/NRF2 pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study reveals the protective mechanism of melittin in septic kidney injury and provides a new therapeutic direction for Sepsis-AKI.

Toxin-derived peptides: An unconventional approach to alleviating cerebral stroke burden and neurobehavioral impairments

Cerebral stroke is a pressing global health concern, ranking as the second leading cause of mortality and resulting in persistent neurobehavioral impairments. Cerebral strokes, triggered by various embolic events, initiate complex signaling pathways involving neuroexcitotoxicity, ionic imbalances, inflammation, oxidative stress, acidosis, and mitochondrial dysfunction, leading to programmed cell death. Currently, the FDA has approved tissue plasminogen activator as a relatively benign intervention for cerebral stroke, leaving a significant treatment gap. However, a promising avenue has emerged from Earth's toxic creatures. Animal venoms harbor bioactive molecules, particularly neuropeptides, with potential in innovative healthcare applications. These venomous components, affecting ion channels, receptors, and transporters, encompass neurochemicals, amino acids, and peptides, making them prime candidates for treating cerebral ischemia and neurological disorders. This review explores the composition, applications, and significance of toxin-derived peptides as viable therapeutic agents. It also investigates diverse toxins from select venomous creatures, with the primary objective of shedding light on current stroke treatments and paving the way for pioneering therapeutic strategies capable of addressing neurobehavioral deficits.

Potential therapeutic biomolecules of hymenopteran venom against SARS-CoV-2 from Egyptian patients

The therapeutic potential of insect-derived bioactive molecules as anti-SARS-CoV-2 agents has shown promising results. Hymenopteran venoms, notably from Apis mellifera (honeybee) and Vespa orientalis (oriental wasp), were examined for the first time in an in vitro setting for their potential anti-COVID-19 activity. This assessment utilized an immunodiagnostic system to detect the SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid antigen titer reduction. Further analyses, including cytotoxicity assays, plaque reduction assays, and in silico docking-based screening, were performed to evaluate the efficacy of the most potent venom. Results indicated that bee and wasp venoms contain bioactive molecules with potential therapeutic effects against SARS-CoV-2.Nevertheless, the wasp venom exhibited superior efficacy compared to bee venom, achieving a 90% maximal (EC90) concentration effect of antigen depletion at 0.184 mg/mL, in contrast to 2.23 mg/mL for bee venom. The cytotoxicity of the wasp venom was assessed on Vero E6 cells 48 h post-treatment using the MTT assay. The CC 50 of the cell growth was 0.16617 mg/mL for Vero E6 cells. The plaque reduction assay of wasp venom revealed 50% inhibition (IC50) at a 0.208 mg/mL concentration. The viral count at 50% inhibition was 2.5 × 104 PFU/mL compared to the initial viral count of 5 × 104 PFU/mL. In silico data for the wasp venom revealed a strong attraction to binding sites on the ACE2 protein, indicating ideal interactions. This substantiates the potential of wasp venom as a promising viral inhibitor against SARS-CoV-2, suggesting its consideration as a prospective natural preventive and curative antiviral drug. In conclusion, hymenopteran venoms, particularly wasp venom, hold promise as a source of potential therapeutic biomolecules against SARS-CoV-2. More research and clinical trials are needed to evaluate these results and investigate their potential for translation into innovative antiviral therapies.

Bee venom enhances performance and immune function in thinlip mullet: A promising approach for sustainable aquaculture

As an environmentally friendly alternative to antibiotics, bee venom holds promise for aquaculture due to its diverse health advantages, including immune-amplifying and anti-inflammatory features. This study investigated the effects of dietary bee venom (BV) on the growth and physiological performance of Thinlip mullet (Liza ramada) with an initial body weight of 40.04 ± 0.11 g for 60 days. Fish were distributed to five dietary treatments (0, 2, 4, 6, and 8 mg BV/kg diet) with three replicates. Growth traits, gut enzyme ability (lipase, protease, amylase), intestinal and liver histology, blood biochemistry, immune responses [lysozyme activity (LYZ), bactericidal activity (BA), nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT%)], and antioxidant status [superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), malondialdehyde (MDA)] were evaluated. BV supplementation significantly improved growth performance, digestive enzyme activity, histological integrity of organs, immune responses (LYZ, BA), and antioxidant status (SOD, CAT, GPx), while declining MDA levels. Optimal BV levels were identified between 4.2 and 5.8 mg/kg diet for different parameters. Overall, the findings suggest that BV supplementation can enhance growth and physiological performance in Thinlip mullet, highlighting its potential as a beneficial dietary supplement for fish health and aquaculture management.

Being Stung Once or Twice by Bees (Apis mellifera L.) Slightly Disturbed the Serum Metabolome of SD Rats to a Similar Extent

In most cases, the number of honeybee stings received by the body is generally small, but honeybee stings can still cause serious allergic reactions. This study fully simulated bee stings under natural conditions and used 1H Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (1H NMR) to analyze the changes in the serum metabolome of Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats stung once or twice by honeybees to verify the impact of this mild sting on the body and its underlying mechanism. The differentially abundant metabolites between the blank control rats and the rats stung by honeybees included four amino acids (aspartate, glutamate, glutamine, and valine) and four organic acids (ascorbic acid, lactate, malate, and pyruvate). There was no separation between the sting groups, indicating that the impact of stinging once or twice on the serum metabolome was similar. Using the Principal Component Discriminant Analysis ( PCA-DA) and Variable Importance in Projection (VIP) methods, glucose, lactate, and pyruvate were identified to help distinguish between sting groups and non-sting groups. Metabolic pathway analysis revealed that four metabolic pathways, namely, the tricarboxylic acid cycle, pyruvate metabolism, glutamate metabolism, and alanine, aspartate, and glutamate metabolism, were significantly affected by bee stings. The above results can provide a theoretical basis for future epidemiological studies of bee stings and medical treatment of patients stung by honeybees.

Amelioration of melittin on adjuvant-induced rheumatoid arthritis: Integrated transcriptome and metabolome

BACKGROUND

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disease lacking a definitive cure. Although conventional treatments such as dexamethasone and methotrexate are prevalent, their usage is constrained by potential adverse effects. Melittin (MLT) has emerged as a promising natural anti-rheumatic drug; however, studies focusing on the role of MLT in modulating the expression and metabolism of RA-related genes are scarce.

METHOD

Arthritis was induced in rats using Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA), followed by MLT injections for treatment. Post-treatment, the inflammatory status of each group was assessed, and the mechanistic underpinnings of MLT's ameliorative effects on RA were elucidated through transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses. Additionally, this study conducted qRT-PCR validation of key therapeutic genes and characterized the molecular docking interactions of MLT with key receptor proteins (TNF-α and IL-1β) using the AutoDock Vina software.

RESULT

MLT significantly diminished redness and swelling in affected joints, ameliorated inflammatory cell infiltration, and mitigated joint damage. Integration of transcriptomic and metabolomic data revealed that MLT predominantly regulated the transcription levels of pathways and genes related to cytokines and immune responses, and the metabolic biomarkers of Sphingomyelin, fatty acid, and flavonoid. qRT-PCR confirmed MLT's downregulation of inflammation-related genes such as Il6, Jak2, Stat3, and Ptx3. Molecular docking simulations demonstrated the stable binding of MLT to TNF-α and IL-1β.

CONCLUSION

MLT demonstrated significant efficacy in alleviating RA. This study provides a comprehensive summary of MLT's impact on gene expression and metabolic processes associated with RA.

Hive Products: Composition, Pharmacological Properties, and Therapeutic Applications

Beekeeping provides products with nutraceutical and pharmaceutical characteristics. These products are characterized by abundance of bioactive compounds. For different reasons, honey, royal jelly, propolis, venom, and pollen are beneficial to humans and animals and could be used as therapeutics. The pharmacological action of these products is related to many of their constituents. The main bioactive components of honey include oligosaccharides, methylglyoxal, royal jelly proteins (MRJPs), and phenolics compounds. Royal jelly contains jelleins, royalisin peptides, MRJPs, and derivatives of hydroxy-decenoic acid, particularly 10-hydroxy-2-decenoic acid (10-HDA), which possess antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, neuromodulatory, metabolic syndrome-preventing, and anti-aging properties. Propolis has a plethora of activities that are referable to compounds such as caffeic acid phenethyl ester. Peptides found in bee venom include phospholipase A2, apamin, and melittin. In addition to being vitamin-rich, bee pollen also includes unsaturated fatty acids, sterols, and phenolics compounds that express antiatherosclerotic, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory properties. Therefore, the constituents of hive products are particular and different. All of these constituents have been investigated for their properties in numerous research studies. This review aims to provide a thorough screening of the bioactive chemicals found in honeybee products and their beneficial biological effects. The manuscript may provide impetus to the branch of unconventional medicine that goes by the name of apitherapy.

The Helix Ring Peptide U11 from the Venom of the Ant, Tetramorium bicarinatum, Acts as a Putative Pore-Forming Toxin

An insect neuroactive helix ring peptide called U11-MYRTX-Tb1a (abbreviated as U11) from the venom of the ant, Tetramorium bicarinatum. U11 is a 34-amino-acid peptide that is claimed to be one of the most paralytic peptides ever reported from ant venoms acting against blowflies and honeybees. The peptide features a compact triangular ring helix structure stabilized by a single disulfide bond, which is a unique three-dimensional scaffold among animal venoms. Pharmacological assays using Drosophila S2 cells have demonstrated that U11 is not cytotoxic but instead suggest that it may modulate potassium channels via the presence of a functional dyad. In our work described here, we have tested this hypothesis by investigating the action of synthetically made U11 on a wide array of voltage-gated K and Na channels since it is well known that these channels play a crucial role in the phenomenon of paralysis. Using the Xenopus laevis oocyte heterologous expression system and voltage clamp, our results have not shown any modulatory effect of 1 μM U11 on the activity of Kv1.1, Kv1.3, Kv1.4, Kv1.5, Shaker IR, Kv4.2, Kv7.1, Kv10.1, Kv11.1 and KQT1, nor on DmNav and BgNav. Instead, 10 μM U11 caused a quick and irreversible cytolytic effect, identical to the cytotoxic effect caused by Apis mellifera venom, which indicates that U11 can act as a pore-forming peptide. Interestingly, the paralytic dose (PD50) on blowflies and honeybees corresponds with the concentration at which U11 displays clear pore-forming activity. In conclusion, our results indicate that the insecticidal and paralytic effects caused by U11 may be explained by the putative pore formation of the peptide.

Comparison of Muscle Regeneration Effects at Different Melittin Concentrations in Rabbit Atrophied Muscle

This research aimed to explore the healing impacts of Melittin treatment on gastrocnemius muscle wasting caused by immobilization with a cast in rabbits. Twenty-four rabbits were randomly allocated to four groups. The procedures included different injections: 0.2 mL of normal saline to Group 1 (G1-NS); 4 μg/kg of Melittin to Group 2 (G2-4 μg/kg Melittin); 20 μg/kg of Melittin to Group 3 (G3-20 μg/kg Melittin); and 100 μg/kg of Melittin to Group 4 (G4-100 μg/kg Melittin). Ultrasound was used to guide the injections into the rabbits' atrophied calf muscles following two weeks of immobilization via casting. Clinical measurements, including the length of the calf, the compound muscle action potential (CMAP) of the tibial nerve, and the gastrocnemius muscle thickness, were assessed. Additionally, cross-sectional slices of gastrocnemius muscle fibers were examined, and immunohistochemistry and Western blot analyses were performed following two weeks of therapy. The mean regenerative changes, as indicated by clinical parameters, in Group 4 were significantly more pronounced than in the other groups (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the cross-sectional area of the gastrocnemius muscle fibers and immunohistochemical indicators in Group 4 exceeded those in the remaining groups (p < 0.05). Western blot analysis also showed a more significant presence of anti-inflammatory and angiogenic cytokines in Group 4 compared to the others (p < 0.05). Melittin therapy at a higher dosage can more efficiently activate regeneration in atrophied gastrocnemius muscle compared to lower doses of Melittin or normal saline.

Bee Venom-Loaded Niosomes as Innovative Platforms for Cancer Treatment: Development and Therapeutical Efficacy and Safety Evaluation

Despite past efforts towards therapeutical innovation, cancer remains a highly incident and lethal disease, with current treatments lacking efficiency and leading to severe side effects. Hence, it is imperative to develop new, more efficient, and safer therapies. Bee venom has proven to have multiple and synergistic bioactivities, including antitumor effects. Nevertheless, some toxic effects have been associated with its administration. To tackle these issues, in this work, bee venom-loaded niosomes were developed, for cancer treatment. The vesicles had a small (150 nm) and homogeneous (polydispersity index of 0.162) particle size, and revealed good therapeutic efficacy in in vitro gastric, colorectal, breast, lung, and cervical cancer models (inhibitory concentrations between 12.37 ng/mL and 14.72 ng/mL). Additionally, they also revealed substantial anti-inflammatory activity (inhibitory concentration of 28.98 ng/mL), effects complementary to direct antitumor activity. Niosome safety was also assessed, both in vitro (skin, liver, and kidney cells) and ex vivo (hen's egg chorioallantoic membrane), and results showed that compound encapsulation increased its safety. Hence, small, and homogeneous bee venom-loaded niosomes were successfully developed, with substantial anticancer and anti-inflammatory effects, making them potentially promising primary or adjuvant cancer therapies. Future research should focus on evaluating the potential of the developed platform in in vivo models.

Immunomodulatory activities and biomedical applications of melittin and its recent advances

Melittin (MLT), a peptide containing 26 amino acids, is a key constituent of bee venom. It comprises ∼40%-60% of the venom's dry weight and is the main pricing index for bee venom, being the causative factor of pain. The unique properties of MLT extracted from bee venom have made it a very valuable active ingredient in the pharmaceutical industry as this cationic and amphipathic peptide has propitious effects on human health in diverse biological processes. It has the ability to strongly impact the membranes of cells and display hemolytic activity with anticancer characteristics. However, the clinical application of MLT has been limited by its severe hemolytic activity, which poses a challenge for therapeutic use. By employing more efficient mechanisms, such as modifying the MLT sequence, genetic engineering, and nano-delivery systems, it is anticipated that the limitations posed by MLT can be overcome, thereby enabling its wider application in therapeutic contexts. This review has outlined recent advancements in MLT's nano-delivery systems and genetically engineered cells expressing MLT and provided an overview of where the MLTMLT's platforms are and where they will go in the future with the challenges ahead. The focus is on exploring how these approaches can overcome the limitations associated with MLT's hemolytic activity and improve its selectivity and efficacy in targeting cancer cells. These advancements hold promise for the creation of innovative and enhanced therapeutic approaches based on MLT for the treatment of cancer.

Analgesic Peptides: From Natural Diversity to Rational Design

Pain affects one-third of the global population and is a significant public health issue. The use of opioid drugs, which are the strongest painkillers, is associated with several side effects, such as tolerance, addiction, overdose, and even death. An increasing demand for novel, safer analgesic agents is a driving force for exploring natural sources of bioactive peptides with antinociceptive activity. Since the G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) play a crucial role in pain modulation, the discovery of new peptide ligands for GPCRs is a significant challenge for novel drug development. The aim of this review is to present peptides of human and animal origin with antinociceptive potential and to show the possibilities of their modification, as well as the design of novel structures. The study presents the current knowledge on structure-activity relationship in the design of peptide-based biomimetic compounds, the modification strategies directed at increasing the antinociceptive activity, and improvement of metabolic stability and pharmacodynamic profile. The procedures employed in prolonged drug delivery of emerging compounds are also discussed. The work summarizes the conditions leading to the development of potential morphine replacements.

Bee venom genotoxicity on Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells - The role of mitochondria and YAP1 transcription factor

The present work aims to clarify the genotype differences of a model organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae in response to bee venom. The study evaluated various endpoints including cell survival, induction of physiologically active superoxide anions, mitotic gene conversion, mitotic crossing-over, reverse mutations, DNA double-strand breaks, and Ty1 retrotransposition. The role of the intact mitochondria and the YAP1 transcription factor was also evaluated. Our results indicate a genotype-specific response. The first experimental evidence has been provided that bee venom induces physiologically active superoxide anions and DNA double-strand breaks in S. cerevisiae. The lack of oxidative phosphorylation due to disrupted or missing mitochondrial DNA reduces but not diminishes the cytotoxicity of bee venom. The possible modes of action could be considered direct damage to membranes (cytotoxic effect) and indirect damage to DNA through oxidative stress (genotoxic effect). YAP1 transcription factor was not found to be directly involved in cell defense against bee venom treatment.

Applications of honeybee-derived products in bone tissue engineering

Nowadays, there is an increasing prevalence of bone diseases and defects caused by trauma, cancers, infections, and degenerative and inflammatory conditions. The restoration of bone tissue lost due to trauma, fractures, or surgical removal resulting from locally invasive pathologies requires bone regeneration. As an alternative to conventional treatments, sustainable materials based on natural products, such as honeybee-derived products (honey, propolis, royal jelly, bee pollen, beeswax, and bee venom), could be considered. Honeybee-derived products, particularly honey, have long been recognized for their healing properties. There are a mixture of phytochemicals that offer bone protection through their antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. This review aims to summarize the current evidence regarding the effects of honeybee-derived products on bone regeneration. In conclusion, honey, propolis, royal jelly, beeswax, and bee venom can potentially serve as natural products for promoting bone health.

1 H-NMR revealed pyruvate as a differentially abundant metabolite in the venom glands of Apis cerana and Apis mellifera

As a common defense mechanism in Hymenoptera, bee venom has complex components. Systematic and comprehensive analysis of bee venom components can aid in early evaluation, accurate diagnosis, and protection of organ function in humans in cases of bee stings. To determine the differences in bee venom composition and metabolic pathways between Apis cerana and Apis mellifera, proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1 H-NMR) technology was used to detect the metabolites in venom samples. A total of 74 metabolites were identified and structurally analyzed in the venom of A. cerana and A. mellifera. Differences in the composition and abundance of major components of bee venom from A. cerana and A. mellifera were mapped to four main metabolic pathways: valine, leucine and isoleucine biosynthesis; glycine, serine and threonine metabolism; alanine, aspartate and glutamate metabolism; and the tricarboxylic acid cycle. These findings indicated that the synthesis and metabolic activities of proteins or polypeptides in bee venom glands were different between A. cerana and A. mellifera. Pyruvate was highly activated in 3 selected metabolic pathways in A. mellifera, being much more dominant in A. mellifera venom than in A. cerana venom. These findings indicated that pyruvate in bee venom glands is involved in various life activities, such as biosynthesis and energy metabolism, by acting as a precursor substance or intermediate product.

Unlocking the Potential of Substrate Quality for the Enhanced Antibacterial Activity of Black Soldier Fly against Pathogens

Globally, antibiotics are facing fierce resistance from multidrug-resistant bacterial strains. There is an urgent need for eco-friendly alternatives. Though insects are important targets for antimicrobial peptides, it has received limited research attention. This study investigated the impact of waste substrates on the production of antibacterial agents in black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) larvae (HIL) and their implications in the suppression of pathogens [Bacillus subtilis (ATCC 6051), Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 27853), and Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922)]. The 20% acetic acid (AcOH) extract from market waste had the highest antibacterial activity with an inhibition zone of 17.00 mm, followed by potato waste (15.02 mm) against S. aureus. Hexane extract from HIL raised on market waste also showed a significant inhibitory zone (13.06 mm) against B. subtilis. .Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values recorded were 25 mg/mL against all test pathogens. The fastest time-kill of 20% AcOH extract was 4 h againstB. subtilis, E. coli, ,andP. aeruginosa. Lauric acid was also identified as the dominant component of the various hexane extracts with concentrations of 602.76 and 318.17 μg/g in HIL reared on potato and market waste, respectively. Energy from the market waste substrate correlated significantly (r = 0.97) with antibacterial activities. This study highlights the key role of substrate quality and extraction methods for enhancing the production of antibacterial agents in HIL, thus providing new insights into the development of potential drugs to overcome the alarming concerns of antimicrobial resistance.

Anti-Herpes Simplex Virus and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of the Melittin Peptides Derived from Apis mellifera and Apis florea Venom

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is known to cause cold sores and various diseases in humans. Importantly, HSV infection can develop latent and recurrent infections, and it is also known to cause inflammation. These infections are difficult to control, and effective treatment of the disease remains a challenge. Thus, the search for new antiviral and anti-inflammatory agents is a necessity. Melittin is a major peptide that is present in the venom of the honeybee. It possesses a number of pharmacological properties. In this study, the effects of the melittin peptides from A. mellifera (MEL-AM) and A. florea (MEL-AF) against HSV-1 and HSV-2 were evaluated at different stages during the viral multiplication cycle in an attempt to define the mode of antiviral action using plaque reduction and virucidal assays. The results revealed a new finding that melittin at 5 µg/mL demonstrated the highest inhibitory effect on HSV through the direct inactivation of viral particles, and MEL-AF displayed a greater virucidal activity. Moreover, melittin was also observed to interfere with the process of HSV attachment to the host cells. MEL-AM exhibited anti-HSV-1 and anti-HSV-2 effects with EC50 values of 4.90 ± 0.15 and 4.39 ± 0.20 µg/mL, while MEL-AF demonstrated EC50 values of 4.47 ± 0.21 and 3.95 ± 0.61 µg/mL against HSV-1 and HSV-2, respectively. However, non-cytotoxic concentrations of both types of melittin produced only slight degrees of HSV-1 and HSV-2 inhibition after viral attachment, but melittin at 5 µg/mL was able to reduce the plaque size of HSV-2 when compared to the untreated group. In addition, MEL-AM and MEL-AF also exhibited anti-inflammatory activity via the inhibition of nitric oxide production in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells, and they were also found to down-regulate the expressions of the iNOS, COX-2 and IL-6 genes. The highest inhibition of IL-6 mRNA expression was found after treatment with 10 µg/mL of MEL-AM and MEL-AF. Therefore, melittin peptides have displayed strong potential to be used as an alternative treatment for HSV infection and inflammatory diseases in the future.

Revisiting edible insects as sources of therapeutics and drug delivery systems for cancer therapy

Cancer has been medicine's most formidable foe for long, and the rising incidence of the disease globally has made effective cancer therapy a significant challenge. Drug discovery is targeted at identifying efficacious compounds with minimal side effects and developments in nanotechnology and immunotherapy have shown promise in the fight against this complicated illness. Since ancient times, insects and insect-derived products have played a significant role in traditional medicine across several communities worldwide. The aim of this study was to inspect the traditional use of edible insects in various cultures and to explore their modern use in cancer therapy. Edible insects are sources of nutrients and a variety of beneficial substances with anticancer and immunomodulatory potential. Recently, insect derived bioactive-components have also been used as nanoparticles either in combination with chemotherapeutics or as a nano-cargo for the enhanced delivery of chemotherapeutic drugs due to their high biocompatibility, low bio-toxicity, and their antioxidant and anticancer effects. The crude extracts of different edible insects and their active components such as sericin, cecropin, solenopsin, melittin, antimicrobial peptides and fibroin produce anti-cancer and immunomodulatory effects by various mechanisms which have been discussed in this review.

Bee venom: apitherapy and more

Honeybees are becoming increasingly familiar to the general population due to the growing popularity of backyard and amateur beekeeping. Although bee venom produces reactions ranging from mild local irritation to life-threatening anaphylaxis, it is also used for life-saving desensitization immunotherapy in those with severe reactions to bee stings. The use of honeybee venom for immunotherapy has increased due to an enhanced interest in natural therapeutics. Recently, honeybee venom has been administered as a successful, safe, and cost-effective treatment for rheumatoid arthritis, back pain, and skin diseases. During the past two decades, studies have tested honeybee venom's efficacy for treating various skin disorders, including atopic dermatitis, wound healing, and psoriasis. We will review bee venom from multiple perspectives, including its medical applications and mechanisms for dermatological pathologies.

Effect of animal venom toxins on the main links of the homeostasis of mammals (Review)

The human body is affected by environmental factors. The dynamic balance between the organism and its environment results from the influence of natural, anthropogenic and social aspects. The factors of exogenous origin determine development of adaptive changes. The present article summarises the mechanisms of animal venom toxins and homeostasis disruption in the body of mammals. The mechanisms underlying pathological changes are associated with shifts in biochemical reactions. Components of the immune, nervous and endocrine systems are key in the host defense and adaptation processes in response to venom by triggering signalling pathways (PI3kinase pathway, arachidonic acid cascade). Animal venom toxins initiate the development of inflammatory processes, the synthesis of pro-inflammatory mediators (cytokines), ROS, proteolytic enzymes, activate the migration of leukocytes and macrophages. Keratinocytes and endothelial cells act as protective barriers under the action of animal venom toxins on the body of mammals. In addition, the formation of pores in cell membranes, structural changes in cell ion channels are characteristic of the action of animal venom toxins.

Efficacy of the bee-venom antimicrobial peptide Osmin against sensitive and carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae strains

The emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Klebsiella pneumoniae strains causes severe problems in the treatment of bacterial infections owing to limited treatment options. Especially, carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (CRKP) is rapidly spreading worldwide and is emerging as a new cause of drug-resistant healthcare-associated infections. CRKP also has been announced by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the World Health Organization (WHO) as one of the most pressing antibiotic resistance threats. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are drawing considerable attention as ideal antibiotic alternative candidates to combat MDR bacterial infections. In a previous study, Osmin is composed of 17 amino acids and is isolated from solitary bee (Osmia rufa) venom. Herein, we evaluated the potential of Osmin to be used against drug-resistant K. pneumoniae as an alternative to conventional antibiotics. Osmin exhibited significant antimicrobial and anti-biofilm activity and lower toxicity than melittin, a well-known bee venom peptide. Additionally, we confirmed that it possesses a bactericidal mechanism that rapidly destroys bacterial membranes. Osmin was relatively more stable than melittin under the influence of various environmental factors and unlike conventional antibiotics, it exhibited a low bacterial resistance risk. During in vivo tests, Osmin reduced bacterial growth and the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and fibrosis-related genes in mice with CRKP-induced sepsis. Overall, our results indicate a high potential for Osmin to be used as a valuable therapeutic agent against drug-resistant K. pneumoniae infections.

Impact of apitherapy on canine, equine, and chicken lymphocytes, in vitro

Apitherapy is a form of alternative medicine that utilizes products from the western honeybee (Apis mellifera), including honey, propolis, and honeybee venom, to improve the health status of human patients by altering host immunity. An added benefit of these products is that they are nutraceuticals and relatively inexpensive to aquire. Currently, little is known about the use of honeybee products in veterinary species, as well as their impact on host immunity. In the present in vitro study, honey, propolis, and honeybee venom were co-cultured with enriched canine, equine, and chicken peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBLs) with cell proliferation, cell viability/apoptosis, and cellular morphology evaluated. Concanavalin A (Con A) and dexamethasone were used as stimulatory and suppressive controls, respectively. Honeybee products' effects on the three veterinary species varied by product and the species. Honey stimulated the PBLs proliferation in all three species but also displayed some increased cytotoxicity. Propolis stimulated proliferation in canine and equine PBLs, however, it suppressed proliferation in the chicken PBLs. Honeybee venom was the strongest PBL stimulant for all three species and in the equine, surpassed the stimulant response of Con A and yet, enhanced PBL cell viability post culture. In summary, the results of this preliminary in vitro study show that these three honeybee products do impact lymphocyte proliferation and viability in dogs, horses, and chickens, and that more research both in vitro and in vivo will be necessary to draw conclusions regarding their future use as immune stimulants or inhibitors.

Transdermal Properties of Cell-Penetrating Peptides: Applications and Skin Penetration Mechanisms

Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) consist of 5-30 amino acids with intracellular transduction abilities and diverse physicochemical properties, origins, and sequences. Although recent developments in bioinformatics have facilitated the prediction of CPP candidates with the potential for transduction into cells, the mechanisms by which CPPs penetrate cells and various tissues have not yet been elucidated at the molecular interaction level. Recently, the skin-penetrating ability of CPPs has gained wide attention and emerged as a simple and effective strategy for the delivery of macromolecules into the skin. Studies on the skin structure have suggested that the penetration potential of CPPs is based on the molecular interactions and characteristics of the lipid lamellar structure between corneocytes in the stratum corneum. This review provides a brief overview of the general properties, transduction mechanisms, applications, and safety issues of CPPs, focusing on CPPs with transdermal properties, that are currently being used to develop therapeutics and cosmetics.

In vitro Assessment of Free Radical Scavenging Effect and Thermal Protein Denaturation Inhibition of Bee Venom for an Anti-Inflammatory Use

Inflammation and the injuries produced by free radicals are interconnected and influence each other. The underlying mechanisms of inflammation are partially attributed to the release of free radicals by immune cells, prooxidants that can also cause protein alteration. This study was performed in order to assess the potential anti-inflammatory effect of two bee venom samples harvested from Apis mellifera. Free radical scavenging capacity was investigated using DPPH and ABTS.+ tests and protective effect on proteins through the inhibitory activity on thermal denaturation of albumin.

Effects of the insecticide imidacloprid on the post-embryonic development of the honey bee Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae)

The widespread use of pesticides in agriculture has been linked to declines in bee populations worldwide. Imidacloprid is a widely used systemic insecticide that can be found in the pollen and nectar of plants and has the potential to negatively impact the development of bee larvae. We investigated the effects of oral exposure to a realistic field concentration (20.5 ng g-1) of imidacloprid on the midgut and fat body of Apis mellifera worker larvae. Our results showed that larvae exposed to imidacloprid exhibited changes in the midgut epithelium, including disorganization of the brush border, nuclear chromatin condensation, cytoplasm vacuolization, and release of cell fragments indication cell death. Additionally, histochemical analysis revealed that the midgut brush border glycocalyx was disorganized in exposed larvae. The fat body cells of imidacloprid-exposed larvae had a decrease in the size of lipid droplets from 50 to 8 μm and increase of 100 % of protein content, suggesting possible responses to the stress caused by the insecticide. However, the expression of de cdc20 gene, which plays a role in cell proliferation, was not affected in the midgut and fat body of treated larvae. These results suggest that imidacloprid negatively affects non-target organs during the larval development of A. mellifera potentially impacting this important pollinator species.

Unveiling the Pain Relief Potential: Harnessing Analgesic Peptides from Animal Venoms

The concept of pain encompasses a complex interplay of sensory and emotional experiences associated with actual or potential tissue damage. Accurately describing and localizing pain, whether acute or chronic, mild or severe, poses a challenge due to its diverse manifestations. Understanding the underlying origins and mechanisms of these pain variations is crucial for effective management and pharmacological interventions. Derived from a wide spectrum of species, including snakes, arthropods, mollusks, and vertebrates, animal venoms have emerged as abundant repositories of potential biomolecules exhibiting analgesic properties across a broad spectrum of pain models. This review focuses on highlighting the most promising venom-derived toxins investigated as potential prototypes for analgesic drugs. The discussion further encompasses research prospects, challenges in advancing analgesics, and the practical application of venom-derived toxins. As the field continues its evolution, tapping into the latent potential of these natural bioactive compounds holds the key to pioneering approaches in pain management and treatment. Therefore, animal toxins present countless possibilities for treating pain caused by different diseases. The development of new analgesic drugs from toxins is one of the directions that therapy must follow, and it seems to be moving forward by recommending the composition of multimodal therapy to combat pain.

Investigation the effects of bee venom and H-dental-derived mesenchymal stem cells on non-small cell lung cancer cells (A549)

BACKGROUND

Lung cancer, one of the most common oncological diseases worldwide, continues to be the leading cause of cancer-related deaths. The development of new approaches for lung cancer, which still has a low survival rate despite medical advances, is of great importance.

METHODS AND RESULTS

In this study, bee venom (BV), conditioned medium of MSCs isolated from dental follicles (MSC-CM) and cisplatin were applied at different doses and their effects on A549 cell line were evaluated. Dental follicles were used as a source of MSCs source and differentiation kits, and characterization studies (flow cytometry) were performed. Cell viability was measured by the MTT method and apoptosis was measured by an Annexin V-FITC/PI kit on flow cytometer. IC50 dose values were determined according to the 24th hour and were determined as 15.8 µg/mL for BV, 10.78% for MSC-CM and 5.77 µg/mL for cisplatin. IC50 values found for BV and MSC-CM were also given in combination and the effects were observed. It was found that the applied substances caused BV to decrease in cell viability and induced apoptosis in cells. In addition to the induction of apoptosis in BV, MSC-CM, and combined use, all three applications led to an increase in Bax protein expression and a decrease in Bcl-2 protein expression. The molecular mechanism of anticancer activity through inhibition of Bax and Bcl-2 proteins and the NF-κB signaling pathway may be suggested.

CONCLUSION

Isolated MSCs in our study showed anticancer activity and BV and MSC-CM showed synergistic antiproliferative and apoptotic effects.

In-Ovo injection of melittin into Alexandria chicken eggs: a way for early immune acceleration

This study intended to assess the properties of in-ovo administration of Melittin (MLT) on hatchability, chick yield, hematology, immunological indices and relative organs weight of Alexandria chickens at hatch. A total of 600 eggs with an average weight of (45.12 g), were gathered and split into five groups: a non-injected group or negative control (NC), a saline injection group or positive control (PC), and three concentrations of MLT (5, 10 and 15 µg of MLT per egg, respectively). On day 18 of incubation, eggs from the injection groups were injected into the amniotic fluid from the large end with the in-ovo injection solutions (0.2 ml per egg). Results indicated that 10 µg MLT/egg positively affected the weight and yield of chicks. In addition, our findings indicated that the in-ovo administration with 10 or 15 µg MLT/egg was superior in most of the immunological indicators (spleen and bursa relative weights, immunoglobulins IgG and IgM, T cells and B cells). In conclusion, in order to improve the immune efficiency (early immune acceleration) of Alexandria chicks, which may contribute to offering a significant boost to their future performance, this study suggests injecting eggs with 5 or 10 µg MLT/egg.

Melittin: a possible regulator of cancer proliferation in preclinical cell culture and animal models

BACKGROUND

Melittin is a water-soluble cationic peptide derived from bee venom that has been thoroughly studied for the cure of different cancers. However, the unwanted interactions of melittin produce hemolytic and cytotoxic effects that hinder their therapeutic applications. To overcome the shortcomings, numerous research groups have adopted different approaches, including conjugation with tumor-targeting proteins, gene therapy, and encapsulation in nanoparticles, to reduce the non-specific cytotoxic effects and potentiate their anti-cancerous activity.

PURPOSE

This article aims to provide mechanistic insights into the chemopreventive activity of melittin and its nanoversion in combination with standard anti-cancer drugs for the treatment of cancer.

METHODS

We looked over the pertinent research on melittin's chemopreventive properties in online databases such as PubMed and Scopus.

CONCLUSION

In the present article, the anti-cancerous effects of melittin on different cancers have been discussed very nicely, as have their possible mechanisms of action to act against different tumors. Besides, it interacts with different signal molecules that regulate the diverse pathways of cancerous cells, such as cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, metastasis, angiogenesis, and inflammation. We also discussed the recent progress in the synergistic combination of melittin with standard anti-cancer drugs and a nano-formulated version of melittin for targeted delivery to improve its anticancer potential.

Bee Venom and Its Two Main Components-Melittin and Phospholipase A2-As Promising Antiviral Drug Candidates

Viruses are known to infect most types of organisms. In humans, they can cause several diseases that range from mild to severe. Although many antiviral therapies have been developed, viral infections continue to be a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Therefore, the discovery of new and effective antiviral agents is desperately needed. Animal venoms are a rich source of bioactive molecules found in natural goods that have been used since ancient times in alternative medicine to treat a variety of human diseases. Recently, and with the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, scientists have regained their interest in the possible use of natural products, such as bee venom (BV), as a potential antiviral agent to treat viral infections. BV is known to exert many therapeutic activities such as anti-proliferative, anti-bacterial, and anti-inflammatory effects. However, there is limited discussion of the antiviral activity of BV in the literature. Therefore, this review aims to highlight the antiviral properties of BV and its two primary constituents, melittin (MEL) and phospholipase A2 (PLA2), against a variety of enveloped and non-enveloped viruses. Finally, the innovative strategies used to reduce the toxicity of BV and its two compounds for the development of new antiviral treatments are also considered.

Effects of melittin on production performance, antioxidant function, immune function, heat shock protein, intestinal morphology, and cecal microbiota in heat-stressed quails

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of melittin on production performance, antioxidant function, immune function, heat shock protein, intestinal morphology, and cecal microbiota of heat-stressed quails. A total of 120 (30-day-old) male quails were randomly divided into 3 groups. Each group consisted of 4 replicates with 10 birds per replicate. The ambient temperature of the control group (group W) was 24°C ± 2°C. The heat stress group (group WH) and the heat stress + melittin group (group WHA2) were subjected to heat stress for 4 h from 12:00 to 16:00 every day, and the temperature was 36°C ± 2°C for 10 d. The results showed that compared with the group W, heat stress significantly decreased growth performance, serum and liver antioxidative function, immune function, intestinal villus height (VH) and villus height-to-crypt depth ratio (VH/CD), and cecal microbiota Chao and ACE index (P < 0.05). The crypt depth (CD) in the small intestine, and HSP70 and HSP90 mRNA levels in the heart, liver, spleen, and kidney were significantly increased (P < 0.05). Dietary melittin significantly increased growth performance, serum and liver antioxidative function, immune function, intestinal VH and VH/CD, and cecal microbiota Shannon index in heat-stressed quails (P < 0.05). Melittin significantly decreased small intestinal CD, and HSP70 and HSP90 mRNA levels in the viscera (P < 0.05). Furthermore, dietary melittin could have balanced the disorder of cecal microbiota caused by heat stress and increased the abundance and diversity of beneficial microbiota (e.g., Firmicutes were significantly increased). PICRUSt2 functional prediction revealed that most of the KEGG pathways with differential abundance caused by high temperature were related to metabolism, and melittin could have restored them close to normal levels. Spearman correlation analysis showed that the beneficial intestinal bacteria Anaerotruncus, Bacteroidales_S24-7_group_norank, Lachnospiraceae_unclassified, Shuttleworthia, and Ruminococcaceae_UCG-014 increased by melittin were positively correlated with average daily feed intake, the average daily gain, serum and liver superoxide dismutase, IgG, IgA, bursa of Fabricius index, and ileum VH and VH/CD. In sum, our results demonstrate for the first time that dietary melittin could improve the adverse effects of heat stress on antioxidant function, immune function, heat shock protein, intestinal morphology, and cecal microbiota in quails, consequently improving their production performance under heat stress.

Bee venom ameliorates oxidative stress and histopathological changes of hippocampus, liver and testis during status epileptics

The unrelenting progression of neurodegenerative diseases has a negative impact on affected individuals, their families, and society. Recurrent epileptic seizures are the hallmark of epilepsy, and treating it effectively remains difficult. Clarify and understanding effects of the antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) in epilepsy by comparing the therapeutic effects between rats receiving valproic acid (VPA) and Bee venom (BV) was aimed throughout the present study. Four male Wistar rat groups were included: control, epileptic group receiving pilocarpine (PILO), epileptic group treated with VPA and BV respectively. Cognitive functions were assessed by evaluating latency time in hot plate, despair swim test, grooming, rearing and ambulation frequency in the open field. BV has ameliorative effect on electrolytes balancing, assured by decreasing lipid peroxidation, nitric oxide and increasing catalase, superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activities. BV enhanced restoration of liver functions indicated by alanine transaminase (ALT) and aspartate transaminase (AST), total proteins, and albumin; hormonal parameters total and free testosterone, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing hormone (LH) were preserved by BV with great recovery of hippocampus, liver and testicular histopathology and ultrastructure comparing with the epileptic rats. The present findings suggested that BV and its active components offer fresh options for controlling epilepsy and prospective methods via minimize or manage the severe consequences.

Cell Penetrating Peptides: Classification, Mechanisms, Methods of Study, and Applications

Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) encompass a class of peptides that possess the remarkable ability to cross cell membranes and deliver various types of cargoes, including drugs, nucleic acids, and proteins, into cells. For this reason, CPPs are largely investigated in drug delivery applications in the context of many diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, and genetic disorders. While sharing this functionality and some common structural features, such as a high content of positively charged amino acids, CPPs represent an extremely diverse group of elements, which can differentiate under many aspects. In this review, we summarize the most common characteristics of CPPs, introduce their main distinctive features, mechanistic aspects that drive their function, and outline the most widely used techniques for their structural and functional studies. We highlight current gaps and future perspectives in this field, which have the potential to significantly impact the future field of drug delivery and therapeutics.

Melittin acupoint injection in attenuating bone erosion in collagen-induced arthritis mice via inhibition of the RANKL/NF-κB signaling pathway

Background

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease leading to chronic joint inflammation. Bone erosion is the most serious pathological condition of RA and the main cause of joint deformities and disability. Melittin acupoint injection (MAI) is an effective traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) method for RA treatment. This study aimed to investigate the effect of MAI on RA bone erosion and to elucidate the underlying mechanism.

Methods

A collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mouse model was established as the experimental subject. MAI was administrated once every other day for 28 days to mice with CIA. The effects of MAI on joint diseases were assessed by body weight, arthritis index (AI) score, swollen joint count (SJC) score, and hind paw thickness. Ankle radiological changes were captured by micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) and histological changes were observed by pathological staining. Organ histological changes, spleen index, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and creatinine (Crea) levels of serum were tested to evaluate the toxicity of MAI. Cytokine expression levels were confirmed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to evaluate the immunity of CIA mice.

Results

MAI administration markedly improved the clinical signs of CIA in mice, including hind paw thickness, AI, and the number of swollen paw joints (most of them P<0.05 or even <0.01). According to histopathological analysis, MAI ameliorated inflammatory cell infiltration, synovial hyperplasia, pannus formation, and bone erosion (all P<0.01). Micro-CT and tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) staining (P<0.01) also revealed that MAI could relieve bone erosion via reducing the formation of osteoclasts. Not only could MAI relieve the immunological boost [P<0.05 for the high-dose MAI (HM) group], but also it had no liver or kidney side effects (P>0.05). In addition, it decreased the serum levels of interleukin (IL)-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and increased the serum levels of IL-4 and IL-10 (the majority of P<0.05 or even <0.01). Transcriptome sequencing results indicated that MAI affected the expression of osteoclast differentiation pathway genes, which was connected with the receptor activator of the nuclear factor κB ligand/nuclear factor kappa B (RANKL/NF-κB) pathway.

Conclusions

Based on our findings, MAI could suppress joint inflammation and inhibit RANKL/NF-κB-mediated osteoclast differentiation to rescue bone erosion in CIA mice, suggesting that MAI can be a potentially therapeutic substance for RA.

Exploring potential network pharmacology-and molecular docking-based mechanism of melittin in treating rheumatoid arthritis

BACKGROUND

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a type of difficult-to-cure arthralgia with a worldwide prevalence. It severely affects people's living standards. For a long time, bee venom has been used to treat RA and has shown good results. Melittin is the main active component of bee venom used for RA treatment, but the molecular mechanism of melittin in RA treatments remains unclear.

METHODS

Potential melittin and RA targets were obtained from relevant databases, and common targets of melittin and RA were screened. The STRING database was used to build the PPI network and screen the core targets after visualization. The core targets were enriched by Gene Ontology functional annotation and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway. Finally, the binding of melittin to target proteins was evaluated through simulated molecular docking, which verified the reliability of the prediction results of network pharmacology.

RESULTS

In total, 138 melittin targets and 5795 RA targets were obtained from relevant databases, and 90 common targets were obtained through intersection. Eighteen core targets, such as STAT3, AKT1, tumor necrosis factor, and JUN, were screened out. Enrichment analysis results suggested that melittin plays an anti-RA role mainly through tumor necrosis factor, interleukin-17, toll-like receptors, and advanced glycation end products-RAGE signaling pathways, and pathogenic bacterial infection. Molecular docking results suggested that melittin has good docking activity with core target proteins.

CONCLUSION

RA treatment with melittin is the result of a multi-target and multi-pathway interaction. This study offers a theoretical basis and scientific evidence for further exploring melittin in RA therapy.

Recent Advances of Cell-Penetrating Peptides and Their Application as Vectors for Delivery of Peptide and Protein-Based Cargo Molecules

Peptides and proteins, two important classes of biomacromolecules, play important roles in the biopharmaceuticals field. As compared with traditional drugs based on small molecules, peptide- and protein-based drugs offer several advantages, although most cannot traverse the cell membrane, a natural barrier that prevents biomacromolecules from directly entering cells. However, drug delivery via cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) is increasingly replacing traditional approaches that mediate biomacromolecular cellular uptake, due to CPPs' superior safety and efficiency as drug delivery vehicles. In this review, we describe the discovery of CPPs, recent developments in CPP design, and recent advances in CPP applications for enhanced cellular delivery of peptide- and protein-based drugs. First, we discuss the discovery of natural CPPs in snake, bee, and spider venom. Second, we describe several synthetic types of CPPs, such as cyclic CPPs, glycosylated CPPs, and D-form CPPs. Finally, we summarize and discuss cell membrane permeability characteristics and therapeutic applications of different CPPs when used as vehicles to deliver peptides and proteins to cells, as assessed using various preclinical disease models. Ultimately, this review provides an overview of recent advances in CPP development with relevance to applications related to the therapeutic delivery of biomacromolecular drugs to alleviate diverse diseases.

Severe pathological changes in the blood and organs of SD rats stung by honeybees

With the development of beekeeping, the risk of bee stings in humans is increasing. Severe and life-threatening toxic reactions can occur after multiple bee stings, and their pathogenesis has not been elucidated. To understand the effect of multiple bees (Apis mellifera) stings on the organism in a short period, we stung rats once and five times, respectively. Serum and organs were obtained after 3 h for analysis. The results indicated that skin erythema was more pronounced and hemolysis was more severe as the number of puncture wounds increased. After being stung by five bees, rats had dramatically higher serum levels of direct bilirubin, aspartate aminotransferase, creatine kinase and lactate dehydrogenase, producing more differential metabolites that affected mainly four metabolic pathways. In addition, the liver, kidney and heart showed significant congestion and inflammation. This study helps explain the organism's clinical response to bee venom and may be valuable in treating toxic reactions following bee stings.

Can Bee Venom Be Used as Anticancer Agent in Modern Medicine?

Honey bee venom in its composition contains many biologically active peptides and enzymes that are effective in the fight against diseases of various etiologies. The history of the use of bee venom for medicinal purposes dates back thousands of years. There are many reports in the literature on the pharmacological properties of bee venom and/or its main components, e.g., anti-arthritic, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial or neuroprotective properties. In addition, both crude venom and melittin exhibit cytotoxic activity against a wide range of tumor cells, with significant anti-metastatic activity in pre-clinical studies. Due to the constantly increasing incidence of cancer, the development of new therapeutic strategies in oncology is a particular challenge for modern medicine. A review paper discusses the various properties of bee venom with an emphasis on its anticancer properties. For this purpose, the PubMed database was searched, and publications related to "bee", "venom", "cancer" from the last 10 years were selected.

Chemical composition and antibacterial activity of bee venom against multi-drug resistant pathogens

Bee venom with an antimicrobial effect is a powerful natural product. One of the most important areas where new antimicrobials are needed is in the prevention and control of multi-drug resistant pathogens. Today, antibacterial products used to treat multi-drug resistant pathogen infections in hospitals and healthcare facilities are insufficient to prevent colonisation and spread, and new products are needed. The aim of the study is to investigate the antibacterial effect of the bee venom (BV), a natural substance, on the species of Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Vancomycin resistant Enterococcus faecalis, Carbapenem resistant Escherichia coli, Carbapenem resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae and Carbapenem resistant Acinetobacter baumannii. As a result of this study, it was found that MIC90 and MBC90 values ranged from 6.25 μg/mL - 12.5 μg/mL and numbers of bacteria decreased by 4-6 logs within 1-24 h for multi-drug resistant pathogens. In particular, Vancomycin resistant Enterococcus faecalis isolate decreased 6 log cfu/mL at 50 μg/mL and 100 μg/mL concentrations in the first hour. The effective bacterial inhibition rate of bee venom suggests that it could be a potential antibacterial agent for multi-drug resistant pathogens.Contribution: The treatment options of antibiotic-resistant pathogens are a major problem in both veterinary and human medicine fields. We have detected a high antibacterial effect against these agents in this bee venom study, which is a natural product. Apitherapy is a fashionable treatment method all over the world and is used in many areas of health. Bee venom is also a product that can be used as a drug or disinfectant raw material and can fill the natural product gap that can be used against resistant bacteria.

In Silico Analysis of Honey Bee Peptides as Potential Inhibitors of Capripoxvirus DNA-Directed RNA Polymerase

The genus Capripoxvirus belongs to the Poxviridae family. The sheeppox, goatpox, and lumpy skin disease viruses are three species of this genus with 96% identity in their genomes. These are financially devastating viral infections among cattle, which cause a reduction in animal products and lead to a loss in livestock industries. In the current study, the phylogenetic analysis was carried out to reveal the evolutionary relationships of Capripoxvirus species (i.e., sheeppox virus (SPPV), goatpox virus (GTPV), and lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV)) with other viruses from the Poxviridae family with >96% query coverage to find the similarity index among all members. The three viruses (i.e., SPPV, GTPV, and LSDV) joined the clade of Capripoxvirus of the Poxviridae family in the phylogenetic tree and exhibited close evolutionary relationships. The multiple sequence alignment using ClustalOmega revealed significant variations in the protein sequences of the DNA-dependent RNA polymerase of SPPV, GTPV, and LSDV. The three-dimensional structures of five selected bee peptides and DNA-directed RNA polymerase of SPPV, GTPV, and LSDV were predicted using trRosetta and I-TASSER and used for molecular docking and simulation studies. The protein-protein docking was carried out using HADDOCK server to explore the antiviral activity of peptides as honey bee proteins against SPPV, GTPV, and LSDV. In total, five peptides were docked to DNA-directed RNA polymerase of these viruses. The peptides mellitin and secapin-1 displayed the lowest binding scores (-106.9 +/- 7.2 kcal/mol and -101.4 +/- 11.3 kcal/mol, respectively) and the best patterns with stable complexes. The molecular dynamics simulation indicated that the complex of protein DNA-dependent RNA polymerase and the peptide melittin stayed firmly connected and the peptide binding to the receptor protein was stable. The findings of this study provide the evidence of bee peptides as potent antimicrobial agents against sheeppox, goatpox, and lumpy skin disease viruses with no complexity.

Individual and social defenses in Apis mellifera: a playground to fight against synergistic stressor interactions

The honeybee is an important species for the agri-food and pharmaceutical industries through bee products and crop pollination services. However, honeybee health is a major concern, because beekeepers in many countries are experiencing significant colony losses. This phenomenon has been linked to the exposure of bees to multiple stresses in their environment. Indeed, several biotic and abiotic stressors interact with bees in a synergistic or antagonistic way. Synergistic stressors often act through a disruption of their defense systems (immune response or detoxification). Antagonistic interactions are most often caused by interactions between biotic stressors or disruptive activation of bee defenses. Honeybees have developed behavioral defense strategies and produce antimicrobial compounds to prevent exposure to various pathogens and chemicals. Expanding our knowledge about these processes could be used to develop strategies to shield bees from exposure. This review aims to describe current knowledge about the exposure of honeybees to multiple stresses and the defense mechanisms they have developed to protect themselves. The effect of multi-stress exposure is mainly due to a disruption of the immune response, detoxification, or an excessive defense response by the bee itself. In addition, bees have developed defenses against stressors, some behavioral, others involving the production of antimicrobials, or exploiting beneficial external factors.

Revolutionizing the Use of Honeybee Products in Healthcare: A Focused Review on Using Bee Pollen as a Potential Adjunct Material for Biomaterial Functionalization

The field of biomedical engineering highly demands technological improvements to allow the successful engraftment of biomaterials requested for healing damaged host tissues, tissue regeneration, and drug delivery. Polymeric materials, particularly natural polymers, are one of the primary suitable materials employed and functionalized to enhance their biocompatibility and thus confer advantageous features after graft implantation. Incorporating bioactive substances from nature is a good technique for expanding or increasing the functionality of biomaterial scaffolds, which may additionally encourage tissue healing. Our ecosystem provides natural resources, like honeybee products, comprising a rich blend of phytochemicals with interesting bioactive properties, which, when functionally coupled with biomedical biomaterials, result in the biomaterial exhibiting anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant effects. Bee pollen is a sustainable product recently discovered as a new functionalizing agent for biomaterials. This review aims to articulate the general idea of using honeybee products for biomaterial engineering, mainly focusing on describing recent literature on experimental studies on biomaterials functionalized with bee pollen. We have also described the underlying mechanism of the bioactive attributes of bee pollen and shared our perspective on how future biomedical research will benefit from the fabrication of such functionalized biomaterials.

Protective Effects of Apamin on Acetaminophen-Induced Hepatotoxicity in Mice

Acetaminophen (APAP) overdose can cause severe liver damage, but therapeutic options are limited. Apamin is a natural peptide present in bee venom and has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Accumulating evidence suggests that apamin has favorable actions in rodent models of inflammatory disorders. Here, we examined the effect of apamin on APAP-evoked hepatotoxicity. Intraperitoneal administration of apamin (0.1 mg/kg) alleviated histological abnormalities and reduced serum levels of liver enzymes in mice injected with APAP. Apamin inhibited oxidative stress through an increase in the amount of glutathione and activation of the antioxidant system. Apamin also attenuated apoptosis with inhibition of caspase-3 activation. Moreover, apamin reduced serum and hepatic levels of cytokines in APAP-injected mice. These effects were accompanied by suppression of NF-κB activation. Furthermore, apamin inhibited chemokine expression and inflammatory cell infiltration. Our results suggest that apamin dampens APAP-evoked hepatotoxicity through inhibiting oxidative stress, apoptosis, and inflammation.

Experimental envenomation with honeybee venom melittin and phospholipase A2 induced multiple ultrastructural changes in adrenocortical mitochondria

Bee stings represent a public health subject, but the mechanisms involved in bee venom toxicity are not yet fully understood. To evaluate the reactions of adrenocortical cells, through which organisms respond to stress, two honeybee venom components: melittin (Mlt) and phospholipase A2 (PLA2) were tested as potential chemical stressors. Modifications were investigated with transmission electron microscopy and microanalysis. A single dose of Mlt (31 mg/kg) or PLA2 (9.3 mg/kg) was injected in rats of groups ML and PL; daily doses of Mlt (350 μg/kg) or PLA2 (105 μg/kg) were injected 30 days in rats of groups M30 and P30. Adrenocortical cells in ML group showed ultrastructural degenerative alterations of nuclei, endoplasmic reticulum, and mitochondria that exhibited lipid inclusions and mitochondrial cristae (MC) re-organized into mono- or multimembrane large vesicles, and whorls of membranes. Many MC were degenerated. In the M30 group, similar ultrastructural changes, but of lower amplitude were noted; lipid cytosolic droplets were heterogenous. MC diameters in Mlt groups (melittin treated groups) were significantly higher than in control (C) group. In PL group, mitochondria contained large lipid inclusions, vesicular MC of different sizes and multiple membranes, and debris, or whorl structures. In P30 group MC were tubular with increased diameters. In both PLA2 groups (PLA2 treated groups) MC were significantly larger than in C group. We concluded that Mlt and PLA2 were powerful stressors, toxic at the tested doses, cellular reactions concerning in all groups mainly mitochondria, but also other cellular compartments. Apart from degenerative regression of MC, the rearrangement of tubular MC occurred into one or multiple large multimembrane vesicular MC. Reactions to the high doses were more pronounced, with the highest amplitude in ML group, and the lowest in P30 group.

Bee venom as an alternative for antibiotics against Staphylococcus aureus infections

The misuse of antibiotics has led to antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains, making it even harder to combat and eliminate their infections. Staphylococcus aureus causes various adverse infections and diseases, including skin abscesses, bloodstream infections, pneumonia, and joint infections. In this study, we aimed to test the cytotoxic and antibacterial effects of bee venom-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (BV-loaded CS-NPs) in comparison to gamma-irradiated BV and native BV from Apis mellifera. The physiochemical characterizations of our treatments were determined by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM), zeta-potential, release rate, and Encapsulation Efficiency (EE). Our study was conducted on both levels, in-vitro and in-vivo. For the in-vitro study, a bacterial model of Staphylococcus aureus with an ATCC number of 6538 was grown in tryptic soy agar (TSA) medium, and the inhibition zones of our drug candidates were measured with the appropriate statistical analysis performed. For the in-vivo study, levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), Creatinine, Urea, and interleukin 6 (IL-6) were analyzed. BV-loaded CS-NPs showed relatively better results than the other alternatives, which are native BV and gamma-irradiated BV. The results showed that the antibacterial effect of BV-loaded CS-NPs was greater than the alternatives. Furthermore, its cytotoxic effect was far less than the native and irradiated bee venom. These outcomes ensure that loading BV on CS-NPs makes it a promising drug candidate for an antibiotic alternative with minimal cytotoxicity and enhanced antibacterial activity.

Beneficial Effect of Bee Venom and Its Major Components on Facial Nerve Injury Induced in Mice

Peripheral nerve injury (PNI) is a health problem that affects many people worldwide. This study is the first to evaluate the potential effect of bee venom (BV) and its major components in a model of PNI in the mouse. For that, the BV used in this study was analyzed using UHPLC. All animals underwent a distal section-suture of facial nerve branches, and they were randomly divided into five groups. Group 1: injured facial nerve branches without any treatment. Group 2: the facial nerve branches were injured, and the normal saline was injected similarly as in the BV-treated group. Group 3: injured facial nerve branches with local injections of BV solution. Group 4: injured facial nerve branches with local injections of a mixture of PLA2 and melittin. Group 5: injured facial nerve branches with local injection of betamethasone. The treatment was performed three times a week for 4 weeks. The animals were submitted to functional analysis (observation of whisker movement and quantification of nasal deviation). The vibrissae muscle re-innervation was evaluated by retrograde labeling of facial motoneurons in all experimental groups. UHPLC data showed 76.90 ± 0.13%, 11.73 ± 0.13%, and 2.01 ± 0.01%, respectively, for melittin, phospholipase A2, and apamin in the studied BV sample. The obtained results showed that BV treatment was more potent than the mixture of PLA2 and melittin or betamethasone in behavioral recovery. The whisker movement occurred faster in BV-treated mice than in the other groups, with a complete disappearance of nasal deviation two weeks after surgery. Morphologically, a normal fluorogold labeling of the facial motoneurons was restored 4 weeks after surgery in the BV-treated group, but no such restoration was ever observed in other groups. Our findings indicate the potential of the use of BV injections to enhance appropriate functional and neuronal outcomes after PNI.

Strategies for Improving Transdermal Administration: New Approaches to Controlled Drug Release

In this work, we aim to address several strategies to improve transdermal drug delivery, such as iontophoresis, sonophoresis, electroporation and micron. We also propose a review of some transdermal patches and their applications in medicine. TDDs (transdermal patches with delayed active substances) are multilayered pharmaceutical preparations that may contain one or more active substances, of which, systemic absorption is achieved through intact skin. The paper also presents new approaches to the controlled release of drugs: niosomes, microemulsions, transfersomes, ethosomes, but also hybrid approaches nanoemulsions and microns. The novelty of this review lies in the presentation of strategies to improve the transdermal administration of drugs, combined with their applications in medicine, in light of pharmaceutical technological developments.

Therapeutic applications of snake venoms: An invaluable potential of new drug candidates

Animal venoms and their chemical compounds have aroused both empirical and scientific attention for ages. However, there has been a significant increase in scientific investigations in recent decades, allowing the production of various formulations that are helping in the development of many important tools for biotechnological, diagnostic, or therapeutic use, both in human and animal health, as well as in plants. Venoms are composed of biomolecules and inorganic compounds that may have physiological and pharmacological activities that are not related to their principal actions (prey immobilization, digestion, and defense). Snake venom toxins, mainly enzymatic and non-enzymatic proteins, and peptides have been identified as potential prototypes for new drugs and/or models for the development of pharmacologically active structural domains for the treatment of cancer, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative and autoimmune diseases, pain, and infectious-parasitic diseases. This minireview aims to provide an overview of the biotechnological potential of animal venoms, with a focus on snakes, and to introduce the reader to the fascinating world of Applied Toxinology, where animal biodiversity can be used to develop therapeutic and diagnostic applications for humans.

Unraveling the Role of Antimicrobial Peptides in Insects

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are short, mainly positively charged, amphipathic molecules. AMPs are important effectors of the immune response in insects with a broad spectrum of antibacterial, antifungal, and antiparasitic activity. In addition to these well-known roles, AMPs exhibit many other, often unobvious, functions in the host. They support insects in the elimination of viral infections. AMPs participate in the regulation of brain-controlled processes, e.g., sleep and non-associative learning. By influencing neuronal health, communication, and activity, they can affect the functioning of the insect nervous system. Expansion of the AMP repertoire and loss of their specificity is connected with the aging process and lifespan of insects. Moreover, AMPs take part in maintaining gut homeostasis, regulating the number of endosymbionts as well as reducing the number of foreign microbiota. In turn, the presence of AMPs in insect venom prevents the spread of infection in social insects, where the prey may be a source of pathogens.

Outcomes of wasp and bee stings in Taiwan

BACKGROUND

The families of Hymenoptera causing commonly poisonous animal stings in Taiwan include Apoidea (bee) and Vespidae (wasp). This study aimed to investigate the epidemiologic, clinical characteristics, and outcomes of the severity of envenomation following wasp or bee stings in Taiwan.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective study by identifying all wasp and bee sting-related envenomation reported to the Taiwan National Poison Control Center between January 2001 and November 2021. Data were reviewed and abstracted by two independent reviewers. We then used ordinal logistic regression analysis to find potential predictors of severe wasp and bee sting-related envenomation.

RESULTS

In Taiwan, bee or wasp stings mainly occur in late summer and autumn. A total of 611 patients were reported to the Taiwan National Poison Control Center with 7.5% resulting in severe or fatal envenomation. Four-hundred and forty-one patients were eligible for the final analysis of the predictors of severity. Logistic regression analysis showed that a greater number of stings, being stung by wasps, older age, and stings over the body were significant predictors for greater severity. The systemic effects following wasp and bee sting included anaphylactic reaction, prolongation of activated partial thromboplastin time, rhabdomyolysis, acute kidney injury, and elevated liver enzymes.

CONCLUSIONS

Wasps generally inflicted more severe envenomation than bees. Only 7.5% of patients had severe or fatal outcomes. Patients with older age, multiple stings, and/or multiple sites of stings were more likely to have severe outcomes.