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Galvani M, Freddi S, Sangaletti L. Disclosing Fast Detection Opportunities with Nanostructured Chemiresistor Gas Sensors Based on Metal Oxides, Carbon, and Transition Metal Dichalcogenides. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:584. [PMID: 38257677 PMCID: PMC11154330 DOI: 10.3390/s24020584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Revised: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
With the emergence of novel sensing materials and the increasing opportunities to address safety and life quality priorities of our society, gas sensing is experiencing an outstanding growth. Among the characteristics required to assess performances, the overall speed of response and recovery is adding to the well-established stability, selectivity, and sensitivity features. In this review, we focus on fast detection with chemiresistor gas sensors, focusing on both response time and recovery time that characterize their dynamical response. We consider three classes of sensing materials operating in a chemiresistor architecture, exposed to the most investigated pollutants, such as NH3, NO2, H2S, H2, ethanol, and acetone. Among sensing materials, we first selected nanostructured metal oxides, which are by far the most used chemiresistors and can provide a solid ground for performance improvement. Then, we selected nanostructured carbon sensing layers (carbon nanotubes, graphene, and reduced graphene), which represent a promising class of materials that can operate at room temperature and offer many possibilities to increase their sensitivities via functionalization, decoration, or blending with other nanostructured materials. Finally, transition metal dichalcogenides are presented as an emerging class of chemiresistive layers that bring what has been learned from graphene into a quite large portfolio of chemo-sensing platforms. For each class, studies since 2019 reporting on chemiresistors that display less than 10 s either in the response or in the recovery time are listed. We show that for many sensing layers, the sum of both response and recovery times is already below 10 s, making them promising devices for fast measurements to detect, e.g., sudden bursts of dangerous emissions in the environment, or to track the integrity of packaging during food processing on conveyor belts at pace with industrial production timescales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele Galvani
- Surface Science and Spectroscopy Lab at I-Lamp, Department of Mathematics and Physics, Via della Garzetta 48, 25133 Brescia, Italy; (M.G.); (S.F.)
| | - Sonia Freddi
- Surface Science and Spectroscopy Lab at I-Lamp, Department of Mathematics and Physics, Via della Garzetta 48, 25133 Brescia, Italy; (M.G.); (S.F.)
- Institute of Photonics and Nanotechnologies-Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (IFN-CNR), Laboratory for Nanostructure Epitaxy and Spintronics on Silicon (LNESS), Via Anzani 42, 22100 Como, Italy
| | - Luigi Sangaletti
- Surface Science and Spectroscopy Lab at I-Lamp, Department of Mathematics and Physics, Via della Garzetta 48, 25133 Brescia, Italy; (M.G.); (S.F.)
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Chang IS, Byun SW, Lim TB, Park GM. A Study on E-Nose System in Terms of the Learning Efficiency and Accuracy of Boosting Approaches. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:302. [PMID: 38203164 PMCID: PMC10781315 DOI: 10.3390/s24010302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Revised: 12/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/31/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
With the development of the field of e-nose research, the potential for application is increasing in various fields, such as leak measurement, environmental monitoring, and virtual reality. In this study, we characterize electronic nose data as structured data and investigate and analyze the learning efficiency and accuracy of deep learning models that use unstructured data. For this purpose, we use the MOX sensor dataset collected in a wind tunnel, which is one of the most popular public datasets in electronic nose research. Additionally, a gas detection platform was constructed using commercial sensors and embedded boards, and experimental data were collected in a hood environment such as used in chemical experiments. We investigated the accuracy and learning efficiency of deep learning models such as deep learning networks, convolutional neural networks, and long short-term memory, as well as boosting models, which are robust models on structured data, using both public and specially collected datasets. The results showed that the boosting models had a faster and more robust performance than deep learning series models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Il-Sik Chang
- The Graduate School of Nano IT Design Fusion, Seoul National University of S&T, Seoul 01811, Republic of Korea;
| | - Sung-Woo Byun
- Digital Innovation Support Center, Korea Electronics Technology Institute, Jeonju 54853, Republic of Korea;
| | - Tae-Beom Lim
- Intelligent Information Research Division, Korea Electronics Technology Institute, Seongnam 13488, Republic of Korea;
| | - Goo-Man Park
- Department of Smart ICT Convergence Engineering, Seoul National University of S&T, Seoul 01811, Republic of Korea
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Freddi S, Rodriguez Gonzalez MC, Casotto A, Sangaletti L, De Feyter S. Machine-Learning-Aided NO 2 Discrimination with an Array of Graphene Chemiresistors Covalently Functionalized by Diazonium Chemistry. Chemistry 2023; 29:e202302154. [PMID: 37522257 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202302154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Revised: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
Boosted by the emerging need for highly integrated gas sensors in the internet of things (IoT) ecosystems, electronic noses (e-noses) are gaining interest for the detection of specific molecules over a background of interfering gases. The sensing of nitrogen dioxide is particularly relevant for applications in environmental monitoring and precision medicine. Here we present an easy and efficient functionalization procedure to covalently modify graphene layers, taking advantage of diazonium chemistry. Separate graphene layers were functionalized with one of three different aryl rings: 4-nitrophenyl, 4-carboxyphenyl and 4-bromophenyl. The distinct modified graphene layers were assembled with a pristine layer into an e-nose for NO2 discrimination. A remarkable sensitivity to NO2 was demonstrated through exposure to gaseous solutions with NO2 concentrations in the 1-10 ppm range at room temperature. Then, the discrimination capability of the sensor array was tested by carrying out exposure to several interfering gases and analyzing the data through multivariate statistical analysis. This analysis showed that the e-nose can discriminate NO2 among all the interfering gases in a two-dimensional principal component analysis space. Finally, the e-nose was trained to accurately recognize NO2 contributions with a linear discriminant analysis approach, thus providing a metric for discrimination assessment with a prediction accuracy above 95 %.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Freddi
- Surface Science and Spectroscopy lab @ I-Lamp, Department of Mathematics and Physics, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Via della Garzetta, 48 25123, Brescia, Italy
- Department of Chemistry, Division of Molecular Imaging and Photonics, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Miriam C Rodriguez Gonzalez
- Department of Chemistry, Division of Molecular Imaging and Photonics, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
- Current affiliation: Área de Química Física, Departamento de Química, Instituto de Materiales y Nanotecnología (IMN), Universidad de La Laguna (ULL), 38200, La Laguna, Spain
| | - Andrea Casotto
- Surface Science and Spectroscopy lab @ I-Lamp, Department of Mathematics and Physics, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Via della Garzetta, 48 25123, Brescia, Italy
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556, USA
| | - Luigi Sangaletti
- Surface Science and Spectroscopy lab @ I-Lamp, Department of Mathematics and Physics, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Via della Garzetta, 48 25123, Brescia, Italy
| | - Steven De Feyter
- Department of Chemistry, Division of Molecular Imaging and Photonics, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
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Lee S, Park S, Lim S, Lee C, Lee CY. Potential of Carbon Nanotube Chemiresistor Array in Detecting Gas-Phase Mixtures of Toxic Chemical Compounds. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 13:2199. [PMID: 37570518 PMCID: PMC10421483 DOI: 10.3390/nano13152199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Revised: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023]
Abstract
Toxic industrial chemicals (TICs), when accidentally released into the workplace or environment, often form a gaseous mixture that complicates detection and mitigation measures. However, most of the existing gas sensors are unsuitable for detecting such mixtures. In this study, we demonstrated the detection and identification of gaseous mixtures of TICs using a chemiresistor array of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs). The array consists of three SWCNT chemiresistors coated with different molecular/ionic species, achieving a limit of detection (LOD) of 2.2 ppb for ammonia (NH3), 820 ppb for sulfur dioxide (SO2), and 2.4 ppm for ethylene oxide (EtO). By fitting the concentration-dependent sensor responses to an adsorption isotherm, we extracted parameters that characterize each analyte-coating combination, including the proportionality and equilibrium constants for adsorption. Principal component analysis confirmed that the sensor array detected and identified mixtures of two TIC gases: NH3/SO2, NH3/EtO, and SO2/EtO. Exposing the sensor array to three TIC mixtures with various EtO/SO2 ratios at a fixed NH3 concentration showed an excellent correlation between the sensor response and the mixture composition. Additionally, we proposed concentration ranges within which the sensor array can effectively detect the gaseous mixtures. Being highly sensitive and capable of analyzing both individual and mixed TICs, our gas sensor array has great potential for monitoring the safety and environmental effects of industrial chemical processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seongwoo Lee
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea;
| | - Sanghwan Park
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea; (S.P.); (S.L.); (C.L.)
| | - Seongyeop Lim
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea; (S.P.); (S.L.); (C.L.)
| | - Cheongha Lee
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea; (S.P.); (S.L.); (C.L.)
| | - Chang Young Lee
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea; (S.P.); (S.L.); (C.L.)
- Graduate School of Carbon Neutrality, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
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Mian SA, Hussain A, Basit A, Rahman G, Ahmed E, Jang J. Molecular modeling and simulation of transition metal-doped molybdenum disulfide biomarkers in exhaled gases for early detection of lung cancer. J Mol Model 2023; 29:225. [PMID: 37402994 DOI: 10.1007/s00894-023-05638-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Accepted: 06/27/2023] [Indexed: 07/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The presence of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the exhaled breath of lung cancer patients is the only available source for detecting the disease at its initial stage. Exhaled breath analysis depends purely on the performance of the biosensors. The interaction between VOCs and pristine MoS2 is repulsive in nature. Therefore, modifying MoS2 via surficial adsorption of the transition metal nickel is of prime importance. The surficial interaction of six VOCs with Ni-doped MoS2 led to substantial variations in the structural and optoelectronic properties compared to those of the pristine monolayer. The remarkable improvement in the conductivity, thermostability, good sensing response, and recovery time of the sensor exposed to six VOCs revealed that a Ni-doped MoS2 exhibits impressive properties for the detection of exhaled gases. Different temperatures have a significant impact on the recovery time. Humidity has no effect on the detection of exhaled gases upon exposure to VOCs. The obtained results may encourage the use of exhaled breath sensors by experimentalists and oncologists to enable potential advancements in lung cancer detection. METHODS The surface adsorption of transition metal and its interaction with volatile organic compounds on a MoS2 surface was studied by using Spanish Initiative for Electronic Simulations with Thousands of Atoms (SIESTA). The pseudopotentials used in the SIESTA calculations are norm-conserving in their fully nonlocal forms. The atomic orbitals with finite support were used as a basis set, allowing unlimited multiple-zeta and angular momenta, polarization, and off-site orbitals. These basis sets are the key for calculating the Hamiltonian and overlap matrices in O(N) operations. The present hybrid density functional theory (DFT) is a combination of PW92 and RPBE methods. Additionally, the DFT+U approach was employed to accurately ascertain the coulombic repulsion in the transition elements.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Akbar Hussain
- Department of Physics, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan
| | - Abdul Basit
- Department of Physics, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan
| | - Gul Rahman
- Institute of Chemical Sciences, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan
| | - Ejaz Ahmed
- Department of Physics, Abdul Wali Khan University, Mardan, Pakistan
| | - Joonkyung Jang
- Department of Nano Energy Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea.
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Peters R, Beijer N, 't Hul BV, Bruijns B, Munniks S, Knotter J. Evaluation of a Commercial Electronic Nose Based on Carbon Nanotube Chemiresistors. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:s23115302. [PMID: 37300031 DOI: 10.3390/s23115302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Recently a hand-held, carbon-nanotube-based electronic nose became available on the market. Such an electronic nose could be interesting for applications in the food industry, health monitoring, environmental monitoring, and security services. However, not much is known about the performance of such an electronic nose. In a series of measurements, the instrument was exposed to low ppm vapor concentrations of four volatile organic compounds with different scent profiles and polarities. Detection limits, linearity of response, repeatability, reproducibility, and scent patterns were determined. The results indicate detection limits in the range of 0.1-0.5 ppm and a linear signal response in the range of 0.5-8.0 ppm. The repeatability of the scent patterns at compound concentrations of 2 ppm allowed the identification of the tested volatiles based on their scent pattern. However, the reproducibility was not sufficient, since different scent profiles were produced on different measurement days. In addition, it was noted that the response of the instrument diminished over time (over several months) possibly by sensor poisoning. The latter two aspects limit the use of the current instrument and make future improvements necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruud Peters
- Lectorate Technologies for Criminal Investigations, Saxion University of Applied Sciences, Handelskade 75, 7417 DH Deventer, The Netherlands
| | - Niels Beijer
- Lectorate Technologies for Criminal Investigations, Saxion University of Applied Sciences, Handelskade 75, 7417 DH Deventer, The Netherlands
| | - Bauke van 't Hul
- Academy of Applied Biosciences and Chemistry, HAN University of Applied Sciences, Laan van Scheut 2, 6525 EM Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Brigitte Bruijns
- Lectorate Technologies for Criminal Investigations, Saxion University of Applied Sciences, Handelskade 75, 7417 DH Deventer, The Netherlands
| | - Sandra Munniks
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Wageningen University and Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jaap Knotter
- Lectorate Technologies for Criminal Investigations, Saxion University of Applied Sciences, Handelskade 75, 7417 DH Deventer, The Netherlands
- Dutch Police Academy, Arnhemseweg 348, 7334 AC Apeldoorn, The Netherlands
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Freddi S, Vergari M, Pagliara S, Sangaletti L. A Chemiresistor Sensor Array Based on Graphene Nanostructures: From the Detection of Ammonia and Possible Interfering VOCs to Chemometric Analysis. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:882. [PMID: 36679682 PMCID: PMC9862857 DOI: 10.3390/s23020882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Sensor arrays are currently attracting the interest of researchers due to their potential of overcoming the limitations of single sensors regarding selectivity, required by specific applications. Among the materials used to develop sensor arrays, graphene has not been so far extensively exploited, despite its remarkable sensing capability. Here we present the development of a graphene-based sensor array prepared by dropcasting nanostructure and nanocomposite graphene solution on interdigitated substrates, with the aim to investigate the capability of the array to discriminate several gases related to specific applications, including environmental monitoring, food quality tracking, and breathomics. This goal is achieved in two steps: at first the sensing properties of the array have been assessed through ammonia exposures, drawing the calibration curves, estimating the limit of detection, which has been found in the ppb range for all sensors, and investigating stability and sensitivity; then, after performing exposures to acetone, ethanol, 2-propanol, sodium hypochlorite, and water vapour, chemometric tools have been exploited to investigate the discrimination capability of the array, including principal component analysis (PCA), linear discriminant analysis (LDA), and Mahalanobis distance. PCA shows that the array was able to discriminate all the tested gases with an explained variance around 95%, while with an LDA approach the array can be trained to accurately recognize unknown gas contribution, with an accuracy higher than 94%.
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Freddi S, Marzuoli C, Pagliara S, Drera G, Sangaletti L. Targeting biomarkers in the gas phase through a chemoresistive electronic nose based on graphene functionalized with metal phthalocyanines. RSC Adv 2022; 13:251-263. [PMID: 36605647 PMCID: PMC9769103 DOI: 10.1039/d2ra07607a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Electronic noses (e-noses) have received considerable interest in the past decade as they can match the emerging needs of modern society such as environmental monitoring, health screening, and food quality tracking. For practical applications of e-noses, it is necessary to collect large amounts of data from an array of sensing devices that can detect interactions with molecules reliably and analyze them via pattern recognition. The use of graphene (Gr)-based arrays of chemiresistors in e-noses is still virtually missing, though recent reports on Gr-based chemiresistors have disclosed high sensing performances upon functionalization of the pristine layer, opening up the possibility of being implemented into e-noses. In this work, with the aim of creating a robust and chemically stable interface that combines the chemical properties of metal phthalocyanines (M-Pc, M = Fe, Co, Ni, Zn) with the superior transport properties of Gr, an array of Gr-based chemiresistor sensors functionalized with drop-cast M-Pc thin layers has been developed. The sensing capability of the array was tested towards biomarkers for breathomics application, with a focus on ammonia (NH3). Exposure to NH3 has been carried out drawing the calibration curve and estimating the detection limit for all the sensors. The discrimination capability of the array has then been tested, carrying out exposure to several gases (hydrogen sulfide, acetone, ethanol, 2-propanol, water vapour and benzene) and analysing the data through principal component analysis (PCA). The PCA pattern recognition results show that the developed e-nose is able to discriminate all the tested gases through the synergic contribution of all sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Freddi
- Department of Mathematics and Physics, Surface Science and Spectroscopy Lab@I-Lamp, Università Cattolica del Sacro CuoreVia della Garzetta 4825123 BresciaItaly,Department of Chemistry, Division of Molecular Imaging and Photonics, KU LeuvenCelestijnenlaan 200F3001 LeuvenBelgium
| | - Camilla Marzuoli
- Department of Mathematics and Physics, Surface Science and Spectroscopy Lab@I-Lamp, Università Cattolica del Sacro CuoreVia della Garzetta 4825123 BresciaItaly
| | - Stefania Pagliara
- Department of Mathematics and Physics, Surface Science and Spectroscopy Lab@I-Lamp, Università Cattolica del Sacro CuoreVia della Garzetta 4825123 BresciaItaly
| | - Giovanni Drera
- Department of Mathematics and Physics, Surface Science and Spectroscopy Lab@I-Lamp, Università Cattolica del Sacro CuoreVia della Garzetta 4825123 BresciaItaly
| | - Luigi Sangaletti
- Department of Mathematics and Physics, Surface Science and Spectroscopy Lab@I-Lamp, Università Cattolica del Sacro CuoreVia della Garzetta 4825123 BresciaItaly
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