Matrix Metalloproteinases Inhibitors in Cancer Treatment: An Updated Review (2013-2023)

Integrating UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS, network pharmacology, bioinformatics and experimental validation to uncover the anti-cancer mechanisms of TiaoPi AnChang decoction in colorectal cancer

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The TiaoPi AnChang Decoction (TPACD), a Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) prescription based on Xiangsha Liujunzi Decoction, has demonstrated clinical efficacy as an adjuvant therapy for colorectal cancer (CRC) patients. However, its specific ingredients and potential mechanisms of action remain unclear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To identify the primary active ingredients of TPACD, their molecular targets, and potential mechanisms underlying the efficacy of TPACD in CRC treatment.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study investigated the clinically validated TCM formula TPACD. In vitro and in vivo experiments were used to demonstrate TPACD's regulatory effects on various malignant phenotypes of tumors, providing basic research support for its anti-cancer activity. To understand its pharmacodynamic basis, we utilized ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole-time-of-flight-mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS) to analyze TPACD constituents present in the bloodstream. Network pharmacology and bioinformatics analyses were used to identify potential active components and their molecular targets for TPACD's therapeutic effects in CRC. Subsequent experiments further elucidated its pharmacological mechanism.

RESULTS

TPACD inhibits various malignant cellular processes, such as cell proliferation, apoptosis, migration, and invasion, and has shown potential anti-CRC activities both in vitro and in vivo. Following the identification of 109 constituents absorbed into the blood from TPACD, network pharmacology analysis predicted 42 potential anti-CRC targets. Clinical analyses highlighted three genes as prognostic key genes of TPACD's therapeutic action: C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 8 (CXCL8), fatty acid binding protein 4 (FABP4), and matrix metallopeptidase 3 (MMP3). Drug sensitivity analyses, molecular docking simulations and reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) identified MMP3 as the most promising target for TPACD's anti-CRC action. Enzyme activity assays confirmed that TPACD inhibits MMP3 enzyme activity. Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) characterized the binding affinity between MMP3 and effective active components of TPACD, including luteolin, quercetin, kaempferol, and liensinine.

CONCLUSIONS

TPACD exhibits anti-CRC activity in vitro and in vivo, with MMP3 identified as a critical target. The active compounds, including luteolin, quercetin, kaempferol, and liensinine, absorbed into the bloodstream, contribute to TPACD's efficacy by targeting MMP3.

Gossypol Inhibits Metastasis of Lung Cell Carcinoma by Reversing Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition and Suppressing Proteases Activity

Gossypol, a natural polyphenolic compound, possesses antivirus activity and induces cell death of different types of tumors. However, the efficacy of gossypol on lung carcinoma metastases and epithelial to mesenchymal transition remains unknown. The aim of the present work was to determine the cellular and molecular mechanism of the anti-cancer and anti-metastatic efficacies of gossypol on human lung carcinoma cells. Gossypol showed a marked suppression of the viability, motility, and invasion in H1299 and A549 cells. Zymography assay showed that gossypol was sufficient to suppress the activities of urokinase-type plasminogen activator and matrix metalloproteinase-2. Gossypol reversed TGF-β-induced epithelial to mesenchymal transition. Gossypol reduced vimentin, p-FAK, p-Src and p-paxillin. In vivo studies of gossypol were performed using subcutaneous inoculation and tail vein injection of A549 into immunodeficient BALB/c nude mice and severe combined immunodeficient mice.

Heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor via miR-126 controls tumor formation/growth and the proteolytic niche in murine models of colorectal and colitis-associated cancers

MicroRNAs, including the tumor-suppressor miR-126 and the oncogene miR-221, regulate tumor formation and growth in colitis-associated cancer (CAC) and colorectal cancer (CRC). This study explores the impact of the epithelial cytokine heparin-binding epidermal growth factor (HB-EGF) and its receptor epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) on the pathogenesis of CAC and CRC, particularly in the regulation of microRNA-driven tumor growth and protease expression. In murine models of CRC and CAC, lack of miR-126 and elevated miR-221 expression in colonic tissues enhanced tumor formation and growth. MiR-126 downregulation in colon cells established a pro-tumorigenic proteolytic niche by targeting HB-EGF-active metalloproteinase-7, -9 (MMP7/MMP9), disintegrin, and metalloproteinase domain-containing protein 9, and modulating chemokine-mediated recruitment of HB-EGF-loaded inflammatory cells. Mechanistically, downregulation of HB-EGF and EGFR in the colon suppressed miR-221 and enhanced miR-126 expression via activating enhancer-binding protein 2 alpha. Reintroducing miR-126 reduced tumor development and HB-EGF expression. Combining miR-126 reintroduction, which targets specific HB-EGF-active proteases but not ADAM17, with MMP inhibitors like Batimastat or Marimastat effectively suppressed tumor growth. This combination normalized protease expression and balanced miR-126 and miR-221 levels in developing and growing tumors. These findings demonstrate that suppressing HB-EGF and EGFR1 shifts the balance from oncogenic miR-221 to tumor-suppressive miR-126 action. Consequently, normalizing miR-126 expression could open new avenues for treating patients with CAC and CRC, and this normalization is intertwined with the anticancer efficacy of MMP inhibitors.

Multiplex plasma protein assays as a diagnostic tool for lung cancer

Lack of the established noninvasive diagnostic biomarkers causes delay in diagnosis of lung cancer (LC). The aim of this study was to explore the association between inflammatory and cancer-associated plasma proteins and LC and thereby discover potential biomarkers. Patients referred for suspected LC and later diagnosed with primary LC, other cancers, or no cancer (NC) were included in this study. Demographic information and plasma samples were collected, and diagnostic information was later retrieved from medical records. Relative quantification of 92 plasma proteins was carried out using the Olink Immuno-Onc-I panel. Association between expression levels of panel of proteins with different diagnoses was assessed using generalized linear model (GLM) with the binomial family and a logit-link function, considering confounder effects of age, gender, smoking, and pulmonary diseases. The analysis showed that the combination of five plasma proteins (CD83, GZMA, GZMB, CD8A, and MMP12) has higher diagnostic performance for primary LC in both early and advanced stages compared with NC. This panel demonstrated lower diagnostic performance for other cancer types. Moreover, inclusion of four proteins (GAL9, PDCD1, CD4, and HO1) to the aforementioned panel significantly increased the diagnostic performance for primary LC in advanced stage as well as for other cancers. Consequently, the collective expression profiles of select plasma proteins, especially when analyzed in conjunction, might have the potential to distinguish individuals with LC from NC. This suggests their utility as predictive biomarkers for identification of LC patients. The synergistic application of these proteins as biomarkers could pave the way for the development of diagnostic tools for early-stage LC detection.

Network pharmacology study and in vitro experimental validation of Xiaojianzhong decoction against gastric cancer

BACKGROUND

Cancer is one of the most serious threats to human health worldwide. Conventional treatments such as surgery and chemotherapy are associated with some drawbacks. In recent years, traditional Chinese medicine treatment has been increasingly advocated by patients and attracted attention from clinicians, and has become an indispensable part of the comprehensive treatment for gastric cancer.

AIM

To investigate the mechanism of Xiaojianzhong decoction (XJZ) in the treatment of gastric cancer (GC) by utilizing network pharmacology and experimental validation, so as to provide a theoretical basis for later experimental research.

METHODS

We analyzed the mechanism and targets of XJZ in the treatment of GC through network pharmacology and bioinformatics. Subsequently, we verified the impact of XJZ treatment on the proliferative ability of GC cells through CCK-8, apoptosis, cell cycle, and clone formation assays. Additionally, we performed Western blot analysis and real-time quantitative PCR to assess the protein and mRNA expression of the core proteins.

RESULTS

XJZ mainly regulates IL6, PTGS2, CCL2, MMP9, MMP2, HMOX1, and other target genes and pathways in cancer to treat GC. The inhibition of cell viability, the increase of apoptosis, the blockage of the cell cycle at the G0/G1 phase, and the inhibition of the ability of cell clone formation were observed in AGS and HGC-27 cells after XJZ treatment. In addition, XJZ induced a decrease in the mRNA expression of IL6, PTGS2, MMP9, MMP2, and CCL2, and an increase in the mRNA expression of HOMX1. XJZ significantly inhibited the expression of IL6, PTGS2, MMP9, MMP2, and CCL2 proteins and promoted the expression of the heme oxygenase-1 protein.

CONCLUSION

XJZ exerts therapeutic effects against GC through multiple components, multiple targets, and multiple pathways. Our findings provide a new idea and scientific basis for further research on the molecular mechanisms underlying the therapeutic effects of XJZ in the treatment of GC.

Impacts of Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 Promoter Genotypes on Asthma Risk

BACKGROUND/AIM

The overexpression of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9) has been observed in asthmatic patients, yet the role of MMP9 genotype in determining asthma susceptibility remains unresolved. This study aimed to elucidate the contribution of MMP9 promoter rs3918242 genotype to asthma risk in Taiwan.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A cohort comprising 453 non-asthmatic healthy controls and 198 asthmatic cases was assembled, and the MMP9 rs3918242 genotypes were determined using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism methodology.

RESULTS

Our findings indicated that people carrying the variant CT or TT genotype of MMP9 rs3918242 did not demonstrate an elevated risk of asthma compared to wild-type CC carriers (odds ratio=1.28 and 1.72, 95% confidence interval=0.87-1.87 and 0.72-4.13; p=0.2417 and 0.3201, respectively). Furthermore, individuals carrying the T allele at MMP9 rs3918242 did not exhibit a higher risk of asthma than those carrying the C allele (odds ratio=1.31, 95% confidence interval=0.96-1.79, p=0.0869). Interestingly, a positive association was observed between MMP9 rs3918242 CT or TT genotypes and the severity of asthma symptoms among asthmatic patients (p=0.0035).

CONCLUSION

Although the T allele at MMP9 rs3918242 was not associated with asthma risk, it may serve as a predictor for asthma symptom severity. These findings warrant validation in larger and more diverse populations to further elucidate the significance of MMP9 in asthma etiology.

Advanced Insights into Competitive Endogenous RNAs (ceRNAs) Regulated Pathogenic Mechanisms in Metastatic Triple-Negative Breast Cancer (mTNBC)

Triple-negative breast cancer is aggressive and challenging to treat because of a lack of targets and heterogeneity among tumors. A paramount factor in the mortality from breast cancer is metastasis, which is driven by genetic and phenotypic alterations that drive epithelial-mesenchymal transition, stemness, survival, migration and invasion. Many genetic and epigenetic mechanisms have been identified in triple-negative breast cancer that drive these metastatic phenotypes; however, this knowledge has not yet led to the development of effective drugs for metastatic triple-negative breast cancer (mTNBC). One that may not have received enough attention in the literature is post-translational regulation of broad sets of cancer-related genes through inhibitory microRNAs and the complex competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) regulatory networks they are influenced by. This field of study and the resulting knowledge regarding alterations in these networks is coming of age, enabling translation into clinical benefit for patients. Herein, we review metastatic triple-negative breast cancer (mTNBC), the role of ceRNA network regulation in metastasis (and therefore clinical outcomes), potential approaches for therapeutic exploitation of these alterations, knowledge gaps and future directions in the field.

Contribution of Matrix Metalloproteinase-2 and Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 to Upper Tract Urothelial Cancer Risk in Taiwan

Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and -9, which degrade type IV collagen, are linked to cancer invasion and metastasis. Gene polymorphisms in MMP-2 and MMP-9 can influence their function, impacting cancer development and progression. This study analyzed the association between polymorphisms MMP-2 rs243865 (C-1306T), rs2285053 (C-735T), and MMP-9 rs3918242 (C-1562T) with serum concentrations of these enzymes in upper tract urothelial cancer (UTUC) patients. We conducted a case-control study with 218 UTUC patients and 580 healthy individuals in Taiwan. Genotyping was performed using PCR/RFLP on DNA from blood samples, and MMP-2 and MMP-9 serum levels and mRNA expressions in 30 UTUC patients were measured using ELISA and real-time PCR. Statistical analysis showed that MMP-2 rs2285053 and MMP-9 rs3918242 genotypes were differently distributed between UTUC patients and controls (p = 0.0199 and 0.0020). The MMP-2 rs2285053 TT genotype was associated with higher UTUC risk compared to the CC genotype (OR = 2.20, p = 0.0190). Similarly, MMP-9 rs3918242 CT and TT genotypes were linked to increased UTUC risk (OR = 1.51 and 2.92, p = 0.0272 and 0.0054). In UTUC patients, TT carriers of MMP-2 rs2285053 and MMP-9 rs3918242 showed higher mRNA and protein levels (p < 0.01). These findings suggest that MMP-2 rs2285053 and MMP-9 rs3918242 genotypes are significant markers for UTUC risk and metastasis in Taiwan.

Hawthorn with "homology of medicine and food": a review of anticancer effects and mechanisms

Over the past few years, there has been a gradual increase in the incidence of cancer, affecting individuals at younger ages. With its refractory nature and substantial fatality rate, cancer presents a notable peril to human existence and wellbeing. Hawthorn, a medicinal food homology plant belonging to the Crataegus genus in the Rosaceae family, holds great value in various applications. Due to its long history of medicinal use, notable effects, and high safety profile, hawthorn has garnered considerable attention and plays a crucial role in cancer treatment. Through the integration of modern network pharmacology technology and traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), a range of anticancer active ingredients in hawthorn have been predicted, identified, and analyzed. Studies have shown that ingredients such as vitexin, isoorientin, ursolic acid, and maslinic acid, along with hawthorn extracts, can effectively modulate cancer-related signaling pathways and manifest anticancer properties via diverse mechanisms. This review employs network pharmacology to excavate the potential anticancer properties of hawthorn. By systematically integrating literature across databases such as PubMed and CNKI, the review explores the bioactive ingredients with anticancer effects, underlying mechanisms and pathways, the synergistic effects of drug combinations, advancements in novel drug delivery systems, and ongoing clinical trials concerning hawthorn's anticancer properties. Furthermore, the review highlights the preventive health benefits of hawthorn in cancer prevention, offering valuable insights for clinical cancer treatment and the development of TCM with anticancer properties that can be used for both medicinal and edible purposes.

CD44 and RHAMM Are Microenvironmental Sensors with Dual Metastasis Promoter and Suppressor Functions

The progression of primary tumors to metastases remains a significant roadblock to the treatment of most cancers. Emerging evidence has identified genes that specifically affect metastasis and are potential therapeutic targets for managing tumor progression. However, these genes can have dual tumor promoter and suppressor functions that are contextual in manifestation, and that complicate their development as targeted therapies. CD44 and RHAMM/HMMR are examples of multifunctional proteins that can either promote or suppress metastases, as demonstrated in experimental models. These two proteins can be viewed as microenvironmental sensors and this minireview addresses the known mechanistic underpinnings that may determine their metastasis suppressor versus promoter functions. Leveraging this mechanistic knowledge for CD44, RHAMM, and other multifunctional proteins is predicted to improve the precision of therapeutic targeting to achieve more effective management of metastasis.

Cysteamine Suppresses Cancer Cell Invasion and Migration in Glioblastoma through Inhibition of Matrix Metalloproteinase Activity

Glioblastoma (GBM) cells are highly invasive, infiltrating the surrounding normal brain tissue, thereby limiting the efficacy of surgical resection and focal radiotherapy. Cysteamine, a small aminothiol molecule that is orally bioavailable and approved for cystinosis, has potential as a cancer treatment by inhibiting tumor cell invasion and metastasis. Here we demonstrate that these potential therapeutic effects of cysteamine are likely due to the inhibition of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in GBM. In vitro assays confirmed that micromolar concentrations of cysteamine were not cytotoxic, enabling the interrogation of the cellular effects without confounding tumor cell loss. Cysteamine's inhibition of MMP activity, especially the targeting of MMP2, MMP9, and MMP14, was observed at micromolar concentrations, suggesting the mechanism of action in suppressing invasion and cell migration is by inhibition of these MMPs. These findings suggest that achievable micromolar concentrations of cysteamine effectively inhibit cancer cell invasion and migration in GBM, supporting the potential for use as an adjunct cancer treatment.

Independent transcriptional patterns reveal biological processes associated with disease-free survival in early colorectal cancer

BACKGROUND

Bulk transcriptional profiles of early colorectal cancer (CRC) can fail to detect biological processes associated with disease-free survival (DFS) if the transcriptional patterns are subtle and/or obscured by other processes' patterns. Consensus-independent component analysis (c-ICA) can dissect such transcriptomes into statistically independent transcriptional components (TCs), capturing both pronounced and subtle biological processes.

METHODS

In this study we (1) integrated transcriptomes (n = 4228) from multiple early CRC studies, (2) performed c-ICA to define the TC landscape within this integrated data set, 3) determined the biological processes captured by these TCs, (4) performed Cox regression to identify DFS-associated TCs, (5) performed random survival forest (RSF) analyses with activity of DFS-associated TCs as classifiers to identify subgroups of patients, and 6) performed a sensitivity analysis to determine the robustness of our results RESULTS: We identify 191 TCs, 43 of which are associated with DFS, revealing transcriptional diversity among DFS-associated biological processes. A prominent example is the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), for which we identify an association with nine independent DFS-associated TCs, each with coordinated upregulation or downregulation of various sets of genes.

CONCLUSIONS

This finding indicates that early CRC may have nine distinct routes to achieve EMT, each requiring a specific peri-operative treatment strategy. Finally, we stratify patients into DFS patient subgroups with distinct transcriptional patterns associated with stage 2 and stage 3 CRC.

Condensed tannins-Their content in plant foods, changes during processing, antioxidant and biological activities

Condensed tannins are considered nutritionally undesirable, because they precipitate proteins, inhibit digestive enzymes, and can affect the absorption of vitamins and minerals. From the consumer's point of view, they impart astringency to foods. Yet, they are viewed as a double-edged sword, since they possess antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Intake of a small quantity of the right kind of tannins may in fact be beneficial to human health. This chapter reports on the chemical structure of condensed tannins, their content in plants and food of plant origin, how they are extracted, and methods for their determination. A description of the effects of processing on condensed tannins is discussed and includes soaking, dehulling, thermal processing (i.e., cooking, boiling, autoclaving, extrusion), and germination. The astringency of condensed tannins is described in relation to their interactions with proteins. Finally, details about the biological properties of condensed tannins, including their antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, anti-diabetic, and anti-obesity activities, are reviewed.

Extrapulmonary Comorbidities Associated with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Review

Most patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) suffer from at least one additional, clinically relevant chronic disease. To a degree, the high global prevalence and mortality rate of COPD is closely related to its extrapulmonary effects. Moreover, the various of comorbidities of COPD and itself interact with each other, resulting in diverse clinical manifestations and individual differences, and thus further influencing the prognosis as well as healthcare burden of COPD patients. This is closely related to the common risk factors of chronic diseases (aging, smoking, inactivity, etc.). Additionally, some pathophysiological mechanisms caused by COPD, including the systemic inflammatory response, hypoxia, oxidative stress, and others, also have an impact on other systems. But comprehensive management and medical interventions have not yet been established. The clinicians should improve their knowledge and skills in diagnosing as well as treating the comorbidities of COPD, and then aim to develop more individualized, efficient diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for different patients to achieve greater clinical benefits. In this article, we will review the risk factors, mechanisms, and treatment strategies for extrapulmonary comorbidities in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, including cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, anemia, osteoporosis, emotional disorders, and gastroesophageal reflux disease.

Effects of barakol from Cassia siamea on neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cell line: A potential combined therapy with doxorubicin

Management of neuroblastoma is challenging because of poor response to drugs, chemotherapy resistance, high relapse, and treatment failures. Doxorubicin is a potent anticancer drug commonly used for neuroblastoma treatment. However, doxorubicin induces considerable toxicities, particularly those caused by oxidative-related damage. To minimize drug-induced adverse effects, the combined use of anticancer drugs with natural-derived compounds possessing antioxidant properties has become an interesting treatment strategy. Barakol is a major compound found in Cassia siamea, an edible plant with antioxidant and anticancer properties. Therefore, barakol could potentially be used in combination with doxorubicin to synergize the anticancer effect, while minimizing the oxidative-related toxicities. Herein, the potential of barakol (0.0043-43.0 μM) to synergize the anticancer effect of low-dose doxorubicin (0.5 and 1.0 μM) was investigated. Results indicated that barakol could enhance the cytotoxic effect of low-dose doxorubicin by affecting the cell viability of the treated cells. Furthermore, the co-treatment with barakol and low-dose doxorubicin decreased the levels of intracellular ROS when compared with the control. Moreover, the antimetastatic effect of the barakol itself was studied through its ability to inhibit metalloproteinase-3 (MMP-3) activity and prevent cell migration. Results revealed that the barakol inhibited MMP-3 activity and prevented cell migration in time- and dose-dependent manners. Additionally, barakol was a non-cytotoxic agent against the normal tested cell line (MRC-5), which suggested its selectivity and safety. Taken together, barakol could be a promising compound to be further developed for combination treatment with low-dose doxorubicin to improve therapeutic effectiveness but decrease drug-induced toxicities. The inhibitory effects of barakol on MMP-3 activity and cancer cell migration also supported its potential to be developed as an antimetastatic agent.

Uncovering chemical profiles, biological potentials, and protection effect against ECM destruction in H2 O2 -treated HDF cells of the extracts of Stachys tundjeliensis

The genus Stachys L., one of the largest genera of the Lamiaceae family, is highly represented in Turkey. This study was conducted to determine the bio-pharmaceutical potential and phenolic contents of six different extracts from aerial parts of Stachys tundjeliensis. The obtained results showed that the ethanol extract exhibited the highest antioxidant activity in the antioxidant assays. Meanwhile, the ethanol extract displayed strong inhibitory activity against α-tyrosinase, the dichloromethane extract exhibited potent inhibition against butyrylcholinesterase, and the n-hexane extract against α-amylase. Based on ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry analysis, more than 90 secondary metabolites, including hydroxybenzoic acid, hydroxycinnamic acid, and their glycosides, acylquinic acids, phenylethanoid glycosides, and various flavonoids were identified or tentatively annotated in the studied S. tundjeliensis extracts. It was observed that the application of S. tundjeliensis eliminated H2 O2 -induced oxidative stress. It was determined that protein levels of phospho-nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), receptor for advanced glycation endproducts, and activator protein-1, which are activated in the nucleus, decreased, and the synthesis of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and MMP-9 also decreased to basal levels. Overall, these findings suggest that S. tundjeliensis contains diverse bioactive compounds for the development of nutraceuticals or functional foods with potent biological properties.