The Macular Carotenoids are Associated with Cognitive Function in Preadolescent Children

Skin and macular carotenoids and relations to academic achievement among school-aged children

ABSTRACTObjectives: Carotenoids are plant pigments that accumulate in human tissue (e.g. macula and skin) and can serve as biomarkers for diet quality; however, knowledge on skin and macular carotenoids in relation to cognition in children is limited. This study aimed to address this gap by assessing links between skin and macular carotenoids and academic achievement in school-aged children.Methods: Children 7-12 years old (n = 81) participated in a crosssectional study. Skin and macular carotenoids were measured with reflection spectroscopy and heterochromatic flicker photometry, respectively. Academic achievement was measured using Woodcock-Johnson IV (WJ-IV). Body Mass Index was calculated using height and weight measurements, demographic information was collected using a family demographics and pediatric health history questionnaire, and carotenoid intake was assessed using 7-day diet records.Results: Skin carotenoids were not related to macular pigment (r = 0.08, p = 0.22). Adjusting for age, sex, BMI percentile, household income, and total carotenoid consumption (mg/1000kcal), skin carotenoids were predictive of math (β = 0.27, p = 0.02), broad math (β = 0.36, p < 0.01) and math calculation (β = 0.38, p < 0.01). Skin carotenoids displayed trending relationships with broad reading (β = 0.23, p = 0.05) and reading fluency (β = 0.22, p = 0.07). There were no significant associations between macular pigment and academic achievement (all β's ≤ 0.07, all p's ≥ 0.56).Discussion: Skin carotenoids were positively associated with academic abilities in children, while macular carotenoids did not display this relationship. Future interventions examining prospective effects of changes in carotenoids in different tissues on childhood academic achievement are warranted.

Lutein and Zeaxanthin Supplementation Improves Dynamic Visual and Cognitive Performance in Children: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Parallel, Placebo-Controlled Study

INTRODUCTION

Supplementation with dietary neuro-pigments lutein (L) and zeaxanthin (Z) has been shown to improve many aspects of visual and cognitive function in adults. In this study, we tested whether a similar intervention could improve such outcomes in preadolescent children.

METHODS

Sixty children (age range 5-12 years) were randomized in a 2:1 ratio in this double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Subjects were supplemented with gummies containing either a combination of 10 mg lutein and 2 mg zeaxanthin (LZ) or placebo for 180 days. Macular pigment optical density (MPOD) was the primary endpoint. The secondary endpoints included serum levels of L and Z, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), critical flicker fusion (CFF), eye strain and fatigue using visual analogue scales (VAS), Children's Sleep Habits Questionnaire-Abbreviated (CSHQ-A), and Creyos Health cognitive domains like attention, focus/concentration, episodic memory and learning, visuospatial working memory, and visuospatial processing speed. Safety was assessed throughout the study on the basis of physical examination, vital signs, clinical laboratory tests, and monitoring of adverse events.

RESULTS

The LZ group showed significant increases in MPOD at all visits post-supplementation, with significant increases as early as day 42 compared to placebo. The LZ group showed significant increases in serum lutein levels, reduced eye strain and fatigue, and improved cognitive performance (focus, episodic memory and learning, visuospatial working memory) at days 90 and 180 compared to placebo. Further, the LZ group showed significant increases in processing speed (CFF), attention, visuospatial processing, and serum Z and BDNF levels on day 180 compared to placebo. No safety concerns were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Supplementing LZ resulted in increased MPOD levels, along with increased serum levels of L, Z, and BDNF. These changes were associated with improved visual and cognitive performances and reduction in eye strain and eye fatigue in the children receiving LZ gummies. The investigational product was safe and well tolerated.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

http://ctri.nic.in/ Identifier CTRI/2022/05/042364.

Some novel bioactivities of Virgibacillus halodenitrificans carotenoids, isolated from Wadi El-Natrun lakes

Carotenoids come in second among the most frequent natural pigments and are utilized in medications, nutraceuticals, cosmetics, food pigments, and feed supplements. Based on recent complementary work, Virgibacillus was announced for the first time as a member of Wadi El-Natrun salt and soda lakes microbiota, identified as Virgibacillus halodenitrificans, and named V. halodenitrificans DASH; hence, this work aimed to investigate several in vitro medicinal bioactivities of V. halodenitrificans DASH carotenoids. The carotenoid methanolic extract showed antioxidant activity based on diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging capacity with a half-maximal concentration (IC50) of 1.6 mg/mL as well as nitric oxide (NO) scavenging action expressed by an IC50 of 46.4 µg/mL. The extract showed considerable inhibitory activity for alpha-amylase (α-amylase) and alpha-glucosidase (α-glucosidase) enzymes (IC50 of 100 and 173.4 μg/mL, respectively). Moreover, the extract displayed selective anticancer activity against Caco-2 (IC50 = 138.96 µg/mL) and HepG-2 cell lines (IC50 = 31.25 µg/mL), representing colorectal adenocarcinoma and hepatoblastoma. Likewise, the extract showed 98.9 % clearance for human hepatitis C virus (HCV) using reverse transcription quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), HCV-NS5B polymerase activity inhibition (IC50 = 27.4 µg/mL), and selective inhibitory activity against human coronavirus (HCoV 229E) using the plaque reduction assay (IC50 = 53.5 µg/mL). As far as we can tell, the anticancer, antiviral, and antidiabetic attributes of Virgibacillus carotenoids are, de novo, reported in this work which accordingly invokes further exploration of the other medicinal, biotechnological, and industrial applications of Virgibacillus and haloalkaliphilic bacteria carotenoids.

Macular Pigment Optical Density and Skin Carotenoids in a Childhood Sample

BACKGROUND

Carotenoids are plant pigments with light filtering and antioxidant properties that deposit in human tissues, including retina and skin. Descriptive characteristics and covariates of carotenoid status in macula and skin have been examined in adults; however, similar studies in children are limited. Thus, this study aimed to delineate how factors of age, sex, race, weight status, and dietary carotenoid intake relate to macular and skin carotenoids in children.

METHODS

Children (7-13 y, N = 375) completed heterochromatic flicker photometry to assess macular pigment optical density (MPOD). Participants underwent anthropometrics to measure weight status (BMI percentile [BMI%]), and parent/guardian provided demographic information. Subsample data were available for skin carotenoids (N = 181), assessed using reflection spectroscopy, and dietary carotenoids (N = 101) using the Block Food Frequency Questionnaire. Relationships between skin and macular carotenoids were assessed using partial Pearson's correlations controlling for age, sex, race, and BMI%. Relationships between dietary carotenoids and macular and skin carotenoids were assessed using stepwise linear regression including age, sex, race, and BMI% in the model.

RESULTS

Mean MPOD was 0.56 ± 0.22 and skin carotenoid score was 282 ± 94.6. There was no significant correlation between MPOD and skin carotenoids (r = 0.02, P = 0.76). BMI% was negatively associated with skin (stdβ = -0.42, P < 0.001), but not macular carotenoids (stdβ = -0.04, P = 0.70). Neither MPOD nor skin carotenoids were associated with age, sex, or race (all P > 0.10). MPOD was positively associated with energy-adjusted reported lutein + zeaxanthin intake (stdβ = 0.27, P = 0.01). Skin carotenoids were positively associated with energy-adjusted reported carotenoid intake (stdβ = 0.26, P = 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

The mean MPOD values in children were higher than what has been reported in adult populations. Previous studies in adult samples report an average MPOD of 0.21. Although macular and skin carotenoids were not related, they were associated with dietary carotenoids relevant to the respective tissues; however, skin carotenoids may be more susceptible negative influence from higher weight status.

Low Xanthophylls, Retinol, Lycopene, and Tocopherols in Grey and White Matter of Brains with Alzheimer's Disease

BACKGROUND

Oxidative stress contributes to pathogenesis and progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Higher levels of the dietary antioxidants- carotenoids and tocopherols- are associated with better cognitive functions and lower risk for AD, and lower levels of multiple carotenoids are found in serum and plasma of patients with AD. Although brains donated by individuals with mild cognitive impairment had significantly lower levels of lutein and beta-carotene, previous investigators found no significant difference in carotenoid levels of brains with AD and cognitively normal brains.

OBJECTIVE

This study tested the hypothesis that micronutrients are significantly lower in donor brains with AD than in healthy elderly brains.

METHODS

Samples of donor brains with confirmed AD or verified health were dissected into grey and white matter, extracted with organic solvents and analyzed by HPLC.

RESULTS

AD brains had significantly lower levels of lutein, zeaxanthin, anhydrolutein, retinol, lycopene, and alpha-tocopherol, and significantly increased levels of XMiAD, an unidentified xanthophyll metabolite. No meso-zeaxanthin was detected. The overlapping protective roles of xanthophylls, carotenes, α- and γ-tocopherol are discussed.

CONCLUSION

Brains with AD had substantially lower concentrations of some, but not all, xanthophylls, carotenes, and tocopherols, and several-fold higher concentrations of an unidentified xanthophyll metabolite increased in AD (XMiAD).

Enhancing children's cognitive function and achievement through carotenoid consumption: The Integrated Childhood Ocular Nutrition Study (iCONS) protocol

Lutein and zeaxanthin (L + Z) are carotenoids that accumulate in neural tissue and potentially confer benefits to cognition. Whereas cross-sectional studies have revealed positive associations between macular carotenoids (MC) and cognition, no studies have investigated whether L + Z supplementation impacts MC and cognition in childhood. Accordingly, the Integrated Childhood Ocular Nutrition Study aims to investigate the impact of L + Z supplementation over 9-months on academic abilities, attentional control, memory, and MC among preadolescent children. Children 8-10 years (N = 288) will enroll in a 9-month double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial. The study is registered and approved as a clinical trial on the U.S. National Library of Medicine http://ClinicalTrials.gov registry (NCT05177679). Participants will be randomized into an active (10 mg lutein+2 mg zeaxanthin) or waitlist placebo-controlled group. Primary outcomes include hippocampal-dependent memory, attentional inhibition, and academic achievement using a spatial reconstruction task, an Eriksen flanker task, and the Kaufman Test of Academic and Educational Achievement 3rd edition, respectively. Secondary outcomes include event-related brain potentials of attentional resource allocation and information processing speed (i.e., P3/P300 amplitude and latency) recorded during the flanker task. Macular pigment optical density (MPOD) will be assessed using heterochromatic flicker photometry. Cognitive assessments will be completed prior to and after completion of the supplementation period. MPOD will be quantified prior to, at the mid-point of (4-5 months), and after (9 months) the supplementation period. It is hypothesized that L + Z supplementation will improve cognition and academic achievement. Further, benefits for cognition and achievement are anticipated to be mediated by increases in MC among treatment group participants.

Early Childhood Lutein and Zeaxanthin Intake Is Positively Associated with Early Childhood Receptive Vocabulary and Mid-Childhood Executive Function But No Other Cognitive or Behavioral Outcomes in Project Viva

BACKGROUND

Lutein and zeaxanthin are carotenoids associated with better cognition in older adults. Recent evidence suggests that their dietary intake may also have cognitive implications in childhood.

OBJECTIVE

The aim was to examine associations of early childhood lutein and zeaxanthin (L/Z) intake with cognition in early and mid-childhood.

METHODS

Among 1378 children in Project Viva, a prospective cohort, mothers reported their child's dietary intake in early childhood (median: 3.2 y) using a food-frequency questionnaire. Child cognition and behavior were assessed at the same time point using the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT-III) and the Wide Range Assessment of Visual Motor Abilities (WRAVMA) and at mid-childhood (median: 7.7 y) using the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test, the WRAVMA drawing subtest, the Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning, the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF), and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire.

RESULTS

Children consumed a daily mean (SD) of 1.0 (0.4) mg L/Z in early childhood. Children in the third-quartile category of L/Z intake had a mean PPVT-III score 2.40 (95% CI: 0.27, 4.53) points higher than children in the lowest quartile category in early childhood, suggesting better receptive vocabulary. Children in the highest quartile category of L/Z intake had a parent-reported mean BRIEF Global Executive Composite score 1.65 (95% CI: -3.27, -0.03) points lower than children in the lowest quartile category in mid-childhood, indicating better executive function. We did not observe associations between L/Z intake and any of the other cognitive or behavioral outcomes assessed.

CONCLUSIONS

The overall findings do not provide strong evidence of an association between child L/Z intake and cognition and behavior. However, the positive associations found between early childhood L/Z intake and early childhood receptive vocabulary and mid-childhood executive function, in addition to previous evidence of neurodevelopmental benefit of L/Z intake, suggest that this relation deserves further investigation.

Effect of macular pigment carotenoids on cognitive functions: A systematic review

Lutein and zeaxanthin-xanthophyll carotenoids with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory characteristics-are present in the retina and the brain. High concentrations of these carotenoids have been positively related to cognitive performance. Therefore, this systematic review analyses the relationship between macular pigment density and cognitive functions. Most relevant databases were scoured for studies on healthy people relating cognitive functions to macular pigment optical density (MPOD). There were no age, sex, or race limitations. PROSPERO registration: CRD42021254833. Nineteen studies were included, seven randomized controlled trials (RCT) and eleven observational studies. The general aim of the studies was to examine the association between carotenoids (lutein, meso‑zeaxanthin and zeaxanthin) and cognitive function. Most observational studies correlates MPOD levels with cognitive function or brain activity. Besides, RCTs compared the cognitive function and/or brain activity after increasing lutein and zeaxanthin intake though dietary supplementation or avocado consumption. Dietary lutein and zeaxanthin intake increased MPOD in six of the seven clinical trials and significantly improved most of the cognitive functions studied. A wide variety of test and methodologies for measuring cognitive functions were observed. Memory, processing speed, attention and reasoning were the cognitive function significantly related to MPOD levels in adults. Brain activity also was related to MPOD, but the results were inconsistent. Only four of the eleven observational studies were based on young people and all studies showed a significant relationship between MPOD and cognitive functions. This systematic review showed a direct relationship among cognitive functions, macular pigment and the intake of lutein and zeaxanthin.

Can Diet Supplements of Macular Pigment of Lutein, Zeaxanthin, and Meso-zeaxanthin Affect Cognition?

Background: Lutein (L), zeaxanthin (Z), and meso-zeaxanthin (MZ) are collectively called macular pigment. MZ can be converted from L in the macula. In the recent decade, many studies have been performed to investigate the effects for taking carotenoids, especially L and Z or L, Z, and MZ, as diet supplements on human health. Objective: We examined if diet supplements of L + Z or L + Z + MZ have effects on cognitive function in adults. Methods: A systemic literature search was performed in March 2021 with the following keywords: lutein, zeaxanthin, meso-zeaxanthin, cognition, cognitive, and macular pigment. The searched databases included Medline EBSCOhost, Scopus, Elsevier, Cochrane Library, ProQuest, and ClinicalTrials.gov. Findings from eight clinical trials were presented as the strongest evidence on the studied topic. Results: Most studies have found that macular pigments (L + Z) in blood or macula are positively correlated with cognitive performance. As an index of the amount of macular pigments in the brain, macular pigment optical density is related to cognitive performance in adults. In addition, there is an inverse relationship between a higher amount of macular pigment in the blood and lower risk of mild cognitive impairments or Alzheimer’s disease. Based on the findings from the clinical trials, diet supplements of L + Z or L + Z + MZ are associated with improved cognition in adults. Conclusion: The diet supplements of L + Z or L + Z+MZ are associated with better cognitive functioning, which may be via their beneficial effects on the vision.

Sex Differences Across the Life Course: A Focus On Unique Nutritional and Health Considerations among Women

In the United States, women, while having a longer life expectancy than men, experience a differential risk for chronic diseases and have unique nutritional needs based on physiological and hormonal changes across the life span. However, much of what is known about health is based on research conducted in men. Additional complexity in assessing nutritional needs within gender include the variations in genetics, body compositions, hormonal milieus, underlying chronic diseases, and medication usage, with this list expanding as we consider these variables across the life course. It is clear women experience nutrient shortfalls during key periods of their lives, which may differentially impact their health. Consequently, as we move into the era of precision nutrition, understanding these sex- and gender-based differences may help optimize recommendations and interventions chosen to support health and weight management. Recently, a scientific conference was convened with content experts to explore these topics from a life-course perspective at biological, physiological, and behavioral levels. This publication summarizes the presentations and discussions from the workshop and provides an overview of important nutrition and related lifestyle considerations across the life course. The landscape of addressing female-specific nutritional needs continues to grow; now more than ever, it is essential to increase our understanding of the physiological differences between men and women, and determine how these physiological considerations may aid in optimizing nutritional strategies to support certain personal goals related to health, quality of life, sleep, and exercise performance among women.

Early Pediatric Benefit of Lutein for Maturing Eyes and Brain-An Overview

Lutein is a dietary carotenoid preferentially accumulated in the eye and the brain in early life and throughout the life span. Lutein accumulation in areas of high metabolism and oxidative stress such as the eye and the brain suggest a unique role of this ingredient during the development and maturation of these organs of common embryological origin. Lutein is naturally provided to the developing baby via the cord blood, breast milk and then infant diet. The presence of this carotenoid depends on fruit and vegetable intakes and its bioavailability is higher in breastmilk. This paper aims to review the anatomical development of the eye and the brain, explore the presence and selective deposition of lutein in these organs during pregnancy and infancy and, based on its functional characteristics, present the latest available research on the beneficial role of lutein in the pediatric population. The potential effects of lutein in ameliorating conditions associated with increase oxidative stress such as in prematurity will be also addressed. Since consumption of lutein rich foods falls short of government guidelines and in most region of the world infant formulas lack this bioactive, dietary recommendations for pregnant and breastfeeding women and their child can help to bridge the gap.

Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms in CD36 Are Associated with Macular Pigment among Children

BACKGROUND

High macular pigment optical density (MPOD) has been associated with improved eye health and better cognitive functions. Genetic variations have been associated with MPOD in adults. However, these associations between genetic variations and MPOD have not been studied in children.

OBJECTIVES

This was a secondary analysis of the FK2 (Fitness Improves Thinking in Kids 2) trial (n = 134, 41% male). The aim was to determine differences in MPOD among children (aged 7-9 y) based on genetic variants that either are biologically relevant to lutein (L) and zeaxanthin (Z) accumulation or have been associated with MPOD in adults.

METHODS

MPOD was measured using customized heterochromatic flicker photometry via a macular densitometer. DXA was used to assess whole-body and visceral adiposity. DNA was extracted from saliva samples and was genotyped for 26 hypothesis-driven single nucleotide polymorphisms and 75 ancestry-informative markers (AIMs). Habitual diet history was obtained via 3-d food logs completed by parents (n = 88). General linear models were used to compare MPOD between different genotypes. Principal component analysis was performed for the AIMs to account for ethnic heterogeneity.

RESULTS

Children carrying ≥1 minor allele on β-carotene-15,15'-monooxygenase (BCO1)-rs7501331 (T allele) (P = 0.045), cluster of differentiation 36(CD36)-rs1527483 (T allele) (P = 0.038), or CD36-rs3173798 (C allele) (P = 0.001) had significantly lower MPOD (range: 14.1%-26.4%) than those who were homozygotes for the major alleles. MPOD differences based on CD36-rs3173798 genotypes persisted after adjustment for dietary L and Z intake.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings indicate that genetic variations of CD36 and BCO1 contribute to MPOD in children. The influence of genetic variation in CD36-rs3173798 persisted after adjusting for variation in dietary intake.This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01619826.

Macular Pigment Reflectometry: Developing Clinical Protocols, Comparison with Heterochromatic Flicker Photometry and Individual Carotenoid Levels

The study was designed to: (1) Analyze and create protocols of obtaining measurements using the Macular Pigment Reflectometry (MPR). (2) To assess the agreement of MPOD measurements obtained using the heterochromatic flicker photometry (MPS II) and MPR. (3) To obtain the lutein and zeaxanthin optical density obtained using the MPR in the central one-degree of the macula. The measurements were performed using the MPR and heterochromatic flicker photometry. The MPR measurements were performed twice without pupillary dilation and twice following pupillary dilation. The MPR measurements were performed for a 40-s period and the spectrometer signal was parsed at different time points: 10–20, 10–30, 10–40, 20–30, 20–40, and 30–40 s. The MPR analyzes the high-resolution spectrometer signal and calculates MPOD, lutein optical density and zeaxanthin optical density automatically. The MPR-MPOD data was compared with MPPS II-MPOD results. The MPR-MPOD values are highly correlated and in good agreement with the MPS II-MPOD. Of the various parsing of the data, the data 10–30 interval was the best at obtaining the MPOD, lutein, and zeaxanthin values (8–12% coefficient of repeatability). The lutein to zeaxanthin ratio in the central one-degree of the macula was 1:2.40. Dilation was not needed to obtain the MPOD values but provided better repeatability of lutein and zeaxanthin optical density. MPR generates MPOD measurements that is in good agreement with MPS II. The device can produce lutein and zeaxanthin optical density which is not available from other clinical devices.

Maternal Intake of Lutein and Zeaxanthin during Pregnancy Is Positively Associated with Offspring Verbal Intelligence and Behavior Regulation in Mid-Childhood in the Project Viva Cohort

BACKGROUND

Lutein and zeaxanthin are carotenoids associated with better cognition at older age. To our knowledge, no previous study has evaluated their cognitive implications in the prenatal period, when the brain undergoes its most rapid development.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to examine associations of maternal lutein and zeaxanthin (L/Z) intake during pregnancy with child cognition.

DESIGN

Among 1580 mother-child pairs in Project Viva, a prospective cohort, we assessed maternal intake of L/Z during pregnancy using food frequency questionnaires and offspring cognition by the Visual Recognition Memory paradigm in infancy, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test and the Wide Range Assessment of Visual Motor Abilities (WRAVMA) in early childhood, and the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (KBIT-II), the WRAVMA drawing subtest, and the Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning in mid-childhood. Parents completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) and Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire.

RESULTS

Mothers consumed a daily mean (SD) of 2.6 (2.0) mg L/Z in the first and second trimesters of pregnancy. Mean mid-childhood KBIT-II verbal scores were higher with greater maternal L/Z intake [difference of Q4-Q1 means for first trimester: 2.67 (95% CI: 0.13, 5.20) and for second trimester: 3.55 (95% CI: 0.81, 6.28)], indicating better verbal intelligence. Secondary analyses on cognitive subtests showed that mean mid-childhood BRIEF Behavioral Regulation Index scores were lower with greater maternal L/Z intake [difference of Q4-Q1 means for first trimester: -1.63 (95% CI: -3.22, -0.04) and for second trimester: -1.89 (95% CI: -3.58, -0.21)], indicating better behavior regulation ability.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher maternal L/Z intake during pregnancy was associated with better offspring verbal intelligence and behavior regulation ability in mid-childhood, suggesting a potential benefit during prenatal development. We did not find a benefit of higher maternal L/Z intake on other child cognitive or behavioral outcomes. Project Viva is registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02820402.

Biofortified orange corn increases xanthophyll density and yolk pigmentation in egg yolks from laying hens

Plant breeding has developed corn genotypes with grain higher in levels of carotenoids. Dietary consumption of specific carotenoids by humans has been associated with improved eye health, notably with some protection against age-related macular degeneration. Increasing dietary sources of macular carotenoids in the standard American diet might be accomplished by using high carotenoid Orange Corn in poultry diets to increase macular carotenoid concentrations in egg yolks. Three hundred sixty laying hens (Novogen White) were fed three different diets over 31 days. Each diet had six replicates of 20 hens housed in enrichable colony cages. The only difference was the type of corn included - white, yellow, and orange, in order to assess the impact of each type of corn on egg production, yolk pigmentation, and carotenoid deposition. This study assessed yolk color and carotenoid densities using a portable colorimeter and the DSM YolkFan, and by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) on eggs from the feeding study and on 43 cartons of 12 eggs commercially available and produced in various production settings: conventional cage, cage-free, cage-free organic, free-range/pasture, and free-range/pasture organic. Yolks from hens fed with the Orange Corn diet produced eggs with higher (P < 0.01) DSM yolk color (6 to 10) and total xanthophylls (23.5 to 35.3 μg/g of egg yolk) compared to the yellow diet (5 to 6 DSM and 12.3 to 17.7 μg/g xanthophylls) and white diet (1 to 2 DSM and 2.5 to 3.0 μg/g xanthophylls). Egg yolks reached a maximum xanthophyll accumulation with the Orange Corn diet (35.3 μg/g of egg yolk) after twelve days of treatment and maintained steady levels at subsequent time points. In general, xanthophyll levels in yolks from the Orange Corn diet were superior (30–61% higher) to any of the commercial egg brands, suggesting that feeding high carotenoid Orange Corn increases xanthophyll density in eggs.

Weight Status and Visceral Adiposity Mediate the Relation between Exclusive Breastfeeding Duration and Skin Carotenoids in Later Childhood

BACKGROUND

Breastfeeding is associated with healthier weight and nutrient status in early life. However, the impact of breastfeeding on carotenoid status beyond infancy, and the influence of adiposity, are unknown.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the study was to retrospectively investigate the relation between breastfeeding and carotenoid status, and the mediating effect of weight status and adiposity on this relation, among school-age children.

METHODS

This was a secondary analysis of baseline data collected from a randomized-controlled clinical trial. Children 7-12 y old (n = 81) were recruited from East-Central Illinois. DXA was used to assess visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and whole-body total fat percentage (%Fat; i.e., whole-body adiposity). Weight was obtained to calculate children's BMI percentiles. Skin carotenoids were assessed via reflection spectroscopy. Macular carotenoids were assessed as macular pigment optical density (MPOD). Dietary, birth, and breastfeeding information was self-reported by parents.

RESULTS

Skin carotenoids were inversely related to %Fat (P < 0.01), VAT (P < 0.01), and BMI percentile (P < 0.01). VAT and BMI percentile significantly mediated this relation between exclusive breastfeeding duration and skin carotenoids, after adjustment for dietary carotenoids, energy intake, and mother education.

CONCLUSIONS

Weight status and adipose tissue distribution mediate the positive correlation between exclusive breastfeeding duration and skin carotenoids among children aged 7-12 y. The results indicate the need to support breastfeeding and healthy physical growth in childhood for optimal carotenoid status.This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03521349.

Visual Function and Macular Carotenoid Changes in Eyes with Retinal Drusen-An Open Label Randomized Controlled Trial to Compare a Micronized Lipid-Based Carotenoid Liquid Supplementation and AREDS-2 Formula

Purpose: To compare the changes in visual and ocular parameters in individuals with retinal drusen who were treated with two commercially available nutritional supplements. Methods: An open-label, single-center, randomized, parallel-treatment with an observational control group design was utilized. The treatment groups included individuals with fine retinal drusen sub-clinical age-related macular degeneration (AMD), while the control group consisted of ocular normal individuals. The treatment groups were randomly assigned to the micronized lipid-based carotenoid supplement, Lumega-Z (LM), or the PreserVision Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 (AREDS-2) soft gel (PV). Visual performance was evaluated using the techniques of visual acuity, dark adaptation recovery and contrast sensitivity, at baseline, three months, and six months. Additionally, the macular pigment optical density (MPOD) was measured. The control group was not assigned any carotenoid supplement. The right eye and left eye results were analyzed separately. Results: Seventy-nine participants were recruited for this study, of which 68 qualified and 56 participants had useable reliable data. Of the individuals who completed this study, 25 participants belonged to the LM group, 16 belonged to the PV group, and 15 to the control group. The LM group demonstrated statistically significant improvements in contrast sensitivity function (CSF) in both eyes at six months (p < 0.001). The LM group displayed a positive linear trend with treatment time in CSF (p < 0.001), with benefits visible after just three months of supplementation. Although there was a trend showing improvement in CSF in the PV group, the change was not significant after a Bonferroni-corrected p-value of p < 0.00625. Visual acuity, dark adaptation recovery and MPOD did not significantly improve in either treatment groups. Conclusion: The LM group demonstrated greater and faster benefits in visual performance as measured by CSF when compared to the PV group. This trial has been registered at clinicaltrials.gov (NCT03946085).

Higher maternal plasma β-cryptoxanthin concentration is associated with better cognitive and motor development in offspring at 2 years of age

PURPOSE

Current literature on the roles of α-, β-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin in neurocognitive function has largely focused on preventing cognitive decline in older people, and less on neuro-development in children. We examined the relations of maternal plasma carotenoids concentrations with offspring cognitive development up to age 4.5 years in the Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes mother-offspring cohort study.

METHODS

Maternal plasma α-, β-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin concentrations at delivery were determined by ultra-performance liquid chromatography. Children's cognition was assessed at ages 2 (Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development) and 4.5 (Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test) years. Associations were examined in 419 mother-offspring pairs using linear regressions adjusting for key confounders.

RESULTS

Median and interquartile range of maternal plasma concentrations (mg/L) were: α-carotene 0.052 (0.032, 0.081), β-carotene 0.189 (0.134, 0.286), and β-cryptoxanthin 0.199 (0.123, 0.304). In 2 years old children, higher maternal carotenoids [per standard deviation (SD) log-concentration] were positively associated with neurocognitive functions: β-cryptoxanthin with higher scores in cognitive [β = 0.18, (0.08, 0.28) SD], receptive language [β = 0.17 (0.07, 0.27) SD], fine motor [β = 0.16 (0.05, 0.26) SD], and gross motor [β = 0.16 (0.06, 0.27) SD] scales; β-carotene with higher cognitive score [β = 0.17 (0.05, 0.29) SD]. No significant associations were observed with neurocognitive functions at age 4.5 years.

CONCLUSION

Our study provides novel data suggesting a potential role of prenatal carotenoids, particularly β-cryptoxanthin, on early offspring cognitive and motor development. Whether the prenatal influences sustain beyond early childhood requires further investigation in longer term studies.

Systematic Review of the Effects of Blueberry on Cognitive Performance as We Age

The effect of flavonoid-rich food, such as blueberries, on cognitive function has been subject to a growing amount of research interest in recent years. Epidemiological, prospective, preclinical, and clinical trials have revealed positive cognitive benefits from flavonoid interventions, particularly in relation to the amelioration of cognitive decline in older adults. This review will specifically consider the existing clinical research from both acute and chronic blueberry interventions on cognition in human subjects. The results of 11 studies are reported with 4 studies considering blueberry intervention with children aged 7-10 years, 4 considering adults aged 60 years and older, and 3 considering adults suffering from mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Findings from these studies indicate that cognitive benefits may be found for delayed memory and executive function in children and for delayed memory, executive function, and psychomotor function in older healthy and MCI adults. There is less evidence to suggest positive benefits of blueberry intervention on working memory. Recommendations for future research, including dose used, cognitive tasks, and age groups considered, are proposed.

Modeling Dynamic Conformations of Organic Molecules: Alkyne Carotenoids in Solution

Calculating the spectroscopic properties of complex conjugated organic molecules in their relaxed state is far from simple. An additional complexity arises for flexible molecules in solution, where the rotational energy barriers are low enough so that nonminimum conformations may become dynamically populated. These metastable conformations quickly relax during the minimization procedures preliminary to density functional theory calculations, and so accounting for their contribution to the experimentally observed properties is problematic. We describe a strategy for stabilizing these nonminimum conformations in silico, allowing their properties to be calculated. Diadinoxanthin and alloxanthin present atypical vibrational properties in solution, indicating the presence of several conformations. Performing energy calculations in vacuo and polarizable continuum model calculations in different solvents, we found three different conformations with values for the δ dihedral angle of the end ring ca. 0, 180, and 90° with respect to the plane of the conjugated chain. The latter conformation, a nonglobal minimum, is not stable during the minimization necessary for modeling its spectroscopic properties. To circumvent this classical problem, we used a Car–Parinello MD supermolecular approach, in which diadinoxanthin was solvated by water molecules so that metastable conformations were stabilized by hydrogen-bonding interactions. We progressively removed the number of solvating waters to find the minimum required for this stabilization. This strategy represents the first modeling of a carotenoid in a distorted conformation and provides an accurate interpretation of the experimental data.

Temporal vision is related to cognitive function in preadolescent children

The relation between visual processing speed (critical flicker fusion thresholds [CFF] and psychomotor reaction time) and higher-level cognitive function was assessed using a cross-sectional sample (n = 51) of 7 to 13-year-old preadolescent children. Data on visual processing speed (CFF and psychomotor reaction time) and cognitive function (Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities) were collected. Woodcock-Johnson III composite standard scores (brief intellectual ability [BIA], cognitive efficiency, processing speed, and executive processes) were calculated to control for age in the cognitive variables. CFF was related to cognitive efficiency, r(46) = 0.26, p = 0.036, and executive processes, r(44) = 0.25, p = 0.05, and showed a trend toward relating to processing speed, r(46) = 0.19, p = 0.09. Both psychomotor reaction time measures (fixed and variable) were related to executive processes and global intelligence (BIA) such that higher cognitive scores were associated with shorter reaction times, rs ranged from -0.25 to -0.29, ps < 0.05. In addition, fixed reaction time was related to cognitive efficiency, r(47) = -0.26, p < 0.05. The small nature of many of these relations suggests that visual processing speed is only one of many possible influences on the higher cognitive function of children.

How Lifestyle Factors Affect Cognitive and Executive Function and the Ability to Learn in Children

In today's research environment, children's diet, physical activity, and other lifestyle factors are commonly studied in the context of health, independent of their effect on cognition and learning. Moreover, there is little overlap between the two literatures, although it is reasonable to expect that the lifestyle factors explored in the health-focused research are intertwined with cognition and learning processes. This thematic review provides an overview of knowledge connecting the selected lifestyle factors of diet, physical activity, and sleep hygiene to children's cognition and learning. Research from studies of diet and nutrition, physical activity and fitness, sleep, and broader influences of cultural and socioeconomic factors related to health and learning, were summarized to offer examples of research that integrate lifestyle factors and cognition with learning. The literature review demonstrates that the associations and causal relationships between these factors are vastly understudied. As a result, current knowledge on predictors of optimal cognition and learning is incomplete, and likely lacks understanding of many critical facts and relationships, their interactions, and the nature of their relationships, such as there being mediating or confounding factors that could provide important knowledge to increase the efficacy of learning-focused interventions. This review provides information focused on studies in children. Although basic research in cells or animal studies are available and indicate a number of possible physiological pathways, inclusion of those data would distract from the fact that there is a significant gap in knowledge on lifestyle factors and optimal learning in children. In a climate where childcare and school feeding policies are continuously discussed, this thematic review aims to provide an impulse for discussion and a call for more holistic approaches to support child development.

Effects of macular xanthophyll supplementation on brain-derived neurotrophic factor, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and cognitive performance

PURPOSE

Oxidative and inflammatory processes play a major role in stress-induced neural atrophy. There is a wide body of literature linking oxidative and inflammatory stress with reductions in neurotrophic factors, stress resilience, and cognitive function. Based on their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capacity, we investigated the effect of the dietary carotenoids lutein and zeaxanthin, along with the zeaxanthin isomer meso-zeaxanthin (collectively the "macular xanthophylls" [MXans]) on systemic brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and anti-oxidant capacity (AOC), and the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β. To investigate higher-order effects, we assessed cognitive performance.

METHODS

59 young (18-25 yrs.), healthy subjects participated in a 6-month, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial to evaluate the effects of MXan supplementation on the aforementioned serum parameters and cognitive performance. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of three groups: placebo, 13 mg, or 27 mg/day total MXans; all measures were taken at baseline and 6 months. Blood was obtained via fasting blood draw, and MXan concentration in the retina (termed macular pigment optical density [MPOD]) was measured via customized heterochromatic flicker photometry. Serum BDNF and cytokines were assessed via ELISA. Serum antioxidant capacity (AOC) and serum MXan concentrations were quantified via colorimetric microplate assay, and high-performance liquid chromatography, respectively. Cognitive performance was measured via a computer-based assessment tool (CNS Vital Signs).

RESULTS

BDNF, MPOD, serum MXans, and AOC all increased significantly versus placebo in both treatment groups over the 6-month study period (p < .05 for all). IL-1β decreased significantly versus placebo in both treatment groups (p = .0036 and p = .006, respectively). For cognitive measures, scores for composite memory, verbal memory, sustained attention, psychomotor speed, and processing speed all improved significantly in treatment groups (p < .05 for all) and remained unchanged in the placebo group. Several measures were found to be significantly associated in terms of relational changes over the course of the study. Notably, change in BDNF was related to change in IL-1β (r = -0.47; p < .001) and MPOD (r = 0.44; p = .0086). Additionally, changes in serum MXans were strongly related to AOC (r = 0.79 & 0.61 for lutein and zeaxanthin isomers respectively; p < .001). For cognitive scores, change in BDNF was correlated to change in composite memory (r = 0.32; p = .014) and verbal memory (r = 0.35; p = .007), whereas change in MPOD was correlated with change in both psychomotor speed (r = 0.38; p = .003), and processing speed (r = 0.35; p = .007). Change in serum lutein was found to be significantly correlated to change in verbal memory (r = 0.41; p < .001), composite memory (r = 0.31; p = .009), and sustained attention (r = 0.28; p = .036). Change in serum zeaxanthin isomers was significantly correlated with change in verbal memory (r = 0.33; p = .017). Lastly, change in AOC was significantly associated with verbal memory (r = 0.34; p = .021), composite memory (r = 0.29; p = .03), and sustained attention (r = 0.35; p = .016). No significant relational changes in any cognitive parameter were found for the placebo group.

CONCLUSIONS

Six months of daily supplementation with at least 13 mg of MXans significantly reduces serum IL-1β, significantly increases serum MXans, BDNF, MPOD, and AOC, and improves several parameters of cognitive performance. Findings suggest that increased systemic antioxidant/anti-inflammatory capacity (and not necessarily deposition of the carotenoids in neural tissues), may explain many of the effects determined in this study. The significant relationship between change in BDNF and IL-1β over the course of the study suggests that regular consumption of MXans interrupts the inflammatory cascade that can lead to reduction of BDNF. Changes in MPOD and BDNF appear to account for enhancement in cognitive parameters that involve speed of processing and complex processing, respectively. ISRCTN Clinical Trial Registration: ISRCTN16156382.

Lutein across the Lifespan: From Childhood Cognitive Performance to the Aging Eye and Brain

Lutein is a non-provitamin A dietary carotenoid found in dark green leafy vegetables, corn, eggs, and avocados. Among the carotenoids, lutein and its isomer, zeaxanthin, are the only 2 that cross the blood-retina barrier to form macular pigment in the retina. Lutein also preferentially accumulates in the human brain across multiple life stages. A variety of scientific evidence supports a role for lutein in visual as well as cognitive function across the lifespan. The purpose of this review is to summarize the latest science on lutein's role in the eye and the brain across different ages.

Dietary Carotenoids Lutein and Zeaxanthin Change Brain Activation in Older Adult Participants: A Randomized, Double-Masked, Placebo-Controlled Trial

SCOPE

Steady-state visual evoked potentials (SSVEP) can be used to test the topological response of cortical neurons. Studies have shown that a lutein (L) preferentially accumulates within cortical tissue. L, zeaxanthin (Z), and their isomers can be measured directly in retina (macular pigment optical density, MPOD), and retinal L+Z correlate highly with L+Z levels in cortical visual processing areas. The purpose of this study was to determine the relation between MPOD and SSVEP signal power, cross-sectionally and after supplementation with L+Z.

METHODS AND RESULTS

SSVEP to three different driving frequencies of stimulation (5, 10, and 16.6 Hz) were obtained for community-dwelling older adults, at baseline and after 12 months of supplementation with either 12 mg L+Z or placebo. Power was quantified at the driving frequencies. Non-specific activation was quantified within the 10-15 Hz band. MPOD was measured psychophysically. Subjects with low MPOD had reduced power at 16.6 Hz and reduced non-specific activation, compared with subjects with high MPOD. Supplementation significantly improved signal power at 5 and 10 Hz.

CONCLUSION

Past research suggests that L+Z can improve visual memory, visual processing speeds, etc. One possible mechanism for that improvement may be improving signal-to-noise ratio throughout the vision system.

Lutein and zeaxanthin: The possible contribution, mechanisms of action and implications of modern dietary intake for cognitive development in children

Background:Studies suggest that lutein and zeaxanthin may be important for cognitive development in children, but a comprehensive evidence synthesis is lacking. The purpose of this evidence synthesis was to analyse the available data regarding the role of lutein and zeaxanthin for cognition in children and propose a theoretical basis for future studies.Methods:The PubMed, Scopus, the ISRCTN registry and Cochrane Library databases were searched for studies that evaluated the relationship between lutein and zeaxanthin and cognitive function in children. Reference list and ancestry searches were performed on relevant articles. A total of 543 articles were identified, of which six cross-sectional studies were included.Results:The literature search revealed that the evidence concerning the effect of lutein and zeaxanthin on cognition in children is sparse. However, there is some preliminary evidence indicating a positive association between lutein and zeaxanthin and cognition in childhood.Conclusions:The cross-sectional nature of the few studies available and the lack of RCT data indicates a need for further investigation before any firm conclusions can be drawn.

Association between Breastmilk LC PUFA, Carotenoids and Psychomotor Development of Exclusively Breastfed Infants

The first months of infant life are crucial for proper neurodevelopment, which may be influenced by several factors, including nutrition and nutrients (e.g., long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC PUFA) and carotenoids) of which the concentration in breastmilk is diet-dependent. This study analysed the relationship between the average concentrations of selected LC PUFA and carotenoids in breastmilk samples from the first and third months of lactation and the psychomotor development of exclusively breastfed infants at the sixth month of life. Infant psychomotor development was assessed using the Children Development Scale (DSR). The average age of infants during the assessment was 6.6 ± 0.2 months and 30.9 ± 3.8 years for mothers (n = 39 mother⁻infant pairs). The average concentration of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) was 0.50% of fatty acids. The average concentration of carotenoids was 33.3 nmol/L for β-carotene, 121 nmol/L for lycopene and 33.3 nmol/L for lutein + zeaxanthin. The total results of the Performance scale and Motor subscale were 39 centiles and 4.1 points, respectively. Adjusted multivariate regression models revealed associations between breastmilk DHA and motor development (β = 0.275; p ≤ 0.05), α-linolenic acid (ALA; β = 0.432; p ≤ 0.05), n-3 LC PUFA (β = 0.423; p ≤ 0.05) and β-carotene (β = 0.359; p ≤ 0.05). In addition, an association between the Perception subscale and DHA was observed (β = 0.316; p ≤ 0.05; model 2). There were no significant associations between the overall Performance scale scores. Due to the positive association between concentrations of n-3 LC PUFA (ALA and DHA) and β-carotene in breastmilk and infant motor development, it is important to provide these nutrients with breastmilk. According to the diet-dependent concentration of these compounds in breastmilk, breastfeeding mothers should have a diet abundant in dietary sources of these nutrients, e.g., fish, nuts, seeds, vegetable oils, vegetables and fruits.

Changing Form and Function through Carotenoids and Synthetic Biology

The diverse structures and multifaceted roles of carotenoids make these colorful pigments attractive targets for synthetic biology.