Quality-by-Design-Based Development of n-Propyl-Gallate-Loaded Hyaluronic-Acid-Coated Liposomes for Intranasal Administration

From lab to industrial development of lipid nanocarriers using quality by design approach

Lipid nanocarriers have attracted a great deal of interest in the delivery of therapeutic molecules. Despite their many advantages, compliance with quality standards and reproducibility requirements still constrain their industrial production. The relatively high failure rate in lipid nanocarrier research and development can be attributed to immature bottom-up manufacturing practices, leading to suboptimal control of quality attributes. Recently, the pharmaceutical industry has moved toward quality-driven manufacturing, emphasizing the integration of product and process development through the principles of quality by design. Quality by design in the pharmaceutical industry involves a thorough understanding of the quality profile of the target product and involves an assessment of potential risks during the design and development phases of pharmaceutical dosage forms. By identifying essential quality characteristics, such as the active ingredients, excipients and manufacturing processes used during research and development, it becomes possible to effectively control these aspects throughout the life cycle of the drug. Successful commercialization of lipid nanocarriers can be achieved if large-scale challenges are addressed using the QbD approach. QbD has become an essential tool because of its advantages in improving processes and product quality. The application of the QbD approach to the development of lipid nanocarriers can provide comprehensive and remarkable knowledge enabling the manufacture of high-quality products with a high degree of regulatory flexibility. This article reviews the basic considerations of QbD and its application in the laboratory and large-scale development of lipid nanocarriers. Furthermore, it provides forward-looking guidance for the industrial production of lipid nanocarriers using the QbD approach.

Brain Targeting of Venlafaxine via Intranasal Transbilosomes Thermogel for Improved Management of Depressive Disorder

The current research aimed to design and optimize hyaluronic acid-coated transbilosomes containing venlafaxine (VLF-HA-TBLs) for nose-to-brain delivery for improved management of depressive disorder. Venlafaxine-loaded transbilosomes (VLF-TBLs) were developed according to the film hydration procedure, optimized for maximum efficiency using the quality by design-based Box-Behnken design (BBD), and then coated with hyaluronic acid (HA). The optimized VLF-HA-TBLs were subjected to in vitro characterization, integrated into a thermolabile gel, and then exposed to in vivo evaluation studies. The results revealed that the VLF-HA-TBLs formulation exhibited acceptable size (185.6 ± 4.9 nm), surface charge (-39.8 ± 1.7 mV), and entrapment efficiency (69.6 ± 2.6 %). The morphological study revealed that nanovesicles were spherical and displayed a consistent size distribution without particle aggregation. It also showed improved ex vivo nasal diffusion and a prolonged release profile. In addition, the formulated VLF-HA-TBLs were stable under the studied conditions and tolerable when applied intranasally. Compared to the intranasal administration of VLF solution (VLF-SOL), the biodistribution analysis showed that VLF-HA-TBLs delivered intranasally had a relative bioavailability of 441 % in the brain and 288 % in plasma. Moreover, the intranasal delivery of VLF-HA-TBLs demonstrated much higher bioavailability (512 %) in the brain compared to VLF-SOL administered intravenously. Collectively, it could be possible to infer that HA-TBLs might be an effective nanocarrier to administer VLF to the brain via the nasal route.

Application of quality by design in optimization of nanoformulations: Principle, perspectives and practices

Nanoparticulate drug delivery systems (NDDS) based nanoformulations have emerged as promising drug delivery systems. Various NDDS-based formulations have been reported such as polymeric nanoparticles (NPs), nanoliposomes, solid lipid NPs, nanocapsules, liposomes, self-nano emulsifying drug delivery systems, pro liposomes, nanospheres, microemulsion, nanoemulsion, gold NPs, silver NPs and nanostructured lipid carrier. They have shown numerous advantages such as enhanced bioavailability, aqueous solubility, permeability, controlled release profile, and blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability. This advantage of NDDS can help to deliver pure drugs to the target site. However, the formulation of nanoparticles is a complex process that requires optimization to ensure product quality and efficacy. Quality by Design (QbD) is a systemic approach that has been implemented in the pharmaceutical industry to improve the quality and reliability of drug products. QbD involves the optimization of different parameters like zeta potential (ZP), particle size (PS), entrapment efficiency (EE), polydispersity index (PDI), and drug release using statistical experimental design. The present article discussed the detailed role of QbD in optimizing nanoformulations and their advantages, advancement, and applications from the industrial perspective. Various case studies of QbD in the optimization of nanoformulations are also discussed.

Nose-to-Brain Targeted Delivery of Donepezil Hydrochloride via Novel Hyaluronic Acid-Doped Nanotransfersomes for Alzheimer's Disease Mitigation

Alzheimer's disease is the most serious neurodegenerative disorder characterized by cognitive and memorial defects alongside deterioration in behavioral, thinking and social skills. Donepezil hydrochloride (DPZ) is one of the current two FDA-approved cholinesterase inhibitors used for the management of Alzheimer's disease. The current study aimed to formulate hyaluronic acid-coated transfersomes containing DPZ (DPZ-HA-TFS) for brain delivery through the intranasal pathway to surpass its oral-correlated GIT side effects. DPZ-HA-TFS were produced using a thin film hydration method and optimized with a 24 factorial design. The influence of formulation parameters on vesicle diameter, entrapment, cumulative release after 8 h, and ex vivo nasal diffusion after 24 h was studied. The optimal formulation was then evaluated for morphology, stability, histopathology and in vivo biodistribution studies. The optimized DPZ-HA-TFS formulation elicited an acceptable vesicle size (227.5 nm) with 75.83% entrapment efficiency, 37.94% cumulative release after 8 h, 547.49 µg/cm2 permeated through nasal mucosa after 24 h and adequate stability. Histopathological analysis revealed that the formulated DPZ-HA-TFS was nontoxic and tolerable for intranasal delivery. Intranasally administered DPZ-HA-TFS manifested significantly superior values for drug targeting index (5.08), drug targeting efficiency (508.25%) and direct nose-to-brain transport percentage (80.32%). DPZ-HA-TFS might be deemed as a promising intranasal nano-cargo for DPZ cerebral delivery to tackle Alzheimer's disease safely, steadily and in a non-invasive long-term pattern.

Recent Advances in Intranasal Administration for Brain-Targeting Delivery: A Comprehensive Review of Lipid-Based Nanoparticles and Stimuli-Responsive Gel Formulations

Addressing disorders related to the central nervous system (CNS) remains a complex challenge because of the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which restricts the entry of external substances into the brain tissue. Consequently, finding ways to overcome the limited therapeutic effect imposed by the BBB has become a central goal in advancing delivery systems targeted to the brain. In this context, the intranasal route has emerged as a promising solution for delivering treatments directly from the nose to the brain through the olfactory and trigeminal nerve pathways and thus, bypassing the BBB. The use of lipid-based nanoparticles, including nano/microemulsions, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, and nanostructured lipid carriers, has shown promise in enhancing the efficiency of nose-to-brain delivery. These nanoparticles facilitate drug absorption from the nasal membrane. Additionally, the in situ gel (ISG) system has gained attention owing to its ability to extend the retention time of administered formulations within the nasal cavity. When combined with lipid-based nanoparticles, the ISG system creates a synergistic effect, further enhancing the overall effectiveness of brain-targeted delivery strategies. This comprehensive review provides a thorough investigation of intranasal administration. It delves into the strengths and limitations of this specific delivery route by considering the anatomical complexities and influential factors that play a role during dosing. Furthermore, this study introduces strategic approaches for incorporating nanoparticles and ISG delivery within the framework of intranasal applications. Finally, the review provides recent information on approved products and the clinical trial status of products related to intranasal administration, along with the inclusion of quality-by-design-related insights.

Pharmacokinetic and toxicological overview of propyl gallate food additive

The progressive use of food additives in "ultra-processed" food has increased attention to them. Propyl gallate (PG) is an essential synthetic preservative that commonly used in food, cosmetics, and pharmacies as an antioxidant. This study aimed to outline the existing evidence on the toxicological studies of PG including its physicochemical properties, metabolism, and pharmacokinetics effects. The methods include updated searches for the relevant databases. The EFSA has evaluated the use of PG in food industry. It establishes an acceptable daily intake (ADI) of 0.5 mg/kg bw per day. Based on exposure assessment, it can be concluded that at the current level of use, PG is not of safety concern.

Mannosylated-Chitosan-Coated Andrographolide Nanoliposomes for the Treatment of Hepatitis: In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluations

A key diterpene lactone of Andrographis paniculata, i.e., andrographolide (AG), exhibits a variety of physiological properties, including hepatoprotection. The limited solubility, short half-life, and poor bioavailability limits the pharmacotherapeutic potential of AG. Therefore, in this study we aimed to formulate and optimize AG-loaded nanoliposomes (AGL) using the Design of Experiment (DOE) approach and further modify the surface of the liposomes with mannosylated chitosan to enhance its oral bioavailability. Physical, morphological, and solid-state characterization was performed to confirm the formation of AGL and Mannosylated chitosan-coated AGL (MCS-AGL). Molecular docking studies were conducted to understand the ligand (MCS) protein (1EGG) type of interaction. Further, in vitro release, ex vivo drug permeation, and in vivo pharmacokinetics studies were conducted. The morphological studies confirmed that AGL was spherical and a layer of MCS coating was observed on their surface, forming the MCS-AGL. Further increase in the particle size and change in the zeta potential of MCS-AGL confirms the coating on the surface of AGL (375.3 nm, 29.80 mV). The in vitro drug release data reflected a sustained drug release profile from MCS-AGL in the phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) with 89.9 ± 2.13% drug release in 8 h. Ex vivo permeation studies showed higher permeation of AG from MCS-AGL (1.78-fold) compared to plain AG and AGL (1.37-fold), indicating improved permeability profiles of MCS-AGL. In vivo pharmacokinetic studies inferred that MCS-AGL had a 1.56-fold enhancement in AUC values compared to plain AG, confirming that MCS-AGL improved the bioavailability of AG. Additionally, the 2.25-fold enhancement in the MRT proves that MCS coating also enhances the in vivo stability and retention of AG (stealth effect). MCS as a polymer therefore has a considerable potential for improving the intestinal permeability and bioavailability of poorly soluble and permeable drugs or phytoconstituents when coated over nanocarriers.

Brain Targeting of Citicoline Sodium via Hyaluronic Acid-Decorated Novel Nano-Transbilosomes for Mitigation of Alzheimer's Disease in a Rat Model: Formulation, Optimization, in vitro and in vivo Assessment

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the furthermost advanced neurodegenerative disorders resulting in cognitive and behavioral impairment. Citicoline sodium (CIT) boosts the brain's secretion of acetylcholine, which aids in membrane regeneration and repair. However, it suffers from poor blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeation, which results in lower levels of CIT in the brain.

PURPOSE

This study targeted to encapsulate CIT into novel nano-platform transbilosomes decorated with hyaluronic acid CIT-HA*TBLs to achieve enhanced drug delivery from the nose to the brain.

METHODS

A method of thin-film hydration was utilized to prepare different formulae of CIT-TBLs using the Box-Behnken design. The optimized formula was then hyuloranated via integration of HA to form the CIT-HA*TBLs formula. Furthermore, AD induction was performed by aluminum chloride (Alcl3), animals were allocated, and brain hippocampus tissue was isolated for ELISA and qRT-PCR analysis of malondialdehyde (MDA), nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB), and microRNA-137 (miR-137) coupled with immunohistochemical amyloid-beta (Aβ1-42) expression and histopathological finding.

RESULTS

The hyuloranated CIT-HA*TBLs formula, which contained the following ingredients: PL (300 mg), Sp 60 (43.97 mg), and SDC (20 mg). They produced spherical droplets at the nanoscale (178.94 ±12.4 nm), had a high entrapment efficiency with 74.92± 5.54%, had a sustained release profile of CIT with 81.27 ±3.8% release, and had ex vivo permeation of CIT with 512.43±19.58 μg/cm2. In vivo tests showed that CIT-HA*TBL thermogel dramatically reduces the hippocampus expression of miR-137 and (Aβ1-42) expression, boosting cholinergic neurotransmission and decreasing MDA and NF-kB production. Furthermore, CIT-HA*TBLs thermogel mitigate histopathological damage in compared to the other groups.

CONCLUSION

Succinctly, the innovative loading of CIT-HA*TBLs thermogel is a prospectively invaluable intranasal drug delivery system that can raise the efficacy of CIT in Alzheimer's management.

Expanding Quality by Design Principles to Support 3D Printed Medical Device Development Following the Renewed Regulatory Framework in Europe

The vast scope of 3D printing has ignited the production of tailored medical device (MD) development and catalyzed a paradigm shift in the health-care industry, particularly following the COVID pandemic. This review aims to provide an update on the current progress and emerging opportunities for additive manufacturing following the introduction of the new medical device regulation (MDR) within the EU. The advent of early-phase implementation of the Quality by Design (QbD) quality management framework in MD development is a focal point. The application of a regulatory supported QbD concept will ensure successful MD development, as well as pointing out the current challenges of 3D bioprinting. Utilizing a QbD scientific and risk-management approach ensures the acceleration of MD development in a more targeted way by building in all stakeholders' expectations, namely those of the patients, the biomedical industry, and regulatory bodies.

Development of Lomustine and n-Propyl Gallate Co-Encapsulated Liposomes for Targeting Glioblastoma Multiforme via Intranasal Administration

This work aimed to develop lomustine (LOM) and n-propyl gallate (PG)-loaded liposomes suitable for targeting glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) via the auspicious nose-to-brain drug delivery pathway. The therapeutical effect of LOM, as a nitrosourea compound, can be potentiated by PG suitable for enhanced anti-cancer therapy. Nose-to-brain delivery of PG and LOM combined in liposomes can overcome the poor water solubility, absorption properties, and toxicity issues in the systemic circulation. Optimization and characterization of the liposomal carrier with binary drug contents were carried out in order to achieve adequate encapsulation efficiency, loading capacity, drug release, and ex vivo permeation. The optimized liposome co-encapsulated with both drugs showed suitable Z-average (127 ± 6.9 nm), size distribution (polydispersity index of 0.142 ± 0.009), zeta potential (−34 ± 1.7 mV), and high encapsulation efficacy (63.57 ± 1.3% of PG and 73.45 ± 2.2% of LOM, respectively) meeting the acceptance criteria of nose-to-brain transport for both drugs. MTT assays of PG-LOM formulations were also conducted on NIH/3T3 (murine embryonic fibroblast), U87 (glioblastoma), and A2780 (ovarian cancer) cell lines indicating reduced an antiproliferative effect on all types of cells. Our results supported the use of this novel combination of LOM and PG in a liposomal formulation as a promising carrier for glioblastoma targeting via the intranasal route.

Phytochemical-loaded liposomes for anticancer therapy: an updated review

The major obstacles observed in current chemotherapy are severe adverse effects, narrow therapeutic indexes and multidrug resistance. Anticancer phytochemicals are extracted and purified from natural plants, providing alternative therapeutic approaches with recognized biomedical benefits. However, poor bioavailability, high dose requirements and non-specific targeting have made those molecules less effective. To tackle those issues, liposomal nanovesicles for phytochemical delivery are taken into consideration for improving the therapeutic effectiveness by increasing transportation across cell barriers and conferring attractive cancer-specific targeting capabilities. In the present review, the liposomal approaches of anticancer phytochemicals are discussed, and recent advances in these formulations applied to cancer phytotherapy are further reviewed by an informed approach.

Methods of Liposomes Preparation: Formation and Control Factors of Versatile Nanocarriers for Biomedical and Nanomedicine Application

Liposomes are nano-sized spherical vesicles composed of an aqueous core surrounded by one (or more) phospholipid bilayer shells. Owing to their high biocompatibility, chemical composition variability, and ease of preparation, as well as their large variety of structural properties, liposomes have been employed in a large variety of nanomedicine and biomedical applications, including nanocarriers for drug delivery, in nutraceutical fields, for immunoassays, clinical diagnostics, tissue engineering, and theranostics formulations. Particularly important is the role of liposomes in drug-delivery applications, as they improve the performance of the encapsulated drugs, reducing side effects and toxicity by enhancing its in vitro- and in vivo-controlled delivery and activity. These applications stimulated a great effort for the scale-up of the formation processes in view of suitable industrial development. Despite the improvements of conventional approaches and the development of novel routes of liposome preparation, their intrinsic sensitivity to mechanical and chemical actions is responsible for some critical issues connected with a limited colloidal stability and reduced entrapment efficiency of cargo molecules. This article analyzes the main features of the formation and fabrication techniques of liposome nanocarriers, with a special focus on the structure, parameters, and the critical factors that influence the development of a suitable and stable formulation. Recent developments and new methods for liposome preparation are also discussed, with the objective of updating the reader and providing future directions for research and development.

Design and development of topical liposomal formulations in a regulatory perspective

The skin is the absorption site for drug substances intended to treat loco-regional diseases, although its barrier properties limit the permeation of drug molecules. The growing knowledge of the skin structure and its physiology have supported the design of innovative nanosystems (e.g. liposomal systems) to improve the absorption of poorly skin-permeable drugs. However, despite the dozens of clinical trials started, few topically applied liposomal systems have been authorized both in the EU and the USA. Indeed, the intrinsic complexity of the topically applied liposomal systems, the higher production costs, the lack of standardized methods and the more stringent guidelines for assessing their benefit/risk balance can be seen as causes of such inefficient translation. The present work aimed to provide an overview of the physicochemical and biopharmaceutical characterization methods that can be applied to topical liposomal systems intended to be marketed as medicinal products, and the current regulatory provisions. The discussion highlights how such methodologies can be relevant for defining the critical quality attributes of the final product, and they can be usefully applied based on the phase of the life cycle of a liposomal product: to guide the formulation studies in the early stages of development, to rationally design preclinical and clinical trials, to support the pharmaceutical quality control system and to sustain post-marketing variations. The provided information can help define harmonized quality standards able to overcome the case-by-case approach currently applied by regulatory agencies in assessing the benefit/risk of the topically applied liposomal systems.

Development and Characterization of n-Propyl Gallate Encapsulated Solid Lipid Nanoparticles-Loaded Hydrogel for Intranasal Delivery

The objective of the present study was to develop n-propyl gallate-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (PG-SLNs) in a hydrogel (HG) formulation using Transcutol-P (TC-P) as a permeation enhancer. Modified solvent injection technique was applied to produce optimized PG-SLNs via the Quality by Design approach and central composite design. The in vitro mucoadhesion, scavenging activity, drug release, permeation studies of PG from PG-SLNs-loaded HG were evaluated under simulated nasal conditions. Compared with in vitro release behavior of PG from SLNs, the drug release from the PG-SLNs-loaded HG showed a lower burst effect and sustained release profile. The cumulative permeation of PG from PG-SLNs-loaded HG with TC-P was 600 μg/cm² within 60 min, which is 3–60-fold higher than PG-SLNs and native PG, respectively. Raman mapping showed that the distribution of PG-SLNs was more concentrated in HG having lower concentrations of hyaluronic acid. The scavenging assay demonstrated increased antioxidant activity at higher concentrations of HG. Due to enhanced stability and mucoadhesive properties, the developed HG-based SLNs can improve nasal absorption by increasing residence time on nasal mucosa. This study provides in vitro proof of the potential of combining the advantages of SLNs and HG for the intranasal delivery of antioxidants.

An Updated Risk Assessment as Part of the QbD-Based Liposome Design and Development

Liposomal formulation development is a challenging process. Certain factors have a critical influence on the characteristics of the liposomes, and even the relevant properties can vary based on the predefined interests of the research. In this paper, a Quality by Design-guided and Risk Assessment (RA)-based study was performed to determine the Critical Material Attributes and the Critical Process Parameters of an "intermediate" active pharmaceutical ingredient-free liposome formulation prepared via the thin-film hydration method, collect the Critical Quality Attributes of the future carrier system and show the process of narrowing a general initial RA for a specific case. The theoretical liposome design was proved through experimental models. The investigated critical factors covered the working temperature, the ratio between the wall-forming agents (phosphatidylcholine and cholesterol), the PEGylated phospholipid content (DPPE-PEG2000), the type of the hydration media (saline or phosphate-buffered saline solutions) and the cryoprotectants (glucose, sorbitol or trehalose). The characterisation results (size, surface charge, thermodynamic behaviours, formed structure and bonds) of the prepared liposomes supported the outcomes of the updated RA. The findings can be used as a basis for a particular study with specified circumstances.