Neuroprotective Effects of Baicalein, Wogonin, and Oroxylin A on Amyloid Beta-Induced Toxicity via NF-κB/MAPK Pathway Modulation

Targeting TRIM40 signaling reduces esophagus cancer development: A mechanism involving in protection of oroxylin A

Oroxylin A (OA), a naturally active O-methylated flavone derived from Scutellaria baicalensis, is regarded as a potential drug with strong anticancer effects. Unfortunately, our understanding of the antineoplastic mechanism of oral exposure to such flavonoids is inadequate. Growing evidence has confirmed the important role of OA in the regulation of oxidative stress- and inflammatory-response-induced tissue injury. However, it remains unknown whether OA is capable of mitigating esophagus cancer (EC) progression and its potential molecular mechanism. Furthermore, the tripartite motif containing 40 (TRIM40) is a ubiquitin ligase that mediates the immune response. The potential molecular function of TRIM40 in regulating EC is largely unknown. We confirmed that OA-triggered oxidative stress markedly upregulates TRIM40. During the OA challenge, increased TRIM40 reduced oxidative stress and promoted the ER stress response. Inversely, deletion of TRIM40 facilitated oxidative stress and blocked cancer cell growth in vivo and in vitro. Mechanistically, in response to OA treatment, TRIM40 directly interacts with Keap1 and promotes ubiquitin-proteasome degradation, thus leading to the promotion of Nrf2 nuclear translocation and its downstream cascade activation, which increases antioxidant defense and cell survival. TRIM40 expression was positively correlated with Nrf2 expression and negatively associated with Keap1 expression in EC xenografts and human specimens. In addition, high TRIM40 expression correlates with poor patient survival in EC. The findings suggested that oral exposure to OA significantly mitigates EC development by targeting TRIM40 activity. These findings further elucidated the potential role of TRIM40 in EC progression by mediating Keap1 degradation, which could be considered a therapeutic target for the treatment of such a disease.

The Neuroprotective Effects of Oroxylum indicum Extract in SHSY-5Y Neuronal Cells by Upregulating BDNF Gene Expression under LPS Induced Inflammation

The brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) plays a crucial role during neuronal development as well as during differentiation and synaptogenesis. They are important proteins present in the brain that support neuronal health and protect the neurons from detrimental signals. The results from the present study suggest BDNF expression can be increase up to ~8-fold by treating the neuroblastoma cells SHSY-5Y with an herbal extract of Oroxylum indicum (50 μg/mL) and ~5.5-fold under lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-induced inflammation conditions. The Oroxylum indicum extract (Sabroxy) was standardized to 10% oroxylin A, 6% chrysin, and 15% baicalein. In addition, Sabroxy has shown to possess antioxidant activity that could decrease the damage caused by the exacerbation of radicals during neurodegeneration. A mode of action of over expression of BDNF with and without inflammation is proposed for the Oroxylum indicum extract, where the three major hydroxyflavones exert their effects through additive or synergistic effects via five possible targets including GABA, Adenoside A2A and estrogen receptor bindings, anti-inflammatory effects, and reduced mitochondrial ROS production.

Polyphenols Targeting MAP Kinase Signaling Pathway in Neurological Diseases: Understanding Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Targets

Polyphenols are a class of secondary metabolic products found in plants that have been extensively studied for how well they regulate biological processes, such as the proliferation of cells, autophagy, and apoptosis. The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)-mediated signaling cascade is currently identified as a crucial pro-inflammatory pathway that plays a significant role in the development of neuroinflammation. This process has been shown to contribute to the pathogenesis of several neurological conditions, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), CNS damage, and cerebral ischemia. Getting enough polyphenols through eating habits has resulted in mitigating the effects of oxidative stress (OS) and lowering the susceptibility to associated neurodegenerative disorders, including but not limited to multiple sclerosis (MS), AD, stroke, and PD. Polyphenols possess significant promise in dealing with the root cause of neurological conditions by modulating multiple therapeutic targets simultaneously, thereby attenuating their complicated physiology. Several polyphenolic substances have demonstrated beneficial results in various studies and are presently undergoing clinical investigation to treat neurological diseases (NDs). The objective of this review is to provide a comprehensive summary of the different aspects of the MAPK pathway involved in neurological conditions, along with an appraisal of the progress made in using polyphenols to regulate the MAPK signaling system to facilitate the management of NDs.

Efficacy of Danlou tablet on myocardial ischemia/ reperfusion injury assessed by network pharmacology and experimental verification

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the potential pharmacological mechanism of Danlou tablet (, DLT) with a long-term clinical application in the treatment of myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury through network pharmacology, molecular docking and experimental verification.

METHODS

The main chemical ingredients in DLT were retrieved from the Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) System Pharmacology Database, the TCM information database, the bioinformatics analysis tool for molecular mechanism of TCM, and HERB database. Disease targets of I/R were accessed from the databases of Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man, GeneCards, Therapeutic Target Database, and DisGeNET database. The overlaying genes of DLT and I/R were obtained from the Venny online platform. The core targets and protein-protein interaction network were constructed and analyzed via the Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes Proteins database and Cytoscape software. Furthermore, Gene Ontology (GO) analysis and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis were performed by the Metascape platform. Based on the results, the component-target-pathway network was constructed and drafted via the Cytoscape software and the platform of Bioinformatics. Furthermore, we performed molecular docking to predict the binding information between chemical molecules and target proteins. Finally, oxygen-glucose deprivation/recovery (OGD/R)-induced H9c2 cardiomyocytes were used to validate the results of network pharmacology in vitro.

RESULTS

A total of 189 active chemical components in DLT and 849 correlative targets of I/R were screened. Of note, 133 overlaying genes found from the Venny online platform were concentrated into 28 core genes. Furthermore, the GO and KEGG pathway enrichment analysis presented that DLT might participate in 42 types of GO molecular functions, 747 types of GO biological processes, 19 types of GO cellular components, and 140 kinds of pathways to treat I/R. In the component-target-pathway network, the indirect relationship between herbs and their possible effective pathways was clarified. Based on the molecular docking, we speculated that Baicalein-prostaglandin G/H synthase 2 (PTGS2) with -3.24 kcal/mol, Luteolin-heat shock protein 90 alpha family class A member 1 (HSP90AA1) with -3.22 kcal/mol, Baicalein-HSP90AA1 with -3.13 kcal/mol, and Quercetin-HSP90AA1 with -3.05 kcal/mol possessed the strongest binding force of less than -3 kcal/mol, sequentially. Experimental verification showed that Quercetin, Luteolin, and Baicalein could increase the relative cell viability of OGD/R-stimulated cardiomyocytes, probably by suppressing PTGS2, and activating HSP90AA1 and estrogen receptor 1 expression.

CONCLUSIONS

We predicted the potential active compounds as the material basis of DLT that may provide a new approach to elucidate the novel pharmacological mechanism underlying the treatment of cardiac I/R damage.

Neurotrophic Natural Products

Neurotrophins (NGF, BDNF, NT3, NT4) can decrease cell death, induce differentiation, as well as sustain the structure and function of neurons, which make them promising therapeutic agents for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. However, neurotrophins have not been very effective in clinical trials mostly because they cannot pass through the blood-brain barrier owing to being high-molecular-weight proteins. Thus, neurotrophin-mimic small molecules, which stimulate the synthesis of endogenous neurotrophins or enhance neurotrophic actions, may serve as promising alternatives to neurotrophins. Small-molecular-weight natural products, which have been used in dietary functional foods or in traditional medicines over the course of human history, have a great potential for the development of new therapeutic agents against neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease. In this contribution, a variety of natural products possessing neurotrophic properties such as neurogenesis, neurite outgrowth promotion (neuritogenesis), and neuroprotection are described, and a focus is made on the chemistry and biology of several neurotrophic natural products.

Role of multi-targeted bioactive natural molecules and their derivatives in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease: an insight into structure-activity relationship

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a complex neurodegenerative disorder involving cognitive dysfunction like short-term memory and behavioral changes as the disease progresses due to other unaltered physiological factors. The solution for this problem is Multi-targeted Drugs (MTDs), which can affect multiple determinants to realize the multifunctional effects. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors donepezil, rivastigmine, galantamine, and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist memantine are FDA-approved drugs used to treat AD symptomatically. The key objective of this review is to understand multitargeted bioactive natural molecules that could be considered as leads for further development as effective drugs for treating AD, along with understanding its pharmacology and structure-activity relationship (SAR). Understanding the molecular mechanism of the AD pathophysiology, the role of existing drugs, treatment of AD via amyloid beta (Aβ) plaque, and neurofibrillary tangle (NFT) inhibition by natural bioactive molecules were also discussed in the review. The current quest and recent advancements with natural bioactive compounds like physostigmine, resveratrol, curcumin, and catechins, along with the study of in silico SAR, were reported in the present study. This review summarises the structural properties required for bioactive natural molecules to show anti-Alzheimer's activity by emphasizing on SAR of several bioactive natural molecules targeting various AD pathologies, their key molecular interactions that are critical for target specificity, their role as multitargeted ligands, used with adjunctive therapy for AD followed by related US patents granted recently. This article highlights the significance of the structural features of natural bioactive molecules in the treatment of AD and establishes a connection between them.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Therapeutic targeting of Ras/Raf/MAPK pathway by natural products: A systematic and mechanistic approach for neurodegeneration

BACKGROUND

Multiple dysregulated pathways are behind the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs); however, the crucial targets are still unknown. Oxidative stress, apoptosis, autophagy, and inflammation are the most dominant pathways that strongly influence neurodegeneration. In this way, targeting the Ras/Raf/mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) pathway appears to be a developing strategy for combating NDDs like Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, stroke, aging, and other NDDs. Accordingly, plant secondary metabolites have shown promising potentials for the simultaneous modulation of the Ras/Raf/MAPKs pathway and play an essential role in NDDs. MAPKs include p38 MAPK, extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK 1/2), and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), which are important molecular players in neurodegeneration. Ras/Raf, which is located the upstream of MAPK pathway influences the initiation and progression of neurodegeneration and is regulated by natural products.

PURPOSE

Thus, the present study aimed to investigate the neuroprotective roles of plant- and marine-derived secondary metabolites against several NDDs through the modulation of the Ras/Raf/MAPK signaling pathway.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

A systematic and comprehensive review was performed to highlight the modulatory roles of natural products on the Ras/Raf/MAPK signaling pathway in NDDs, according to the PRISMA guideline, using scholarly electronic databases, including PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Sciences. Associated reference lists were also searched for the literature review.

RESULTS

From a total of 1495 results, finally 107 articles were included in the present study. The results show that several natural compounds such as alkaloid, phenolic, terpenoids, and nanoformulation were shown to have modulatory effects on the Ras/Raf/MAPKs pathway.

CONCLUSION

Natural products are promising multi-targeted agents with on NDDs through Ras/Raf/MAPKs pathway. Nevertheless, additional and complementary studies are necessary to check its efficacy and potential side effects.

Baicalein ameliorates Alzheimer's disease via orchestration of CX3CR1/NF-κB pathway in a triple transgenic mouse model

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common chronic neurodegenerative disease. Some studies have suggested that dysregulation of microglia activation and the resulting neuroinflammation play an important role in the development of AD pathology. Activated microglia have both M1 and M2 phenotypes and inhibition of M1 phenotype while stimulating M2 phenotype has been considered as a potential treatment for neuroinflammation-related diseases. Baicalein is a class of flavonoids with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and other biological activities, but its role in AD and the regulation of microglia are limited. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of baicalein on the activation of microglia in AD model mice and the related molecular mechanism. Our results showed that baicalein significantly improved the learning and memory ability and AD-related pathology of 3 × Tg-AD mice, inhibited the level of pro-inflammatory factors TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6, promoted the production of anti-inflammatory factors IL-4 and IL-10, and regulated the microglia phenotype through CX3CR1/NF-κB signaling pathway. In conclusion, baicalein can regulate the phenotypic transformation of activated microglia and reduce neuroinflammation through CX3CR1/NF-κB pathway, thereby improving the learning and memory ability of 3 × Tg-AD mice.

Molecular mechanisms of Huanglian Jiedu decoction in treating Alzheimer’s disease by regulating microbiome via network pharmacology and molecular docking analysis

Background

Huanglian Jiedu decoction (HLJDD) is a famous traditional Chinese medicine prescription, which is widely used in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). However, the interaction between bioactive substances in HLJDD and AD-related targets has not been well elucidated.

Aim

A network pharmacology-based approach combined with molecular docking was performed to determine the bioactives, key targets, and potential pharmacological mechanism of HLJDD against AD, through the regulation of microbial flora.

Materials and methods

Bioactives and potential targets of HLJDD, as well as AD-related targets, were retrieved from Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology Analysis Database (TCMSP). Key bioactive components, potential targets, and signaling pathways were obtained through bioinformatics analysis, including protein-protein interaction (PPI), Gene Ontology (GO), and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis. Subsequently, molecular docking was performed to predict the binding of active compounds with core targets.

Results

102 bioactive ingredients of HLJDD and 76 HLJDD-AD-related targets were screened. Bioinformatics analysis revealed that kaempferol, wogonin, beta-sitosterol, baicalein, acacetin, isocorypalmine, (S)-canadine, (R)-canadine may be potential candidate agents. AKT1, TNF, TP53, VEGFA, FOS, PTGS2, MMP9 and CASP3 could become potential therapeutic targets. 15 important signaling pathways including the cancer pathway, VEGF signaling pathway, and NF-κB signaling pathway might play an important role in HLJDD against AD. Moreover, molecular docking analysis suggested that kaempferol, wogonin, beta-sitosterol, baicalein, acacetin, isocorypalmine, (S)-canadine, and (R)-canadine combined well with AKT1, TNF, TP53, VEGFA, FOS, PTGS2, MMP9, CASP3, respectively.

Conclusion

Our results comprehensively illustrated the bioactives, potential targets, and possible molecular mechanisms of HLJDD against AD. HLJDD may regulate the microbiota flora homeostasis to treat AD through multiple targets and multiple pathways. It also provided a promising strategy for the use of traditional Chinese medicine in treating human diseases.

The Role of Fucoxanthin as a Potent Nrf2 Activator via Akt/GSK-3β/Fyn Axis against Amyloid-β Peptide-Induced Oxidative Damage

Increasing evidence is suggesting that amyloid-β peptide (Aβ), a characteristic of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), induces oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction, leading to neuronal death. This study aimed to demonstrate the antioxidant and anti-apoptotic effects of fucoxanthin, a major marine carotenoid found in brown algae, against neuronal injury caused by Aβ. Non-toxic dose range of fucoxanthin (0.1–5 µM) were selected for the neuroprotective study against Aβ25–35. The PC12 cells were pretreated with different concentrations of fucoxanthin for 1 h before being exposed to 10 µM Aβ25–35 for another 24 h. The present results showed that fucoxanthin inhibited Aβ25-35-induced cell death by recovering cell cycle arrest and decreasing intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) level. The compound enhanced mitochondrial recovery and regulated apoptosis related proteins including B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) and Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax) from Aβ25-35-induced oxidative stress. Concomitantly, fucoxanthin increased the expression of nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and its downstream phase II detoxifying enzymes including NADPH: quinone oxidoreductase-1 (NQO-1), glutamate cysteine ligase modifier subunit (GCLm), and thioredoxin reductase 1 (TrxR1), whereas it decreased the expression of cytoplasmic Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1). Moreover, pretreatment of fucoxanthin reduced Fyn phosphorylation via protein kinase B (Akt)-mediated inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β), which increased the nuclear localization of Nrf2, suggesting that the compound enhanced Nrf2 expression by the activation of upstream kinase as well as the dissociation of the Nrf2-Keap1 complex. Further validation with a specific phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitor LY294002 demonstrated that the fucoxanthin-mediated Nrf2 antioxidant defense system was directly associated with the Akt/GSK-3β/Fyn signaling pathway. In silico simulation revealed that the oxygen groups of fucoxanthin participated in potent interactions with target markers in the Nrf2 signaling pathway, which may affect the biological activity of target markers. Taken together, the present results demonstrated that the preventive role of fucoxanthin on Aβ-stimulated oxidative injury and apoptosis via Akt/GSK-3β/Fyn signaling pathway. This study would provide a useful approach for potential intervention for AD prevention.

Network pharmacology-based analysis of heat clearing and detoxifying drug JC724 on the treatment of colorectal cancer

BACKGROUND

Heat-clearing and detoxifying drugs has protective effect on colorectal cancer (CRC). Given the complicated features of Traditional Chinese medicine formulas, network pharmacology is an effective approach for studying the multiple interactions between drugs and diseases.

AIM

To systematically explore the anticancer mechanism of heat-clearing and detoxifying drug JC724.

METHODS

This study obtained the active compounds and their targets in JC724 from Traditional Chinese Medicine System Pharmacology Database. In addition, the CRC targets were obtained from Drugbank, TTD, DisGeNET and GeneCards databases. We performed transcriptome analysis of differentially expressed genes in CRC treated with JC724. Venn diagram was used to screen the JC724-CRC intersection targets as candidate targets. Core targets were selected by protein-protein interaction network and herb ingredient-target-disease network analysis. The functional and pathway of core targets were analysed by enrichment analysis.

RESULTS

We found 174 active ingredients and 283 compound targets from JC724. 940 CRC-related targets were reserved from the four databases and 304 CRC differentially expressed genes were obtained by transcriptome analysis. We constructed the network and found that the five core ingredients were quercetin, β Beta sitosterol, wogonin, kaempferol and baicalein. The core JC724-CRC targets were CYP1A1, HMOX1, CXCL8, NQO1 and FOSL1. JC724 acts on multiple signaling pathways associated with CRC, including the Nrf2 signaling pathway, oxidative stress, and the IL-17 signaling pathway.

CONCLUSION

In this study, we systematically analyzed the active ingredients, core targets and main mechanisms of JC724 in the treatment of CRC. This study could bring a new perspective to the heat-clearing and detoxifying therapy of CRC.

Ferroptosis: a potential therapeutic target for Alzheimer's disease

The most prevalent dementia-causing neurodegenerative condition is Alzheimer's disease (AD). The aberrant buildup of amyloid β and tau hyperphosphorylation are the two most well-known theories about the mechanisms underlying AD development. However, a significant number of pharmacological clinical studies conducted around the world based on the two aforementioned theories have not shown promising outcomes, and AD is still not effectively treated. Ferroptosis, a non-apoptotic programmed cell death defined by the buildup of deadly amounts of iron-dependent lipid peroxides, has received more attention in recent years. A wealth of data is emerging to support the role of iron in the pathophysiology of AD. Cell line and animal studies applying ferroptosis modulators to the treatment of AD have shown encouraging results. Based on these studies, we describe in this review the underlying mechanisms of ferroptosis; the role that ferroptosis plays in AD pathology; and summarise some of the research advances in the treatment of AD with ferroptosis modulators. We hope to contribute to the clinical management of AD.

Protective effect of wogonin on inflammatory responses in BisGMA-treated macrophages through the inhibition of MAPK and NFκB pathways

Composites, resins, and sealants that are commonly used in orthopedics and dentistry are based on 2,2-bis[p-(2'-hydroxy-3'-methacryloxypropoxy)phenylene]propane (BisGMA), which induces proinflammatory responses in macrophages. The present study aimed to explore the anti-inflammatory responses of wogonin, which is a natural dihydroxyl flavonoid compound, in BisGMA-treated macrophages. According to the findings, wogonin exhibits anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, anticancer, and antioxidative properties. The generation of nitric oxide (NO) and the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) were noted to be inhibited by wogonin in BisGMA-treated macrophages. Furthermore, the production of proinflammatory cytokines including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6 was reduced. In addition, BisGMA-induced nuclear factor (NF)-κB p65 phosphorylation and inhibitor of κB (IκB) degradation were inhibited. Finally, the BisGMA-induced phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), including p38 MAPK, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) was inhibited. All these effects were induced by wogonin in the macrophages in a concentration-dependent manner. Similar inhibitory effects of wogonin were observed on the production of NO and proinflammatory cytokines, expression of iNOS, phosphorylation of NF-κB p65 and MAPK, and degradation of IκB. These results indicated that rutin is a potential anti-inflammatory agent for BisGMA-treated macrophages that undergo NFκB p65 phosphorylation and IκB degradation through upstream MAPK phosphorylation. Therefore, wogonin inhibits BisGMA-induced proinflammatory responses in macrophages through the regulation of the NFκB pathway and its upstream factor, MAPK.

Regulatory mechanism of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi on bone cancer pain based on network pharmacology and experimental verification

Context

Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (SBG) may relieve bone cancer pain (BCP) by regulating cell proliferation, angiogenesis, and apoptosis.

Objective

The mechanism of SBG in the treatment of BCP remains to be further explored.

Methods

The active compounds and targets of SBG were obtained from the Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology Database and Analysis Platform (TCMSP) and SwissTargetPrediction databases. BCP-related targets were screened from NCBI and GeneCards databases. Additionally, Cytoscape software was applied to construct network diagrams, and OmicShare platform was used to enrich Gene Ontology (GO) and pathways. Finally, the verification of active compounds and core targets was performed based on quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR).

Results

Interestingly, we identified baicalein and wogonin as the main active components of SBG. A total of 41 SBG targets, including VEGFA, IL6, MAPK3, JUN and TNF, were obtained in the treatment of BCP. In addition, pathways in cancer may be an essential way of SBG in the treatment of BCP. Experimental verification had shown that baicalein and wogonin were significantly related to BCP core targets.

Conclusions

The active components of SBG have been clarified, and the mechanism of the active components in treating BCP has been predicted and verified, which provides an experimental and theoretical basis for the in-depth elucidation of the pharmacodynamics material basis and mechanism of SBG.

Advances in Anti-Cancer Activities of Flavonoids in Scutellariae radix: Perspectives on Mechanism

Despite encouraging progresses in the development of novel therapies, cancer remains the dominant cause of disease-related mortality and has become a leading economic and healthcare burden worldwide. Scutellariae radix (SR, Huangqin in Chinese) is a common herb used in traditional Chinese medicine, with a long history in treating a series of symptoms resulting from cancer, like dysregulated immune response and metabolic abnormalities. As major bioactive ingredients extracted from SR, flavonoids, including baicalein, wogonin, along with their glycosides (baicalin and wogonoside), represent promising pharmacological and anti-tumor activities and deserve extensive research attention. Emerging evidence has made great strides in elucidating the multi-targeting therapeutic mechanisms and key signaling pathways underlying the efficacious potential of flavonoids derived from SR in the field of cancer treatment. In this current review, we aim to summarize the pharmacological actions of flavonoids against various cancers in vivo and in vitro. Moreover, we also make a brief summarization of the endeavor in developing a drug delivery system or structural modification to enhance the bioavailability and biological activities of flavonoid monomers. Taken together, flavonoid components in SR have great potential to be developed as adjuvant or even primary therapies for the clinical management of cancers and have a promising prospect.

The role of inflammation in cadmium nephrotoxicity: NF-κB comes into view

Kidney diseases are major health problem and understanding the underlined mechanisms that lead to kidney diseases are critical research points with a marked potential impact on health. Cadmium (Cd) is a heavy metal that occurs naturally and can be found in contaminated food. Kidneys are the most susceptible organ to heavy metal intoxication as it is the main route of waste excretion. The harmful effects of Cd were previously well proved. Cd induces inflammatory responses, oxidative injury, mitochondrial dysfunction and disturbs Ca²⁺ homeostasis. The nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) is a cellular transcription factor that regulates inflammation and controls the expression of many inflammatory cytokines. Therefore, great therapeutic benefits can be attained from NF-κB inhibition. In this review we focused on certain compounds including cytochalasin D, mangiferin, N-acetylcysteine, pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate, roflumilast, rosmarinic acid, sildenafil, sinapic acid, telmisartan and wogonin and certain plants as Astragalus Polysaccharide, Ginkgo Biloba and Thymus serrulatus that potently inhibit NF-κB and effectively counteracted Cd-associated renal intoxication. In conclusion, the proposed NF-κB involvement in Cd-renal intoxication clarified the underlined inflammation associated with Cd-nephropathy and the beneficial effects of NF-κB inhibitors that make them the potential to substantially optimize treatment protocols for Cd-renal intoxication.

Oroxylin A: A Promising Flavonoid for Prevention and Treatment of Chronic Diseases

There have been magnificent advancements in the understanding of molecular mechanisms of chronic diseases over the past several years, but these diseases continue to be a considerable cause of death worldwide. Most of the approved medications available for the prevention and treatment of these diseases target only a single gene/protein/pathway and are known to cause severe side effects and are less effective than they are anticipated. Consequently, the development of finer therapeutics that outshine the existing ones is far-reaching. Natural compounds have enormous applications in curbing several disastrous and fatal diseases. Oroxylin A (OA) is a flavonoid obtained from the plants Oroxylum indicum, Scutellaria baicalensis, and S. lateriflora, which have distinctive pharmacological properties. OA modulates the important signaling pathways, including NF-κB, MAPK, ERK1/2, Wnt/β-catenin, PTEN/PI3K/Akt, and signaling molecules, such as TNF-α, TGF-ꞵ, MMPs, VEGF, interleukins, Bcl-2, caspases, HIF-1α, EMT proteins, Nrf-2, etc., which play a pivotal role in the molecular mechanism of chronic diseases. Overwhelming pieces of evidence expound on the anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, anti-viral, and anti-cancer potentials of this flavonoid, which makes it an engrossing compound for research. Numerous preclinical and clinical studies also displayed the promising potential of OA against cancer, cardiovascular diseases, inflammation, neurological disorders, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, etc. Therefore, the current review focuses on delineating the role of OA in combating different chronic diseases and highlighting the intrinsic molecular mechanisms of its action.

Inhibitory activities of flavonoids from Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi on amyloid aggregation related to type 2 diabetes and the possible structural requirements for polyphenol in inhibiting the nucleation phase of hIAPP aggregation

Human islet amyloid polypeptide (hIAPP)-mediated cytotoxicity is identified as a potential target for developing new anti-diabetic molecules. Herein, we investigated the effect of the major bioactive compounds of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (S. baicalensis), including baicalein, baicalin, wogonin and oroxylin A, on hIAPP aggregation. We found that all of these compounds inhibited hIAPP fibril formation in a dose-dependent manner. But baicalein and baicalin, especially baicalein are more effective than wogonin and oroxylin A in stabilizing hIAPP monomers and eliminating toxic hIAPP assembly, suggesting that flavonoids with ortho-hydroxyl group on the A-ring exhibited higher anti-hIAPP nucleation potential than those without this structure. This stimulated our interest in further studying the possible structure-activity relationship between polyphenol and hIAPP aggregation inhibition. Our results demonstrated that flavonoids with ortho-hydroxyl group on the B-ring are also more effective against hIAPP nucleation than those without this structure. These results suggest that the ortho-hydroxybenzene structure is a key structural feature required for polyphenols to effectively inhibit hIAPP nucleation. This was further confirmed by the effect of polyphenoland phenols in inhibiting hIAPP nucleation. The conclusion that pyrogallol-type polyphenols are potential lead inhibitors may provide a valuable structural template for the further development of polyphenol-based inhibitor of amyloid peptides.

Identification of miRNA–mRNA Pairs in the Alzheimer’s Disease Expression Profile and Explore the Effect of miR-26a-5p/PTGS2 on Amyloid-β Induced Neurotoxicity in Alzheimer’s Disease Cell Model

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease and the most common type of dementia. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have been extensively studied in many diseases, including AD. To identify the AD-specific differentially expressed miRNAs and mRNAs, we used bioinformatics analysis to study candidate miRNA–mRNA pairs involved in the pathogenesis of AD. These miRNA–mRNAs may serve as promising biomarkers for early diagnosis or targeted therapy of AD patients. In this study, based on the AD mRNA and miRNA expression profile data in Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO), through differential expression analysis, functional annotation and enrichment analysis, weighted gene co-expression network analysis, miRNA–mRNA regulatory network, protein–protein interaction network, receiver operator characteristic and Least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression and other analysis, we screened the key miRNA–mRNA in the progress of AD: miR-26a-5p/PTGS2. Dual-luciferase and qPCR experiments confirmed that PTGS2 is a direct target gene of miR-26a-5p. The expression of miR-26a-5p in the peripheral blood of AD patients and AD model cells (SH-SY5Y cells treated with Aβ_25–35) was up-regulated, and the expression of PTGS2 was down-regulated. Functional gain -loss experiments confirmed that PTGS2 protects AD model cells from damage by inhibiting proliferation and migration. However, the expression of miR-26a-5p promotes the proliferation of AD model cells. It is further found that PTGS2 is involved in the regulation of miR-26a-5p and can reverse the effect of miR-26a-5p on the proliferation of AD model cells. In addition, through network pharmacology, qPCR and CCK-8, we found that baicalein may affect the progression of AD by regulating the expression of PTGS2. Therefore, PTGS2 can be used as a target for AD research, and miR-26a-5p/PTGS2 can be used as an axis of action to study the pathogenesis of AD.

Research on the effect and underlying molecular mechanism of Cangzhu in the treatment of gouty arthritis

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to identify the active ingredients and elucidate the underlying mechanism of action of Atractylodes lancea (Thunb.) DC (namely, Cangzhu) for the treatment of gouty arthritis (GA) based on network pharmacology methods. These findings are expected to provide a theoretical basis for the clinical treatment of GA.

METHODS

We used monosodium urate (MSU)-induced GA rats as a model to test the overall efficacy of Cangzhu in vivo. Then, the components of the Cangzhu decoction were analyzed and identified, and we screened the active ingredients and their targets. The GA disease targets were predicted by GeneCards and Disgenet databases and found to overlap in both databases. The STRING database was used to construct a protein-protein interaction network, followed by identification of the hub genes using Network Analyzer. Thereafter, Cytoscape software (version 3.8.2) was applied to construct a network for drug-active ingredient-key targets. Next, we applied cluego, a plug-in of Cytoscape, to perform gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) signal pathway enrichment analyses. Additionally, molecular docking was used to verify the characteristics of the key candidate components interacting with the hub therapeutic targets. Finally, we established an inflammatory injury model of LPS using RAW264.7 macrophages and used it to experimentally validate the critical active ingredients.

RESULTS

Cangzhu effectively protected against gouty arthritis in vivo, and network pharmacology results revealed various active ingredients in Cangzhu, such as wogonin, atractylenolide I and atractylenolide II. These compounds were found to act on 16 hub targets, including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin 6 (IL-6), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2 (PTGS2), recombinant mitogen-activated protein kinase 14 (MAPK14) and transcription factor p65 (RELA), which have significant effects on regulating inflammatory factors and apoptosis-related pathways to improve the proinflammatory or anti-inflammatory imbalance in the body, and this may be one of the underlying mechanisms of Cangzhu in anti-GA.

CONCLUSION

Our findings revealed that Cangzhu comprises multiple active components that exert various targeted effects during GA treatment. These findings provide relevant insights to illuminate the mechanism of Cangzhu in the treatment of GA and provide a reference for further experimental research.

Integration of Network Pharmacology and Molecular Docking Technology Reveals the Mechanism of the Therapeutic Effect of Xixin Decoction on Alzheimer's Disease

BACKGROUND

So far, only a few researchers have systematically analyzed the constituents of the traditional Chinese medicine prescription Xixin Decoction (XXD) and its potential mechanism of action in treating Alzheimer's disease (AD). This study aimed to explore the potential mechanism of XXD in the treatment of AD using network pharmacology and molecular docking.

METHODS

The compounds of XXD were searched within the Traditional Chinese Medicine System Pharmacology Database (TCMSP) and the Traditional Chinese Medicine Integrated Database (TCMID) databases. Overlapping AD-related targets obtained from the two databases and the predicted targets of XXD obtained from SwissTargetPrediction platform were imported into the STRING database to build PPI networks including hub targets; Cytoscape software was used to construct the herb-compound-target network while its plug-in CytoNCA was used to screen the main active compounds of XXD. Gene Ontology (GO) and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses explored the core biological mechanism and pathways via the Metascape platform. In addition, we used AutoDock Vina and PyMOL software to investigate the molecular docking of main compounds to hub targets.

RESULTS

We determined 114 active compounds, 973 drug targets, and 973 disease targets. However, intersection analysis screened out 208 shared targets.Protein-protein interaction (PPI) network identified 9 hub targets. The hub targets were found to be majorly enriched in several biological processes (positive regulation of kinase activity, positive regulation of cell death, regulation of MAPK cascade, trans-synaptic signaling, synaptic signaling, etc.) and the relevant pathways of Alzheimer's disease, including neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction, dopaminergic synapse, serotonergic synapse, and the MAPK signaling pathway, etc. The pathway-target-compound network of XXD for treating AD was then constructed. 8 hub targets exhibited good binding activity with 9 main active compounds of XXD in molecular docking.

CONCLUSION

In this study, we found multi-compound-multi-target-multi-pathway regulation to reveal the mechanism of XXD for treating AD based on network pharmacology and molecular docking. XXD may play a therapeutic role through regulating the Alzheimer's disease pathway, its downstream PI3K/Akt signaling pathway or the MAPK signaling pathway, thereby treating AD. This provides new insights for further experiments on the pharmacological effects of XXD.

Potential of flavonoids as anti-Alzheimer's agents: bench to bedside

Developing therapies for neurodegenerative diseases are challenging because of the presence of blood-brain barrier and Alzheimer being one of the commonest and uprising neurodegenerative disorders possess the need for developing novel therapies. Alzheimer's is attributed to be the sixth leading cause of death in the USA and the number of cases is estimated to be increased from 58 million in 2021 to 88 million by 2050. Natural drugs have benefits of being cost-effective, widely available, fewer side effects, and immuno-booster can be useful in managing Alzheimer. Flavonoids can slow the neuronal degeneration as they have shown activity in central nervous system and are able to cross the blood-brain barrier. These can be easily extracted from fruits, vegetable, and plants. In Alzheimer disease, flavonoids scavenges the reactive oxygen species and reduces the production of amyloid beta protein. Agents from sub-classes of flavonoids such as flavanones, flavanols, flavones, flavonols, anthocyanins, and isoflavones having pharmacological action in treating Alzheimer disease are discussed in this review.

Wogonin inhibits inflammation and apoptosis through STAT3 signal pathway to promote the recovery of spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a complex central traumatic disease. STAT3 signal transduction pathway plays an important role in SCI. Wogonin has been reported to exhibit neuroprotection. However, the molecular mechanism of its potential therapeutic effect after SCI remains unclear. In this study, rats were divided into the following groups: Sham; SCI; SCI + wogonin; and SCI + wogonin + colivelin (Colivelin is an effective activator of the STAT3 pathway). Motor function was evaluated by Basso Beattie Bresnahan (BBB) score. Histomorphological changes in the spinal cords were observed by Hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining and Nissl staining. Western blot, Transferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining, and immunofluorescence were used to detect changes in the neuronal inflammation, apoptosis, and STAT3 signal pathway. Western blot and immunofluorescence techniques were also performed to detect the regulatory effect and the underlying mechanism of wogonin on the inflammation and apoptosis of PC12 cells. Experimental results in vivo and in vitro showed that wogonin could promote the recovery of motor function, improve the histopathological morphology, inhibit the activation of the STAT3 signal pathway, and reduce the neuronal inflammation and apoptosis in the rats with SCI. Activation of the STAT3 signal pathway by colivelin reversed the therapeutic effect of wogonin. Therefore, wogonin could inhibit inflammation and apoptosis by inhibiting the STAT3 signal pathway and promote the functional recovery of rats with SCI.

Baicalein Ameliorates Aβ-Induced Memory Deficits and Neuronal Atrophy via Inhibition of PDE2 and PDE4

Inhibition of phosphodiesterase 2 and 4 (PDE2A and PDE4) increases the intracellular cAMP and/or cGMP levels, which may prevent Amyloid β 42 oligomers (Aβ) related cognitive impairment and dementias. Baicalein, one of natural flavones found in the root of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi, has a wide range of pharmacological activities including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. However, no studies suggest whether baicalein mediated anti-Alzheimer’s disease (AD) events involve PDEs subtypes-mediated neuroprotective pathways. The present study examined whether memory enhancing effects of baicalein on Aβ- induced cognitive impairment are related to regulating neuroplasticity via PDE2 and PDE4 subtypes dependent cAMP/cGMP neuroprotective pathway. The results suggested that microinjected of Aβ into CA1 of hippocampus induced cognitive and memory impairment in mice, as evidenced by decreased recognition index in the novel object recognition (NOR) task, impaired memory acquisition, retention and retrieval in the Morris water maze (MWM) and shuttle box tests. These effects were reversed by treatment with baicalein for 14 days. Moreover, Aβ-induced neuronal atrophy and decreased expression of two synaptic proteins, synaptophysin and PSD 95, were prevented by baicalein. The increased expression of PDE2A and PDE4 subtypes (PDE4A, PDE4B and PDE4D), and decreased levels of cAMP/cGMP, pCREB/CREB and BDNF induced by Aβ were also blocked by chronic treatment of baicalein for 14 days. These findings suggest that baicalein’s reversal of Aβ-induced memory and cognitive disorder may involve the regulation of neuronal remodeling via regulation of PDE2/PDE4 subtypes related cAMP/cGMP -pCREB-BDNF pathway.

Mechanism of Baicalein in Brain Injury After Intracerebral Hemorrhage by Inhibiting the ROS/NLRP3 Inflammasome Pathway

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a devastating subtype of stroke with high disability/mortality. Baicalein has strong anti-inflammatory activity. This study aims to explore the mechanism of baicalein on brain injury after ICH. The model of brain injury after ICH was established by collagenase induction, followed by the evaluation of neurological severity, brain water content, the degenerated neurons, neuronal apoptosis, and reactive oxygen species (ROS). The ICH model was treated with baicalein or silencing NLRP3 to detect brain injury. The expression of NLRP3 inflammasome was detected after treatment with ROS scavenger. The expressions of oxidative stress markers and inflammatory factors were detected, and the levels of components in NLRP3 inflammasome were detected. Baicalein reduced the damage of nervous system, lesion surface, brain water content, and apoptosis. Baicalein inhibited malondialdehyde and increased IL-10 by inhibiting ROS in brain tissue after ICH. Baicalein inhibited the high expression of NLRP3 inflammasome in ICH. ROS scavenger inhibited the NLRP3 inflammatory response by inhibiting ROS levels. Silencing NLRP3 alleviated the brain injury after ICH by inhibiting excessive oxidative stress and inflammatory factors. Overall, baicalein alleviated the brain injury after ICH by inhibiting ROS and NLRP3 inflammasome.

Neuroinflammation in neurological disorders: pharmacotherapeutic targets from bench to bedside

Neuroinflammation is one of the host defensive mechanisms through which the nervous system protects itself from pathogenic and or infectious insults. Moreover, neuroinflammation occurs as one of the most common pathological outcomes in various neurological disorders, makes it the promising target. The present review focuses on elaborating the recent advancement in understanding molecular mechanisms of neuroinflammation and its role in the etiopathogenesis of various neurological disorders, especially Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and Epilepsy. Furthermore, the current status of anti-inflammatory agents in neurological diseases has been summarized in light of different preclinical and clinical studies. Finally, possible limitations and future directions for the effective use of anti-inflammatory agents in neurological disorders have been discussed.

Oxidative Stress and Beta Amyloid in Alzheimer's Disease. Which Comes First: The Chicken or the Egg?

The pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease involves β amyloid (Aβ) accumulation known to induce synaptic dysfunction and neurodegeneration. The brain's vulnerability to oxidative stress (OS) is considered a crucial detrimental factor in Alzheimer's disease. OS and Aβ are linked to each other because Aβ induces OS, and OS increases the Aβ deposition. Thus, the answer to the question "which comes first: the chicken or the egg?" remains extremely difficult. In any case, the evidence for the primary occurrence of oxidative stress in AD is attractive. Thus, evidence indicates that a long period of gradual oxidative damage accumulation precedes and results in the appearance of clinical and pathological AD symptoms, including Aβ deposition, neurofibrillary tangle formation, metabolic dysfunction, and cognitive decline. Moreover, oxidative stress plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of many risk factors for AD. Alzheimer's disease begins many years before its symptoms, and antioxidant treatment can be an important therapeutic target for attacking the disease.

Western diet as a trigger of Alzheimer's disease: From metabolic syndrome and systemic inflammation to neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration

An excess of saturated fatty acids and simple sugars in the diet is a known environmental risk factor of Alzheimer's disease (AD) but the holistic view of the interacting processes through which such diet may contribute to AD pathogenesis is missing. We addressed this need through extensive analysis of published studies investigating the effects of western diet (WD) on AD development in humans and laboratory animals. We reviewed WD-induced systemic alterations comprising metabolic changes, induction of obesity and adipose tissue inflammation, gut microbiota dysbiosis and acceleration of systemic low-grade inflammation. Next we provide an overview of the evidence demonstrating that WD-associated systemic alterations drive impairment of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and development of neuroinflammation paralleled by accumulation of toxic amyloid. Later these changes are followed by dysfunction of synaptic transmission, neurodegeneration and finally memory and cognitive impairment. We conclude that WD can trigger AD by acceleration of inflammaging, and that BBB impairment induced by metabolic and systemic inflammation play the central role in this process. Moreover, the concurrence of neuroinflammation and Aβ dyshomeostasis, which by reciprocal interactions drive the vicious cycle of neurodegeneration, contradicts Aβ as the primary trigger of AD. Given that in 2019 the World Health Organization recommended focusing on modifiable risk factors in AD prevention, this overview of the sequential, complex pathomechanisms initiated by WD, which can lead from peripheral disturbances to neurodegeneration, can support future prevention strategies.

The Effectiveness of Scutellaria baicalensis on Migraine: Implications from Clinical Use and Experimental Proof

Background

Scutellaria baicalensis (SB), a traditional Chinese medicine, is commonly used for the treatment of inflammatory and painful conditions. The purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of SB on migraine.

Materials and Methods

We examined the clinical applications of SB based on the data obtained from Taiwan's National Health Insurance Research Database and confirmed that it was frequently used in Taiwan for the treatment of headaches. An experimental migraine model was established in rats by an intraperitoneal injection of nitroglycerin (NTG, 10 mg/kg). Pretreatment with SB was given orally 30 min before NTG administration. The rats were subjected to migraine-related behaviour tests that were video-recorded and analysed using EthoVision XT 12.0 software.

Results

The frequency of exploratory and locomotor behaviour was comparatively lower in the NTG group than that in the control group, while the frequency of resting and grooming behaviour increased. These phenomena were ameliorated by pretreatment with 1.0 g/kg SB. The total time spent on the smooth surface was longer in the NTG group than that in the control group, but the time was shortened by pretreatment with 1.0 g/kg SB.

Conclusions

Pretreatment with 1.0 g/kg SB relieved migraine-related behaviours in the experimental NTG-induced migraine model. The outcome therefore demonstrated that pretreatment with 1.0 g/kg SB is beneficial for migraine treatment.