Development of Asialoglycoprotein Receptor-Targeted Nanoparticles for Selective Delivery of Gemcitabine to Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Advances in Nanocarrier Systems for Overcoming Formulation Challenges of Curcumin: Current Insights

Curcumin, an organic phenolic molecule that is extracted from the rhizomes of Curcuma longa Linn, has undergone extensive evaluation for its diverse biological activities in both animals and humans. Despite its favorable characteristics, curcumin encounters various formulation challenges and stability issues that can be effectively addressed through the application of nanotechnology. Nano-based techniques specifically focused on enhancing solubility, bioavailability, and therapeutic efficacy while mitigating toxicity, have been explored for curcumin. This review systematically presents information on the improvement of curcumin's beneficial properties when incorporated, either individually or in conjunction with other drugs, into diverse nanosystems such as liposomes, nanoemulsions, polymeric micelles, dendrimers, polymeric nanoparticles, solid-lipid nanoparticles, and nanostructured lipid carriers. Additionally, the review examines ongoing clinical trials and recently granted patents, offering a thorough overview of the dynamic landscape in curcumin delivery. Researchers are currently exploring nanocarriers with crucial features such as surface modification, substantial loading capacity, biodegradability, compatibility, and autonomous targeting specificity and selectivity. Nevertheless, the utilization of nanocarriers for curcumin delivery is still in its initial phases, with regulatory approval pending and persistent safety concerns surrounding their use.

Brucine Entrapped Titanium Oxide Nanoparticle for Anticancer Treatment: An In Vitro Study

Backgroundand Objective. The public's health has been seriously threatened by cervical cancer during recent times. In terms of newly diagnosed cases worldwide, it ranks as the ninth most prevalent malignancy. Multiple investigations have proven that nanoparticles can effectively combat cancer due to their small dimensions and extensive surface area. In the meantime, bioactive compounds which are biocompatible are being loaded onto nanoparticles to promote cancer therapy. The current study investigates the anticancerous potential of Brucine-entrapped titanium oxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) in cervical cancer cell line (HeLa). Materials and Methods. The physiochemical, structural, and morphological aspects of Brucine-entrapped TiO2 NPs were evaluated by UV-visible spectrophotometer, Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), dynamic light scattering (DLS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and energy dispersive X-ray (EDAX). The cytotoxic effect against the HeLa cell line was assessed using a tetrazolium-based colorimetric assay (MTT), a trypan blue exclusion (TBE) assay, phase contrast microscopic analysis, and a fluorescence assay including ROS and DAPI staining. Furthermore, estimation of antioxidant markers includes catalase (CAT), glutathione (GSH), and superoxide dismutase (SOD). Results. The UV spectrum at 266 nm revealed the formation of TiO NPs. The FT-IR peaks confirmed the effective entrapment of brucine with TiO2 NPs. The average size (100.0 nm) of Brucine-entrapped TiO2 NPs was revealed in DLS analysis. The micrograph of the SEM revealed the formation of ellipsoidal to tetragonal-shaped NPs. The Ti, O, and C signals were observed in EDAX. In MTT assay, Brucine-entrapped TiO2 NPs showed inhibition of cell proliferation in a dose-wise manner and IC50 was noticed at the concentration of 30 µg/mL. The percentage of viable cells gradually reduced in the trypan blue exclusion assay. The phase contrast microscopic analysis of Brucine-entrapped TiO2 NP-treated cells showed cell shrinkage, cell wall deterioration, and cell blebbing. The intracellular ROS level was increased in a dose-wise manner when compared to control cells in ROS staining. The condensed nuclei and apoptotic cells were increased in treated cells, as noted in DAPI staining. In treated cells, the antioxidant markers such as CAT, GSH, and SOD levels were substantially lower compared to the control cells. Conclusion. The synthesized Brucine entrapped TiO2 NPs exhibited remarkable anticancer activity against the HeLa cell line.

Orodispersible Films: Current Innovations and Emerging Trends

Orodispersible films (ODFs) are thin, mechanically strong, and flexible polymeric films that are designed to dissolve or disintegrate rapidly in the oral cavity for local and/or systemic drug delivery. This review examines various aspects of ODFs and their potential as a drug delivery system. Recent advancements, including the detailed exploration of formulation components, such as polymers and plasticizers, are briefed. The review highlights the versatility of preparation methods, particularly the solvent-casting production process, and novel 3D printing techniques that bring inherent flexibility. Three-dimensional printing technology not only diversifies active compounds but also enables a multilayer approach, effectively segregating incompatible drugs. The integration of nanoparticles into ODF formulations marks a significant breakthrough, thus enhancing the efficiency of oral drug delivery and broadening the scope of the drugs amenable to this route. This review also sheds light on the diverse in vitro evaluation methods utilized to characterize ODFs, ongoing clinical trials, approved marketed products, and recent patents, providing a comprehensive outlook of the evolving landscape of orodispersible drug delivery. Current patient-centric approaches involve developing ODFs with patient-friendly attributes, such as improved taste masking, ease of administration, and enhanced patient compliance, along with the personalization of ODF formulations to meet individual patient needs. Investigating novel functional excipients with the potential to enhance the permeation of high-molecular-weight polar drugs, fragile proteins, and oligonucleotides is crucial for rapid progress in the advancing domain of orodispersible drug delivery.

Recent progress of targeted nanocarriers in diagnostic, therapeutic, and theranostic applications in colorectal cancer

Cancer at the lower end of the digestive tract, colorectal cancer (CRC), starts with asymptomatic polyps, which can be diagnosed as cancer at a later stage. It is the fourth leading cause of malignancy-associated mortality worldwide. Despite progress in conventional treatment strategies, the possibility to overcome the mortality and morbidity issues with the enhancement of the lifespan of CRC patients is limited. With the advent of nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems, a promising revolution has been made in diagnosis, treatment, and theranostic purposes for cancer management. Herein, we reviewed the progress of miniaturized nanocarriers, such as liposomes, niosomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, micelles, and polymeric nanoparticles, employed in passive and active targeting and their role in theranostic applications in CRC. With this novel scope, the diagnosis and treatment of CRC have proceeded to the forefront of innovation, where specific characteristics of the nanocarriers, such as processability, flexibility in developing precise architecture, improved circulation, site-specific delivery, and rapid response, facilitate the management of cancer patients. Furthermore, surface-engineered technologies for the nanocarriers could involve receptor-mediated deliveries towards the overexpressed receptors on the CRC microenvironment. Moreover, the potential of clinical translation of these targeted miniaturized formulations as well as the possible limitations and barriers that could impact this translation into clinical practice were highlighted. The advancement of these newest developments in clinical research and progress into the commercialization stage gives hope for a better tomorrow.

Hepatocellular carcinoma: Preclinical and clinical applications of nanotechnology with the potential role of carbohydrate receptors

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common types of liver cancer; accounts for 75-85% of cases. The treatment and management of HCC involve different sanative options like surgery, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, etc. Recently, various advancements have been introduced for the diagnosis and targeting of hepatic tumor cells. Among these, biomarkers are considered the primary source for the diagnosis and differentiation of tumor cells. With the advancement in the field of nanotechnology, different types of nanocarriers have been witnessed in tumor targeting. Nanocarriers such as nanoparticles, liposomes, polymeric micelles, nanofibers, etc. are readily prepared for effective tumor targeting with minimal side-effects. The emergence of various approaches tends to improve the effectiveness of these nanocarriers as demonstrated in ample clinical trials. This review focuses on the significant role of carbohydrates such as mannose, galactose, fructose, etc. in the development, diagnosis, and therapy of HCC. Hence, the current focus of this review is to acknowledge various perspectives regarding the occurrence, diagnosis, treatment, and management of HCC.

Lactosylated Chitosan Nanoparticles Potentiate the Anticancer Effects of Telmisartan In Vitro and in a N-Nitrosodiethylamine-Induced Mice Model of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide. Telmisartan (TLM), a BSC class II drug, has been reported to have antiproliferative activity in HCC. However, its therapeutic activity is limited by poor bioavailability and unpredictable distribution. This work aimed to enhance TLM's liver uptake for HCC management through passive and active targeting pathways utilizing chitosan nanoparticles decorated with lactose (LCH NPs) as a delivery system. In vitro cell cytotoxicity and cellular uptake studies indicated that TLM-LCH NPs significantly (p < 0.05) enhanced the antiproliferative activity and cellular uptake percentage of TLM. In vivo bioavailability and liver biodistribution studies indicated that TLM-LCH NPs significantly (p < 0.05) enhanced TLM concentrations in plasma and the liver. The relative liver uptake of TLM from TLM-LCH NPs was 2-fold higher than that of unmodified NPs and 5-fold higher than that of plain TLM suspension. In vivo studies of a N-nitrosodiethylamine-induced HCC model revealed that administration of TLM through LCH NPs improved liver histology and resulted in lower serum alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) levels, and liver weight index compared to plain TLM and TLM-loaded unmodified NPs. These results reflected the high potentiality of LCH NPs as a liver-targeted delivery system for TLM in the treatment of HCC.

Non-coding RNA-directed therapeutics in lung cancer: Delivery technologies and clinical applications

Lung cancer is one of the most aggressive and deadliest health threats. There has been an increasing interest in non-coding RNA (ncRNA) recently, especially in the areas of carcinogenesis and tumour progression. However, ncRNA-directed therapies are still encountering obstacles on their way to the clinic. In the present article, we provide an overview on the potential of targeting ncRNA in the treatment of lung cancer. Then, we discuss the delivery challenges and recent approaches enabling the delivery of ncRNA-directed therapies to the lung cancer cells, where we illuminate some advanced technologies including chemically-modified oligonucleotides, nuclear targeting, and three-dimensional in vitro models. Furthermore, advanced non-viral delivery systems recruiting nanoparticles, biomimetic delivery systems, and extracellular vesicles are also highlighted. Lastly, the challenges limiting the clinical trials on the therapeutic targeting of ncRNAs in lung cancer and future directions to tackle them are explored.

Telmisartan-Loaded Lactosylated Chitosan Nanoparticles as a Liver Specific Delivery System: Synthesis, Optimization and Targeting Efficiency

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has a significant economic impact and a high mortality rate. Telmisartan (TLM) is a potential therapy for HCC, but it has a limited scope in drug delivery due to unpredictable distribution and poor bioavailability. The objective of this study was to prepare, design, and in vitro evaluate lactose-modified chitosan nanoparticles (LCH NPs) as a liver-targeted nanocarrier for TLM with the potential to offer a promising HCC therapy. The combination of chitosan with lactose was successfully attained using the Maillard reaction. TLM-LCH NPs were prepared, characterized, and optimized with the developed 2³ full factorial design. The optimized formulation (F1) was in vitro and in vivo characterized. LCH was synthesized with an acceptable yield of 43.8 ± 0.56%, a lactosylation degree of 14.34%, and a significantly higher aqueous solubility (6.28 ± 0.21 g/L) compared to native chitosan (0.25 ± 0.03 g/L). In vitro characterization demonstrated that, F1 had a particle size of 145.46 ± 0.7 nm, an entrapment efficiency of 90.21 ± 0.28%, and a surface charge of + 27.13 ± 0.21 mV. In vitro TLM release from F1 was most consistent with the Higuchi model and demonstrated significantly higher release at pH 5.5. Moreover, a significantly higher ratio of liver to plasma concentration was observed with TLM-LCH NPs compared to plain TLM and unmodified TLM-NPs. The obtained results nominate TLM-LCH NPs as a promising carrier for enhancing liver targeting of TLM in treatment of HCC.

Mucoadhesive gellan gum-based and carboxymethyl cellulose -based hydrogels containing gemcitabine and papain for bladder cancer treatment

Local treatment of bladder cancer faces several limitations such as short residence time or low permeation through urothelium tissue. The aim of this work was to develop patient-friendly mucoadhesive gel formulations combining gemcitabine and the enzyme papain for improved intravesical chemotherapy delivery. Hydrogels based on two different polysaccharides, gellan gum and sodium carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), were prepared with either native papain or papain nanoparticles (nanopapain) to explore for the first time their use as permeability enhancers through bladder tissue. Gel formulations were characterized regarding enzyme stability, rheological behavior, retention on bladder tissue and bioadhesion, drug release properties, permeation capacity, and biocompatibility. After 90 days of storage, the enzyme loaded in the CMC gels retained up to 83.5 ± 4.9 % of its activity in the absence of the drug, and up to 78.1 ± 5.3 with gemcitabine. The gels were mucoadhesive and the enzyme papain showed mucolytic action, which resulted in resistance against washing off from the urothelium and enhanced permeability of gemcitabine in the ex vivo tissue diffusion tests. Native papain shortened lag-time tissue penetration to 0.6 h and enhanced 2-fold drug permeability All formulations demonstrated pseudoplastic behavior and no irritability. Overall, the developed formulations have potential as an upgraded alternative to intravesical therapy for bladder cancer treatment.

Identification, characterization, and engineering of glycosylation in thrombolyticsa

Cardiovascular diseases, such as myocardial infarction, ischemic stroke, and pulmonary embolism, are the most common causes of disability and death worldwide. Blood clot hydrolysis by thrombolytic enzymes and thrombectomy are key clinical interventions. The most widely used thrombolytic enzyme is alteplase, which has been used in clinical practice since 1986. Another clinically used thrombolytic protein is tenecteplase, which has modified epitopes and engineered glycosylation sites, suggesting that carbohydrate modification in thrombolytic enzymes is a viable strategy for their improvement. This comprehensive review summarizes current knowledge on computational and experimental identification of glycosylation sites and glycan identity, together with methods used for their reengineering. Practical examples from previous studies focus on modification of glycosylations in thrombolytics, e.g., alteplase, tenecteplase, reteplase, urokinase, saruplase, and desmoteplase. Collected clinical data on these glycoproteins demonstrate the great potential of this engineering strategy. Outstanding combinatorics originating from multiple glycosylation sites and the vast variety of covalently attached glycan species can be addressed by directed evolution or rational design. Directed evolution pipelines would benefit from more efficient cell-free expression and high-throughput screening assays, while rational design must employ structure prediction by machine learning and in silico characterization by supercomputing. Perspectives on challenges and opportunities for improvement of thrombolytic enzymes by engineering and evolution of protein glycosylation are provided.

Apocynin-loaded PLGA nanomedicine tailored with galactosylated chitosan intrigue asialoglycoprotein receptor in hepatic carcinoma: Prospective targeted therapy

Nature serves as a priceless source for phytomedicines to treat different types of cancer, including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Apocynin (APO), an anti-cancer phytomedicine, is a particular nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-oxidase (NADPH-oxidase) inhibitor, which has recently dawned for its multilateral pharmacological activities. As far as we are aware, no investigation has been carried out yet to develop a targeted-nanostructured delivery system of APO to HCC. Consequently, chitosan derivative with galactose groups namely; galactosylated chitosan (GC), particularly recognized by the asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGR), was synthesized and its chemical structure was thoroughly characterized by substantial techniques. Afterwards, GC-coated nanoplatform for hepatocyte attachment "APO-loaded galactosylated chitosan-coated poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide) nanoparticles (APO-loaded GC-coated PLGA NPs)" was developed. The prosperous APO-loaded GC-coated PLGA NPs would be comprehensively appraised through extensive investigations. Their solid state characterization using Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy, powder X-ray diffraction, and differential scanning calorimetry proved APO's encapsulation in the polymeric matrix. Transmission electron microscopy imaging of the investigated NPs highlighted their spherical architecture with a nanosized range and a characteristic halo-like appearance traceable to the GC coating of the NPs' surface. Saliently, the results of in vitro cytotoxicity screening revealed the spectacular anti-cancer efficacy of APO-loaded GC-coated PLGA NPs formula against the HepG2 cell line. Moreover, the fluorescence microscope disclosed the distinguished cellular uptake of such formula via ASGPR mediated endocytosis. Inclusively, a multifunctional nano-phytomedicine delivery system with a promising active hepatocyte-targeting, effective uptake into HepG2 cells, and sustained drug release pattern was successfully developed.

Co-delivery of gemcitabine and salinomycin in PEGylated liposomes for enhanced anticancer efficacy against colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer remains one of the major causes of morbidity and mortality in both developed and emerging countries. Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are a subpopulation of cells within the tumor mass harboring stem cell characteristics, considered responsible for tumor initiation, growth, relapse, and treatment failure. Lately, it has become clear that both CSCs and non-CSCs have to be eliminated for the successful eradication of cancer. Drug delivery systems have been extensively employed to enhance drug efficacy. In this study, salinomycin (SAL), a selective anti-CSC drug, and gemcitabine (GEM), a conventional anticancer drug, were co-loaded in liposomes and tested for optimal therapeutic efficacy. We employed the Design of Experiments approach to develop and optimize a liposomal delivery system for GEM and SAL. The antiproliferative effect of the liposomes was evaluated in SW-620 human colorectal cancer cells. The GEM and SAL-loaded liposomes exhibited adequate size, polydispersity, zeta potential, and drug content. The in vitro release study showed a sustained release of GEM and SAL from the liposomes over 72 h. Moreover, no sign of liposome aggregation was seen over 1 month and in a biological medium (FBS). The in vitro cytotoxic effects of the co-loaded liposomes were superior to that of single GEM either in free or liposomal form. The combination therapy using GEM and SAL co-loaded in liposomes could be a promising strategy for tackling colorectal cancer.

Hepatocellular carcinoma risk-stratification based on ASGR1 in circulating epithelial cells for cancer interception

Purpose: Lack of diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers in hepatocellular carcinoma impedes stratifying patients based on their risk of developing cancer. The aim of this study was to evaluate phenotypic and genetic heterogeneity of circulating epithelial cells (CECs) based on asialoglycoprotein receptor 1 (ASGR1) and miR-122-5p expression as potential diagnostic and prognostic tools in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and liver cirrhosis (LC). Methods: Peripheral blood samples were extracted from LC and HCC patients at different disease stages. CECs were isolated using positive immunomagnetic selection. Genetic and phenotypic characterization was validated by double immunocytochemistry for cytokeratin (CK) and ASGR1 or by in situ hybridization with miR-122-5p and CECs were visualized by confocal microscopy. Results: The presence of CECs increased HCC risk by 2.58-fold, however, this was only significant for patients with previous LC (p = 0.028) and not for those without prior LC (p = 0.23). Furthermore, the number of CECs lacking ASGR1 expression correlated significantly with HCC incidence and absence of miR-122-5p expression (p = 0.014; r = 0.23). Finally, overall survival was significantly greater for patients at earlier cancer stages (p = 0.018), but this difference was only maintained in the group with the presence of CECs (p = 0.021) whereas progression-free survival was influenced by the absence of ASGR1 expression. Conclusion: Identification and characterization of CECs by ASGR1 and/or miR-122-5p expression may be used as a risk-stratification tool in LC patients, as it was shown to be an independent prognostic and risk-stratification marker in LC and early disease stage HCC patients.

R. V. Synthesis and appraisal of dalbergin-loaded PLGA nanoparticles modified with galactose against hepatocellular carcinoma: In-vitro, pharmacokinetic, and in-silico studies

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a common malignancy which affects a substantial number of individuals all over the globe. It is the third primary cause of death among persons with neoplasm and has the fifth largest mortality rate among men and the seventh highest mortality rate among women. Dalbergin (DL) is described to be effective in breast cancer via changing mRNA levels of apoptosis-related proteins. DL belongs to neoflavonoids, a drug category with low solubility and poor bioavailability. We created a synthetic version of this naturally occurring chemical, DL, and then analyzed it using 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, and LC-MS. We also made PLGA nanoparticles and then coated them with galactose. The design of experiment software was used to optimize DL-loaded galactose-modified PLGA nanoparticles. The optimized DL-nanoformulations (DLF) and DL-modified nanoformulations (DLMF) were analyzed for particle size, polydispersity index, shape, and potential interactions. In-vitro experiments on liver cancer cell lines (HepG2) are used to validate the anti-proliferative efficacy of the modified DLMF. The in-vitro research on HepG2 cell lines also demonstrated cellular accumulation of DLF and DLMF by FITC level. The in-vitro result suggested that DLMF has high therapeutic effectiveness against HCC. In-vivo pharmacokinetics and bio-distribution experiments revealed that DLMF excelled pristine DL in terms of pharmacokinetic performance and targeted delivery, which is related to galactose's targeting activity on the asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR) in hepatic cells. Additionally, we performed an in-silico study of DL on caspase 3 and 9 proteins, and the results were found to be -6.7 kcal/mol and -6.6 kcal/mol, respectively. Our in-silico analysis revealed that the DL had strong apoptotic properties against HCC.

Emerging Therapies for Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC)

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) arises from hepatocytes and accounts for 90% of primary liver cancer. According to Global Cancer Incidence, Mortality and Prevalence (GLOBOCAN) 2020, globally HCC is the sixth most common cancer and the third most common cause of cancer-related deaths. Reasons for HCC prognosis remaining dismal are that HCC is asymptomatic in its early stages, leading to late diagnosis, and it is markedly resistant to conventional chemo- and radiotherapy. Liver transplantation is the treatment of choice in early stages, while surgical resection, radiofrequency ablation (RFA) and trans arterial chemoembolization (TACE) are Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved treatments for advanced HCC. Additional first line therapy for advanced HCC includes broad-spectrum tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), such as sorafenib and lenvatinib, as well as a combination of immunotherapy and anti-angiogenesis therapy, namely atezolizumab and bevacizumab. However, these strategies provide nominal extension in the survival curve, cause broad spectrum toxic side effects, and patients eventually develop therapy resistance. Some common mutations in HCC, such as in telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT), catenin beta 1 (CTNNB1) and tumor protein p53 (TP53) genes, are still considered to be undruggable. In this context, identification of appropriate gene targets and specific gene delivery approaches create the potential of gene- and immune-based therapies for the safe and effective treatment of HCC. This review elaborates on the current status of HCC treatment by focusing on potential gene targets and advanced techniques, such as oncolytic viral vectors, nanoparticles, chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cells, immunotherapy, and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated protein 9 (CRISPR/Cas9), and describes future prospects in HCC treatment.

Green Synthesis of Gold, Iron and Selenium Nanoparticles Using Phytoconstituents: Preliminary Evaluation of Antioxidant and Biocompatibility Potential

This study aimed at fabricating gold (Au), iron (Fe) and selenium (Se) nanoparticles (NPs) using various natural plant extracts from the Fertile Crescent area and evaluating their potential application as antioxidant and biocompatible agents to be used in the pharmaceutical field, especially in drug delivery. The Au-NPs were synthesized using Ephedra alata and Pistacia lentiscus extracts, whereas the Fe-NPs and Se-NPs were synthesized using peel, fruit and seed extracts of Punica granatum. The phytofabricated NPs were characterized by the UV-visible spectroscopy, scanning electron microscope, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and energy-dispersive X-ray (EDS) spectroscopy. Scanning electron microscope technique showed that the synthesized NPs surface was spherical, and the particle size analysis confirmed a particle size of 50 nm. The crystalline nature of the NPs was confirmed by the XRD analysis. All synthesized NPs were found to be biocompatible in the fibroblast and human erythroleukemic cell lines. Se-NPs showed a dose-dependent antitumor activity as evidenced from the experimental results with breast cancer (MCF-7) cells. A dose-dependent, free-radical scavenging effect of the Au-NPs and Se-NPs was observed in the DPPH (2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) assay, with the highest effect recorded for Au-NPs.

Galactose-decorated liver tumor-specific nanoliposomes incorporating selective BRD4-targeted PROTAC for hepatocellular carcinoma therapy

This research deals with the development of asialoglycoprotein receptors (ASGPR) directed nanoliposomes incorporating a novel BRD4 (Bromodomain-containing protein 4) protein-targeted PROTAC (Proteolysis Targeting Chimera), ARV-825 (ARV) (GALARV), and to investigate the anticancer efficacy of GALARV for specific delivery in hepatocellular carcinoma. GALARV were prepared using the modified hydration method and characterized for their physicochemical properties as well as anticancer activity using 2D and 3D cell culture models. ARV and GALARV (93.83 ± 10.05 nm) showed significant in vitro cytotoxicity and apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma cells. GALARV also demonstrated a substantially higher intracellular concentration of ARV compared to non-targeted nanoliposomes (∼3 fold) and ARV alone (∼4.5 fold), showed good physical stability and negligible hemolysis. Immunoblotting results depicted substantial downregulation of target BRD4 protein, oncogenic c-Myc, apoptotic Bcl-2, and survivin proteins. Notably, GALARV treatment resulted in significant apoptosis and subsequent inhibition of the cell viability of 3D tumor spheroids of hepatocellular carcinoma. These results suggest that GALARV is a novel actively targeted PROTAC-based nanotherapeutic approach for hepatocellular carcinoma.

An Engineered Specificity of Anti-Neoplastic Agent Loaded Magnetic Nanoparticles for the Treatment of Breast Cancer

Nanoparticles have gained increased attention due to the prospection of drug delivery at target sites, thus limiting the systemic effects of the drugs. Their efficiency was further improved by adding special carriers such as magnetite (Fe3O4). It is one of the extensively used oxides of iron for both pharmaceutical and biomedical applications owing to its ease of preparation and biocompatibility. In this work, Gemcitabine magnetic nanoparticles were prepared using Fe3O4 and chitosan as the primary ingredients. Optimization was accomplished by Box-Behnken Design and factor interactions were evaluated. The desirability function approach was made to enhance the formulation concerning particle size, polydispersity index, and zeta potential. Based on this, optimized magnetic nanoparticles (O-MNP) were formulated with 300 mg of Fe3O4, 297.7 mg of chitosan, and a sonication time of 2.4 h, which can achieve the prerequisites of the target formulation. All other in vitro parameters were found to be following the requirement. In vitro cytotoxic studies for O-MNP were performed using cell cultures of breast cancer (MCF-7), leukemia (THP-1), prostate cancer (PC-3), and lung cancer (A549). O-MNP showed maximum inhibition growth with MCF-7 cell lines rather than other cell lines. The data observed here demonstrates the potential of magnetic nanoparticles of gemcitabine in treating breast cancers.

In vitro and in vivo evaluation of self-assembled chitosan nanoparticles selectively overcoming hepatocellular carcinoma via asialoglycoprotein receptor

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the major causes of cancer-related mortality worldwide. Nowadays, liver-targeting drug delivery system has been proven as a promising strategy for overcoming HCC. Asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR) is an ideal receptor for liver targeting, which is mainly expressed on hepatocytes. In this study, we developed several novel liver-targeting chitosan nanoparticles to selectively overcome HCC via ASGPR. Chitosan nanoparticles (Gly-CS-VE, Gal-Gly-CS-VE, Gly-CS-DCA, and Gal-Gly-CS-DCA) were prepared by grafting hydrophilic group (glycidol, Gly), hydrophobic group (deoxycholic acid, DCA or vitamin E succinate, VE), and ASGPR recognizing group (galactose, Gal). Subsequently, their characterizations were measured by ¹H NMR, FT-IR, TEM, and DLS. Doxorubicin (DOX) was loaded in nanoparticles and released out in a pH-dependent manner. Most importantly, the galactosylated Gal-Gly-CS-VE and Gal-Gly-CS-DCA nanoparticles exhibited significantly stronger in vitro cell internalization, cytotoxicity, anti-migration capabilities and in vivo anticancer efficacies than the corresponding Gly-CS-VE and Gly-CS-DCA nanoparticles, as well as free DOX. Finally, the four chitosan nanoparticles exhibited good biocompatibility without causing any obvious histological damage to the major organs. Overall, the galactosylated chitosan nanoparticles were proven to be promising pharmaceutical formulations for selectively overcoming HCC, with great potential for clinical applications.

Lung Targeted Lipopolymeric Microspheres of Dexamethasone for the Treatment of ARDS

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), a catastrophic illness of multifactorial etiology, involves a rapid upsurge in inflammatory cytokines that leads to hypoxemic respiratory failure. Dexamethasone, a synthetic corticosteroid, mitigates the glucocorticoid-receptor-mediated inflammation and accelerates tissue homeostasis towards disease resolution. To minimize non-target organ side effects arising from frequent and chronic use of dexamethasone, we designed biodegradable, lung-targeted microspheres with sustained release profiles. Dexamethasone-loaded lipopolymeric microspheres of PLGA (Poly Lactic-co-Glycolic Acid) and DPPC (Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine) stabilized with vitamin E TPGS (D-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol succinate) were prepared by a single emulsion technique that had a mean diameter of 8.83 ± 0.32 μm and were spherical in shape as revealed from electron microscopy imaging. Pharmacokinetic and biodistribution patterns studied in the lungs, liver, and spleen of Wistar rats showed high selectivity and targeting efficiency for the lung tissue (re 13.98). As a proof-of-concept, in vivo efficacy of the microspheres was tested in the lipopolysaccharide-induced ARDS model in rats. Inflammation markers such as IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, quantified in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid indicated major improvement in rats treated with dexamethasone microspheres by intravenous route. Additionally, the microspheres substantially inhibited the protein infiltration, neutrophil accumulation and lipid peroxidation in the lungs of ARDS bearing rats, suggesting a reduction in oxidative stress. Histopathology showed decreased damage to the pulmonary tissue upon treatment with the dexamethasone-loaded microspheres. The multipronged formulation technology approach can thus serve as a potential treatment modality for reducing lung inflammation in ARDS. An improved therapeutic profile would help to reduce the dose, dosing frequency and, eventually, the toxicity.

Pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution of hydrazinocurcumin in rats

BACKGROUND

Curcumin, a natural polyphenol from Curcuma longa, is known to possess diversified pharmacological roles including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiproliferative and antiangiogenic properties; however, its bioavailability is severely limited due to its poor solubility, poor absorption, rapid metabolism, and significant elimination. Hydrazinocurcumin (HZC), a novel analogue of curcumin has been reported to overcome the limitations of curcumin and also possesses multiple pharmacological activities. The present study aimed to evaluate the unexplored pharmacokinetic profile of this agent in experimental rats.

METHODS

Drug formulations were administered to the experimental animals via oral, intravenous and intraperitoneal routes. Blood samples were collected at different pre-determined time intervals to determine the pharmacokinetic parameters. To understand the biodistribution profile of HCZ, tissue samples were isolated from different groups of Sprague-Dawley rats at different time points. The pharmacokinetic parameters of HZC were evaluated after administration through oral (100 mg/kg), intraperitoneal (100 mg/kg) and intravenous (10 mg/kg) routes.

RESULTS

Significantly (p < 0.05) higher total AUC along with maximum concentration were evident with intraperitoneal administration when compared to the results of oral administration at a similar dose. In addition, shorter time to peak was observed with intraperitoneal administration. These results revealed a faster rate and longer duration of absorption with intraperitoneal administration, which further resulted in enhanced absolute bioavailability of HZC (29.17%) when compared to 5.1% upon oral dosing. The obtained data from the pharmacokinetic study indicated that HZC was instantaneously distributed and moderately eliminated from body fluids.

CONCLUSION

Based on the findings, it could be concluded that absorption of HZC is much higher via intraperitoneal route of administration compared to the oral administration.

Building and behavior of a pH-stimuli responsive chitosan nanoparticles loaded with folic acid conjugated gemcitabine silver colloids in MDA-MB-453 metastatic breast cancer cell line and pharmacokinetics in rats

The pH-stimuli release behavior of nanoformulations may enhance the success rate of chemotherapeutic drugs in cancers by site-specific delivery of drugs to cancer tissues. The aim of the present study was to prepare chitosan (CS) nanoparticles (NPs) with previously synthesized folic acid (FA) capped silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) loaded with the anti-cancer drug gemcitabine (GEM) (FA-GEM-AgNPs). The CS-FA-GEM-AgNPs (CS-NPs) were characterized with dynamic light scattering (DLS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), energy dispersive x-ray analysis (EDAX), selected area electron diffraction (SAED), and differential scanning calorimetric (DSC) analyses. The in-vitro drug release of GEM was evaluated in media of different pH. The 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay was carried out to determine the cytotoxic effects of the prepared nanoformulations in media with various pH. The time- and pH-dependent apoptotic cell death induced by CS-NPs with MDA-MB-453 human breast cancer cell line was observed using acridine orange (AO)/ethidium bromide (EtBr) staining. The pharmacokinetic parameters were studied with high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). Two batches of CS-NPs formulations were prepared, one with AgNPs of particle size 143 nm and the other with 244 nm. The particle size for CS-NPs-I (FA-GEM-AgNPs-143 nm) and CS-NPs-II (FA-GEM-AgNPs-244 nm) was found to be 425 and 545 nm, respectively. The zeta potential was found to be 36.1 and 37.5 mV for CS-NPs-I and CS-NPs-II, respectively. CS-NPs-I and CS-NPs-II showed a polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.240 and 0.261, respectively. A TEM study confirmed the spherical nature of the NPs. The nanoformulations exerted pH-dependant effect against MDA-MB-453 cells with relatively higher cytotoxicity at the lower pH than at higher pH levels. The pharmacokinetic profile and tissue distribution of CS-NPs in rats exerted drug release in a pH-dependent manner with enhanced excretion of Ag⁺. An optimized nanoformulation for pH-stimuli responsive release of GEM was successfully developed for future therapeutic exploration.

A Combined Antitumor Strategy Mediated by a New Targeted Nanosystem to Hepatocellular Carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the main causes of cancer-related death. Sorafenib, which is the first-line therapy for this disease, is associated with reduced therapeutic efficacy that could potentially be overcome by combination with selumetinib. In this context, the main goal of this work was to develop a new nanosystem, composed of a polymeric core coated by a lipid bilayer containing the targeting ligand GalNAc, to specifically and efficiently co-deliver both drugs into HCC cells, in order to significantly increase their therapeutic efficacy.

METHODS

The physicochemical characterization of hybrid nanosystems (HNP) and their components was performed by dynamic light scattering, zeta potential, matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization - time of flight mass spectroscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. Cellular binding, uptake and specificity of HNP were evaluated through flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. The therapeutic activity was evaluated namely through: cell viability by the Alamar Blue assay; cell death by flow cytometry using FITC-Annexin V; caspases activity by luminescence; mitochondrial membrane potential by flow cytometry; and molecular target levels by Western blot.

RESULTS

The obtained data show that these hybrid nanosystems present high stability and loading capacity of both drugs, and suitable physicochemical properties, namely in terms of size and surface charge. Moreover, the generated formulation allows to circumvent drug resistance and presents high specificity, promoting great cell death levels in HCC cells, but not in non-tumor cells. This potentiation of the antitumor effect of co-loaded drugs was carried out by an increased programmed cell death, being associated with a strong reduction in the mitochondrial membrane potential, a significant increase in the activity of caspases 3/7 and caspase 9, and much greater number of annexin V-positive cells.

CONCLUSION

The developed formulation resulted in a high and synergistic antitumor effect, revealing a translational potential to improve therapeutic approaches against HCC.

In vitro and in vivo antitumor effects of lupeol-loaded galactosylated liposomes

Lupeol liposomes, modified with Gal-PEG-DSPE, were developed following a thin-film dispersion method. Then, the morphology, physicochemical properties, and in vitro release properties of those liposomes were investigated. The scanning electron microscopic images showed that most of the liposomes were spherical particles; they were similar in size and uniformly dispersed. Both lupeol liposomes and Gal-lupeol liposomes exhibited an average particle size of about 100 nm. The encapsulation efficiency was greater than 85%. The encapsulation efficiency of lupeol liposome and Gal-lupeol liposome, stored with 15% sucrose as glycoprotein for 6 months, was higher than 80%; although the particle size increased, they remained within 200 nm. The cell-uptake study demonstrated that the Gal-lupeol-liposome uptake efficiency was the highest in HepG2 cells. The HepG2 cells treated with the Gal-lupeol liposomes had higher apoptotic efficiency than the lupeol liposome and free lupeol. After HepG2 cells were treated with Gal-lupeol liposome, the expressions of AKT/mTOR-related proteins (p-AKT308 and p-AKT473) were also significantly reduced than the lupeol-liposome and free lupeol group. The in vivo targeting studies showed that Gal-NR-L exhibited liver-targeting effects on FVB mice. The pharmacodynamic study was performed by transfecting AKT and c-MET via the high-pressure tail vein of FVB mice. After Gal-lupeol-L administration, the liver index and liver weight of mice were less than those non-targeted group. The histopathological study showed that the lobular structure in the mice liver was clearer, the vacuoles were more obvious, and the cytoplasm was more abundant after Gal-lupeol-L administration. Also, the qRT-PCR study showed that AFP, GPC3, and EpCAM mRNA expression levels were significantly lower than those non-targeted lupeol-liposomes.

Experimental design, formulation and in vivo evaluation of a novel topical in situ gel system to treat ocular infections

In situ gels have been extensively explored as ocular drug delivery system to enhance bioavailability and efficacy. The objective of present study was to design, formulate and evaluate ion-activated in situ gel to enhance the ocular penetration and therapeutic performance of moxifloxacin in ophthalmic delivery. A simplex lattice design was utilized to examine the effect of various factors on experimental outcomes of the in situ gel system. The influence of polymers (independent variables) such as gellan gum (X₁), sodium alginate (X₂), and HPMC (X₃) on gel strength, adhesive force, viscosity and drug release after 10 h (Q₁₀) were assessed. Selected formulation (MH7) was studied for ex vivo permeation, in vivo irritation and pharmacokinetics in rabbits. Data revealed that increase in concentration of polymers led to higher gel strength, adhesive force and viscosity, however, decreases the drug release. MH7 exhibited all physicochemical properties within acceptable limits and was stable for 6 months. Release profile of moxifloxacin from MH7 was comparable to the check point batches and followed Korsmeyer-Peppas matrix diffusion-controlled mechanism. Ocular irritation study signifies that selected formulation is safe and non-irritant for ophthalmic administration. In vivo pharmacokinetics data indicates significant improvement of moxifloxacin bioavailability (p < 0.0001) from MH7, as evidenced by higher C_max (727 ± 56 ng/ml) and greater AUC (2881 ± 108 ng h/ml), when compared with commercial eye drops (C_max; 503 ± 85 ng/ml and AUC; 978 ± 86 ng h/ml). In conclusion, developed in situ gel system (MH7) could offers a more effective and extended ophthalmic therapy of moxifloxacin in ocular infections when compared to conventional eye drops.

Emerging Role of Hydrogels in Drug Delivery Systems, Tissue Engineering and Wound Management

The popularity of hydrogels as biomaterials lies in their tunable physical properties, ability to encapsulate small molecules and macromolecular drugs, water holding capacity, flexibility, and controllable degradability. Functionalization strategies to overcome the deficiencies of conventional hydrogels and expand the role of advanced hydrogels such as DNA hydrogels are extensively discussed in this review. Different types of cross-linking techniques, materials utilized, procedures, advantages, and disadvantages covering hydrogels are tabulated. The application of hydrogels, particularly in buccal, oral, vaginal, and transdermal drug delivery systems, are described. The review also focuses on composite hydrogels with enhanced properties that are being developed to meet the diverse demand of wound dressing materials. The unique advantages of hydrogel nanoparticles in targeted and intracellular delivery of various therapeutic agents are explained. Furthermore, different types of hydrogel-based materials utilized for tissue engineering applications and fabrication of contact lens are discussed. The article also provides an overview of selected examples of commercial products launched particularly in the area of oral and ocular drug delivery systems and wound dressing materials. Hydrogels can be prepared with a wide variety of properties, achieving biostable, bioresorbable, and biodegradable polymer matrices, whose mechanical properties and degree of swelling are tailored with a specific application. These unique features give them a promising future in the fields of drug delivery systems and applied biomedicine.

Advantages and challenges in nanomedicines for chronic liver diseases: A hepatologist's perspectives

Chronic liver diseases (CLD) are responsible for significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. CLD patients are at a high risk of developing progressive liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), and subsequent liver failure. To date, there is no specific and effective therapies exist for patients with various forms of CLD. The application of nanotechnology has emerged as a rapidly developing area of interest for the safe and target-specific delivery of poorly aqueous soluble hepatoprotective agents and nucleic acids (siRNA/miRNAs) in CLD. The nanoparticle combination improves bioavailability and plasma stability of drugs with poor aqueous solubility. However, the extent of successful functional delivery of nanoparticles into hepatocytes is often surprisingly low. High Kupffer cells interaction reduces the nanomedicine efficacy. During fibrosis, the extracellular matrix accumulation in the perisinusoidal space restricts nanoparticle delivery to hepatocytes. The availability and uptake of nanoparticles exposure to different cells in the liver microenvironment is as Kupffer cells > sinusoidal endothelial cells > HSCs > hepatocytes. The most widely used strategy to reduce nanoparticles and macrophages interaction is to coat the particle surface with polyethylene glycol. The cationic charged nanoparticles have increased hepatocyte delivery by increased cellular interaction by disrupting the endosomal system via their pH buffering capacity. The immune clearance and toxicity of nanoparticles are mainly unpredictable. Therefore, more elaborate knowledge on exact cellular uptake and intracellular accumulation, trafficking, and endosomal sorting of nanoparticle is the need of the hour to improve the rational carrier design.

Development and Optimization of Naringenin-Loaded Chitosan-Coated Nanoemulsion for Topical Therapy in Wound Healing

The potential role of naringenin (NAR), a natural flavonoid, in the treatment of chronic wound has prompted the present research to deliver the drug in nanoemulsion (NE) form, where synergistic role of chitosan was achieved through development of chitosan-coated NAR NE (CNNE). The NE consisted of Capryol 90, Tween 20 and Transcutol P, which was fabricated by low-energy emulsification method to encapsulate NAR within the oil core. The optimization of the formulated NEs was performed using Box-Behnken statistical design to obtain crucial variable parameters that influence globule size, size distribution and surface charge. Finally, the optimized formulation was coated with different concentrations of chitosan and subsequently characterized in vitro. The size of the CNNE was found to be increased when the drug-loaded formulation was coated with chitosan. Controlled release characteristics depicted 67-81% release of NAR from the CNNE, compared to 89% from the NE formulation. Cytotoxicity study of the formulation was performed in vitro using fibroblast cell line (NIH-3T3), where no inhibition in proliferation of the cells was observed with CNNE. Finally, the wound healing potential of the CNNE was evaluated in an abrasion-created wound model in experimental animals where the animals were treated and compared histologically at 0 and 14 days. Significant improvement in construction of the abrasion wound was observed when the animals were treated with formulated CNNE, whereas stimulation of skin regeneration was depicted in the histological examination. Therefore, it could be summarized that the chitosan coating of the developed NAR NE is a potential platform to accelerate healing of wounds.

Development and validation of bioanalytical method for the determination of hydrazinocurcumin in rat plasma and organs by HPLC-UV

Hydrazinocurcumin is a semi-synthetic analogue of curcumin with superior anticancer and anti-angiogenic activities. In the present work a simple and sensitive reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) method for quantitative evaluation of hydrazinocurcumin in plasma and various organs of rats including liver, kidneys, brain, heart, lungs and spleen was developed. Hydrazinocurcumin was separated using octadecylsilane (Inertsil-ODS-3V) column in an isocratic mode using mobile phase consisting of methanol-acetonitrile- water (36:27:37 v/v) with flow rate of 1.0 ml/min. Ultra violet (UV) detection of hydrazinocurcumin and internal standard was carried out in dual-wavelength mode at 332 nm and 380 nm, respectively. The linearity of hydrazinocurcumin was found in the range 0.05-5 µg/ml with a correlation coefficient of r² > 0.999. The developed bioanalytical method shown higher inter-day accuracy (98.04-105.94%) and precision (0.89-10.24). The average recoveries of hydrazinocurcumin from rat plasma and various organs were in the range of 96-101.75% and 92.25-99.0%, respectively. The bioanalytical samples shows good stability of hydrazinocurcumin at different storage and handling conditions. In conclusion, this validated HPLC-UV method could be applied effectively for evaluation of hydazinocurcumin for the pharmacokinetic and organ distribution studies.

Chitosan Nanoparticles for Therapy and Theranostics of Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC) and Liver-Targeting

Chitosan nanoparticles are well-known delivery systems widely used as polymeric carriers in the field of nanomedicine. Chitosan is a carbohydrate of natural origin: it is a biodegradable, biocompatible, mucoadhesive, polycationic polymer and it is endowed with penetration enhancer properties. Furthermore, it can be easily derivatized. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) represents a remarkable health problem because current therapies, that include surgery, liver transplantation, trans-arterial embolization, chemoembolization and chemotherapy, present significant limitations due to the high risk of recurrence, to a lack of drug selectivity and to other serious side effects. Therefore, there is the need for new therapeutic strategies and for improving the liver-targeting to HCC. Nanomedicine consists in the use of nanoscale carriers as delivery systems to target and deliver drugs and/or diagnostic agents to specific organs or tissues. Chitosan and its derivatives can be successfully used in the preparation of nanoparticles that, for their peculiar surface-properties, can specifically interact with liver tumor, by passive and active targeting. This review concerns the use of chitosan nanoparticles for the therapy and theranostics of HCC and liver-targeting.

Improvement in the Current Therapies for Hepatocellular Carcinoma Using a Systems Medicine Approach

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the leading causes of cancer-related death primarily due to the lack of effective targeted therapies. Despite the distinct morphological and phenotypic patterns of HCC, treatment strategies are restricted to relatively homogeneous therapies, including multitargeted tyrosine kinase inhibitors and immune checkpoint inhibitors. Therefore, more effective therapy options are needed to target dysregulated metabolic and molecular pathways in HCC. Integrative genomic profiling of HCC patients provides insight into the most frequently mutated genes and molecular targets, including telomerase reverse transcriptase, the TP53 gene, and the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway oncogene (CTNNB1). Moreover, emerging techniques, such as genome-scale metabolic models may elucidate the underlying cancer-specific metabolism, which allows for the discovery of potential drug targets and identification of biomarkers. De novo lipogenesis has been revealed as consistently upregulated since it is required for cell proliferation in all HCC patients. The metabolic network-driven stratification of HCC patients in terms of redox responses, utilization of metabolites, and subtype-specific pathways may have clinical implications to drive the development of personalized medicine. In this review, the current and emerging therapeutic targets in light of molecular approaches and metabolic network-based strategies are summarized, prompting effective treatment of HCC patients.