Caffeine and Cognitive Functions in Sports: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

The dose-dependent effect of caffeine supplementation on performance, reaction time and postural stability in CrossFit - a randomized placebo-controlled crossover trial

BACKGROUND

Caffeine (CAF) ingestion improves performance in a broad range of exercise tasks. Nevertheless, the CAF-induced, dose-dependent effect on discipline-specific performance and cognitive functions in CrossFit/High-Intensity Functional Training (HIFT) has not been sufficiently investigated. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of acute supplementation of three different doses of CAF and placebo (PLA) on specific performance, reaction time (RTime), postural stability (PStab), heart rate (HR) and perceived exertion (RPE).

METHODS

In a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled crossover design, acute pre-exercise supplementation with CAF (3, 6, or 9 mg/kg body mass (BM)) and PLA in 26 moderately trained CrossFit practitioners was examined. The study protocol involved five separate testing sessions using the Fight Gone Bad test (FGB) as the exercise performance evaluation and biochemical analyses, HR and RPE monitoring, as well as the assessment of RTime and PStab, with regard to CYP1A2 (rs762551) and ADORA2A (rs5751876) single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP).

RESULTS

Supplementation of 6 mgCAF/kgBM induced clinically noticeable improvements in FGBTotal results, RTime and pre-exercise motor time. Nevertheless, there were no significant differences between any CAF doses and PLA in FGBTotal, HRmax, HRmean, RPE, pre/post-exercise RTime, PStab variables or pyruvate concentrations. Lactate concentration was higher (p < 0.05) before and after exercise in all CAF doses than in PLA. There was no effect of CYP1A2 or ADORA2A SNPs on performance.

CONCLUSIONS

The dose-dependent effect of CAF supplementation appears to be limited to statistically nonsignificant but clinically considered changes on specific performance, RTime, PStab, RPE or HR. However, regarding practical CAF-induced performance implications in CrossFit/HIFT, 6 mgCAF/kgBM may be supposed as the most rational supplementation strategy.

Nutritional Strategies for Optimizing Health, Sports Performance, and Recovery for Female Athletes and Other Physically Active Women: A Systematic Review

CONTEXT

Despite the progress toward gender equality in events like the Olympic Games and other institutionalized competitions, and the rising number of women engaging in physical exercise programs, scientific studies focused on establishing specific nutritional recommendations for female athletes and other physically active women are scarce.

OBJECTIVE

This systematic review aimed to compile the scientific evidence available for addressing the question "What dietary strategies, including dietary and supplementation approaches, can improve sports performance, recovery, and health status in female athletes and other physically active women?"

DATA SOURCES

The Pubmed, Web of Science, and Scopus databases were searched.

DATA EXTRACTION

The review process involved a comprehensive search strategy using keywords connected by Boolean connectors. Data extracted from the selected studies included information on the number of participants and their characteristics related to sport practice, age, and menstrual function.

DATA ANALYSIS

A total of 71 studies were included in this review: 17 focused on the analysis of dietary manipulation, and 54 focused on the effects of dietary supplementation. The total sample size was 1654 participants (32.5% categorized as competitive athletes, 30.7% as highly/moderately trained, and 37.2% as physically active/recreational athletes). The risk of bias was considered moderate, mainly for reasons such as a lack of access to the study protocol, insufficient description of how the hormonal phase during the menstrual cycle was controlled for, inadequate dietary control during the intervention, or a lack of blinding of the researchers.

CONCLUSION

Diets with high carbohydrate (CHO) content enhance performance in activities that induce muscle glycogen depletion. In addition, pre-exercise meals with a high glycemic index or rich in CHOs increase CHO metabolism. Ingestion of 5-6 protein meals interspersed throughout the day, with each intake exceeding 25 g of protein favors anabolism of muscle proteins. Dietary supplements taken to enhance performance, such as caffeine, nitric oxide precursors, β-alanine, and certain sport foods supplements (such as CHOs, proteins, or their combination, and micronutrients in cases of nutritional deficiencies), may positively influence sports performance and/or the health status of female athletes and other physically active women.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

PROSPERO registration no. CRD480674.

Effects of Different Caffeine Dosages on Maximal Physical Performance and Potential Side Effects in Low-Consumer Female Athletes: Morning vs. Evening Administration

While previous studies have explored a range of factors governing the optimal use of caffeine (CAF) in athletes, limited research has explored how time of day (TOD) affects the ergogenic effects of various CAF dosages on physical performance. This study aimed to increase knowledge about how different recommended CAF doses (3 mg/kg vs. 6 mg/kg) ingested at different TODs affected maximal high-intensity physical performance and the perception of potential side effects in female athletes. In this double-blind, randomized, and counterbalanced study, 15 low CAF consumer athletes (aged 18.3 ± 0.5 y) underwent six trials, including three testing conditions assessed across two TODs: one in the morning (08:00 a.m.) and one in the evening (06:00 p.m.). During each condition, the participants ingested either a placebo, 3 mg/kg CAF (CAF (3 mg)), or 6 mg/kg CAF (CAF (6 mg)) capsules 60 min before each test with an in-between washout period of at least 72 h. In each trial, the participants performed a countermovement jumps test (CMJ), a modified agility t test (MATT), a repeated sprint ability (RSA), a rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and finally, a CAF side effects questionnaire. Our findings indicate the absence of an ergogenic effect on CMJ, MAT, and RSA performance in the evening after administering CAF (3 mg) or CAF (6 mg) compared to a placebo. Likewise, when CAF was ingested in the morning, there was an improvement in these performances with both CAF (3 mg) and CAF (6 mg), with greater improvement observed after CAF (6 mg). Additionally, neither the CAF dosage nor the TOD had a significant effect on the RPE. The occurrence of side effects increased significantly after the evening ingestion of CAF, particularly with a moderate dose of CAF (6 mg). Our findings indicate that the effectiveness of CAF depends on the TOD and CAF dosage. When ingested in the morning, a moderate dose of CAF (6 mg), rather than CAF (3 mg), is more effective in improving short-term physical performance without affecting CAF side effects in female athletes. Nevertheless, when ingested in the evening, neither dose was sufficient to enhance short-term physical performance, and both dosages increased the incidence of CAF side effects, particularly at a moderate dose.

Caffeine improves the shooting performance and reaction time of first-person shooter esports players: a dose-response study

Caffeine is recognized as one of the most effective dietary ergogenic aids in sports, yet its evidence-based effectiveness in esports is unclear. This study investigated the effects of two different doses of caffeine on the shooting performance and reaction time of 24 first-person shooter (FPS) esports players (22 men, 2 women; age = 22.29 ± 2.91 years). Participants completed three experimental trials in which they consumed either a water control (CON), a 1 mg·kg-1 BM (CAF1) or a 3 mg·kg-1 BM (CAF3) dose of caffeine. Performance measures (e.g., score, accuracy (%), hit rate (hits/sec), and shots fired) were assessed in a static clicking and reactive tracking style task on the KovaaK's FPS aim trainer. Reaction time was used to assess vigilance on the psychomotor vigilance test (PVT). Performance was measured at four time points in each trial: pre-treatment (PRE), 60 min (POST1), 80 min (POST2), and 100 min (POST3) post-treatment. Significant differences were identified using repeated-measures analysis of variances. Caffeine, irrespective of dose, significantly improved performance compared to CON for static clicking score and hit rate, reactive tracking accuracy, and reaction time on the PVT. Significant interactions between treatment and time were identified and post hoc analyses showed that compared to CON, CAF1 significantly improved static clicking score at POST1 and POST3, static clicking hit rate at POST1, reactive tracking accuracy at POST1, POST2, and POST3, and reaction time on the PVT at POST1 and POST2. Post hoc analysis also showed that compared to CON, CAF3 significantly improved static clicking score, reactive tracking accuracy, and reaction time on the PVT at all time points, in addition to static clicking hit rate at POST1 and POST3. In summary, caffeine supplementation enhances the shooting performance and reaction time of FPS esports players.

Can caffeine improve your performance? Psychophysiological effects - A systematic review

Introduction

Caffeine is a widely used ergogenic aid in society, which has made it a topic of interest due to its various benefits at cognitive, physiological, and sports levels, among others. This review aims to investigate the potential benefits of caffeine supplementation in psychophysiological performance through a structured search in the SportsDiscus/Scopus/MEDLINE and Web of Science databases (October 2022). This review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guideline, and the inclusion criteria were defined based on the PICOS model. Double-blind, randomized/semi-randomized crossover articles comparing caffeine intake with an identical placebo condition were included. Filters by age or gender of the participants were not applied. The initial search gave a result of 201 articles, which after eliminating duplicates and applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, the final sample for this review was 8 studies. The review concluded that 3 (37.5 %) found favorable ergogenic effects, 4 (50 %) found partial effects, and 1 (12.5 %) found no effects of caffeine supplementation on variables related to psychophysiological performance. In general, both partial and negative results could be linked to insufficient doses to produce any change, likewise, habitual caffeine consumption is also a variable that could be attenuating its potential ergogenic effect. In conclusion, moderate doses of caffeine 3-6 mg/kg seem to be an effective strategy to improve the psychophysiological response in various contexts without generating detrimental effects on performance, as long as the intervention designs consider the variables that could condition its effect.

Caffeine supplementation improves the cognitive abilities and shooting performance of elite e-sports players: a crossover trial

We explored the effect of 3 mg/kg of caffeine supplementation on the cognitive ability and shooting performance of elite e-sports players. Nine e-sports players who had received professional training in e-sports and had won at least eighth place in national-level e-sports shooting competitions. After performing three to five familiarization tests, we employed a single blind, randomized crossover design to divide participants into caffeine trial (CAF) and placebo trial (PL). The CAF trial took capsules with 3 mg/kg of caffeine, whereas the PL trial took a placebo capsule. After a one-hour rest, the Stroop task, the visual search ability test, and the shooting ability test were conducted. The CAF trial's performance in the Stroop task in terms of congruent condition (P = 0.023) and visual search reaction time with 20 items (P = 0.004) was significantly superior to those of the PL trial. In the shooting test, the CAF trial's kill ratio (P = 0.020) and hit accuracy (P = 0.008) were significantly higher, and the average time to target (P = 0.001) was significantly shorter than those of the PL trial. Caffeine supplementation significantly improves e-sports players' reaction times and shooting performance.

Diagnostic Ultrasound-Based Investigation of Central vs. Peripheral Arterial Changes Consequent to Low-Dose Caffeine Ingestion

Caffeine is present in various foods and medicines and is highly accessible through various routes, regardless of age. However, most studies on caffeine have focused on the effects of high-dose caffeine ingestion based on the recommended daily amount for adults. In this study, we examined the physiological changes in the central and peripheral vessels that may occur when ingesting low-dose caffeine due to its high accessibility, with the aim of creating an environment of safe caffeine ingestion. This study included 26 healthy participants in their 20s. Peak systolic velocity (PSV), heart rate (HR), and pulse wave velocity (PWV) for vascular stiffness assessment were measured at 0, 30, and 60 min after caffeine ingestion using diagnostic ultrasound to determine the physiological changes in the blood vessels, common carotid artery (CCA) and radial artery (RA). In addition, percutaneous oxygen saturation (SpO2), blood pressure (BP), and accelerated photoplethysmography (APG) were measured. In comparison with before ingestion, the HR tended to decrease and showed a significant difference at 30 and 60 min (p = 0.014 and p = 0.031, respectively). PSV significantly decreased in both vessels at 30 and 60 min (p < 0.001 and p < 0.001, respectively). APG showed a decreasing trend until 60 min after ingestion, with a significant difference at 30 and 60 min (p = 0.003 and p = 0.012, respectively). No significant difference was observed in SpO2, BP, or PWV; however, they showed a tendency to increase after ingestion. Decreased HR may occur because of the baroreflex caused by an increase in BP. The RA has many branches and a smaller diameter; therefore, the PSV was lower in the RA than that in the CCA. This effect can occur because of the difficulty in the smooth expansion of blood vessels, which leads to a decrease in blood flow. In addition, an increase in intracellular calcium concentration can prevent vasodilation and increase the propagation velocity of pulse waves. The reflected waves can increase systolic blood pressure but reduce PWV and vascular elasticity. These results suggest that even low-dose caffeine can improve blood vessel health by providing temporary stimulation to the blood vessels; however, it can also cause changes in blood flow and blood vessel elasticity, which can lead to serious diseases such as stroke and high blood pressure. Therefore, caution should be exercised when caffeine consumption is indiscriminate.

Acute Effects of Naturally Occurring Guayusa Tea and Nordic Lion's Mane Extracts on Cognitive Performance

The aim of this study was to assess the effects of guayusa extract and Nordic Lion's Mane (LM) on cognition. Using a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover design, we examined the effects of a single dose of 650 mg guayusa extract (AMT: AmaTea® Max) vs. 1 g Nordic-grown Lion's Mane (LM) vs. placebo (PL). Participants attended three testing visits consisting of neuropsychological tests (Go/No-go, N-Back, and Serial 7 s tasks) assessing performance, subjective assessments of cognitive perception, and vital signs. Each assessment was measured at baseline (pre-ingestion) and 1 and 2 h post ingestion. AMT significantly (p ≤ 0.05) improved the number of attempts during Serial 7s, total score, number of correct responses, total number of responses, and reaction time during N-Back and improved Go stimulus reaction time, but it reduced the percentage of correct responses in the No-go stimulus response during Go/No-go. LM significantly (p ≤ 0.05) improved the number of attempts during Serial 7s and reaction time during N-Back and improved Go stimulus reaction time in Go/No-go. AMT improved mental clarity, focus, concentration, mood, and productivity at 1 and 2 h (p < 0.05); the ability to tolerate stress at 1 h; and had greater ratings than LM and PL for mental clarity, focus, concentration, and productivity. PL improved focus and concentration at 1 h from baseline (p ≤ 0.05). AMT and LM improved subjective ratings of "happiness compared to peers" and "getting the most out of everything" (p < 0.05); however, this occurred earlier in LM (i.e., 1 h post ingestion). AMT uniquely elevated blood pressure from baseline. AMT significantly improved cognitive performance and self-perceived cognitive indices of affect over a 2 h period and perceptions of happiness 2 h post ingestion. In comparison, LM helped improve working memory, complex attention, and reaction time 2 h post ingestion and perceptions of happiness over a 2 h period.

Effects of caffeine consumption combined with listening to music during warm-up on taekwondo physical performance, perceived exertion and psychological aspects

The effects of caffeine (CAF) and music have been well documented when used separately, but their combined effects are not yet studied. Thus, the present study assessed the acute effects of combining a low dose of CAF with listening to music during warm-up on taekwondo physical performance, perceived exertion (RPE), and psychological responses during taekwondo-specific tasks in male elite athletes. In a double-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled crossover study design, male taekwondo athletes (n = 16; age: 18.25 ± 0.75 years) performed the taekwondo-specific agility test (TSAT), 10 s frequency speed of kick test (FSKT-10s) and the multiple version of FSKT (FSKT-mult) under the following conditions: 1) CAF without music (CAF+NoM), 2) placebo (PL) without music (PL+NoM), 3) CAF with music (CAF+M), 4) PL with music (PL+M), 5) no supplement with music (NoS+M) and no supplement without music (control). RPE, feeling scale (FS), felt arousal scale (FAS) and physical enjoyment (PACES) were determined after each test. Findings showed the CAF+M condition induced better performances than other conditions for TSAT, FSKT-10s, FSKT-mult, RPE, FAS and FS and PACES post FSKT-10s (all p<0.05). Moreover, CAF+M resulted in better responses than other conditions for PACES post TSAT (p<0.05) with the exception of CAF+NoM. Likewise, CAF+M condition induced better physical enjoyment than PL+NoM, NoS+M and PL+M conditions post FSKT-mult (p<0.05). Combining low dose of CAF with music during warm-up was an effective strategy that induced greater effects than their isolated use during taekwondo specific tasks.

Effects of Caffeine on Main Symptoms in Children with ADHD: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Trials

(1) Background: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is typically treated with stimulant medications, which may lead to several adverse effects. Recent animal studies have shown that caffeine can improve the symptoms of ADHD. This systematic review and meta-analysis sought to evaluate the effect of caffeine on ADHD symptoms in children. (2) Methods: PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane databases were searched for randomized controlled trials comparing caffeine with placebo in children, comparing overall symptoms of ADHD, inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. (3) Results: We included seven RCTs in the systematic review for qualitative assessment, with 104 patients aged 5 to 15 years. Four of these studies (n = 76) were included in the meta-analysis. After qualitative analysis, four studies indicated no improvement in any of the ADHD symptoms compared with placebo. One study showed improvement in ADHD symptoms based on 1 of 5 scales applied. One study indicated significant improvement in general symptoms, inattention, and hyperactivity. One study indicated improvement in sustained attention but a worsening of impulsivity. In contrast, when using a quantitative analysis of the general symptoms of ADHD, the data showed no significant difference when comparing placebo with caffeine (standardized mean difference -0.12; 95% CI -0.44 to 0.20; p = 0.45; I2 = 0%). (4) Conclusion: overall, the totality of the evidence suggests no significant benefit of caffeine over placebo in the treatment of children with ADHD.

Effects of Acute Caffeine Ingestion on Cognitive Performance before and after Repeated Small-Sided Games in Professional Soccer Players: A Placebo-Controlled, Randomized Crossover Trial

Soccer is a team sport that requires players to process a significant amount of information quickly and respond with both speed and accuracy to the ever-changing demands of the game. As such, success in soccer depends not only on physical attributes but also on cognitive abilities such as perception and decision-making. The aim of the current study was to investigate the acute effects of caffeine ingestion on Stroop test performance before and after repeated small-sided games (SSG) in professional soccer players. Twelve professional male soccer players (29 ± 4.1 years; 78.1 ± 7.7 kg body mass) participated in this study. A randomized crossover double-blind placebo-controlled trial was used. Caffeine (5 mg.kg^-1) or a placebo was ingested 45 min before a protocol consisting of five 5 min SSG with 1 min rest intervals. A computerized version of the colour Stroop test was completed immediately before and after the exercise protocol. During the Stroop test, words appeared on the computer screen in three different ways: (i) neutral words (neutral condition); (ii) correspondent colour (i.e., "red" painted in red; congruent condition), or; (iii) different colour (i.e., "red" painted in green; incongruent condition). The incongruent condition aimed to cause the interference effect, as the colour and the word did not match. Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were assessed after each SSG. RPE increased during the five sets of the SSG protocol (p < 0.001), without differences between the caffeine and placebo trials. The soccer-specific exercise protocol promoted a faster response during the Stroop test (two-way ANOVA main effect for SSG protocol: p < 0.05), with no differences in accuracy (p > 0.05). Caffeine ingestion resulted in slower reaction time during the Stroop test during the congruent and neutral trials but not during the incongruent trial (two-way ANOVA main effect for supplementation: p = 0.009, p = 0.045, and p = 0.071, respectively). Accuracy was lower in the caffeine trial in congruent and incongruent trials (p < 0.05 caffeine vs. placebo both on the pre- and post-SSG protocol). In conclusion, a soccer-specific exercise protocol improved the Stroop test performance in professional soccer players, but acute caffeine ingestion (5 mg.kg^-1) was detrimental.

Not Another Caffeine Effect on Sports Performance Study-Nothing New or More to Do?

The performance-enhancing potential of acute caffeine consumption is firmly established with benefits for many aspects of physical performance and cognitive function summarised in a number of meta-analyses. Despite this, there remains near exponential growth in research articles examining the ergogenic effects of caffeine. Many such studies are confirmatory of well-established ideas, and with a wealth of convincing evidence available, the value of further investigation may be questioned. However, several important knowledge gaps remain. As such, the purpose of this review is to summarise key knowledge gaps regarding the current understanding of the performance-enhancing effect of caffeine and justify their value for future investigation. The review will provide a particular focus on ten research priorities that will aid in the translation of caffeine's ergogenic potential to real-world sporting scenarios. The discussion presented here is therefore essential in guiding the design of future work that will aid in progressing the current understanding of the effects of caffeine as a performance enhancer.

Stimulant abuse as a coping strategy-Forensic and criminal consequences of stimulant abuse for neuroenhancement

Pharmacological neuroenhancement (PN) describes the use of divergent psychoactive substances to enhance mental performance (cognition) without medical need. This kind of substance abuse takes place predominantly in stressful situations. Users implicitly-or even explicitly-describe this kind of drug abuse to be a coping strategy. Regarding the decision making process whether to use PN drugs or not, users indicate that legal aspects to be decisive. However, the legal situation has been neglected so far. To elucidate the German legal situation, PN substances have to be divided into over-the-counter drugs, prescription drugs and illegal drugs. Amphetamines have the highest cognition-enhancing potential, followed by modafinil and caffeine-containing substances. It is pointed out that the use of both freely available and prescription PN substances and narcotics without medical indication have so far been largely exempt from punishment under German law. However, individuals (physicians, bus and truck drivers, etc.) taking PN substances may expose others at risk due to wrong decisions (driving or treatment), errors based on side effects of the used substances. Therefore, the protection of life and health of others could legitimize criminal regulation.

The Effects of Blackcurrant and Caffeine Combinations on Performance and Physiology During Repeated High-Intensity Cycling

Blackcurrant juices and extracts containing anthocyanin may provide ergogenic benefits to sports performance. However, there are no studies examining the effects of coingestion of blackcurrant and caffeine. This investigation examined the effects of acute supplementation with a proprietary blackcurrant beverage administered in isolation or in combination with caffeine on repeated high-intensity cycling. Twelve well-trained male cyclists (mean ± SD: age, 39.5 ± 11.4 years; height, 177.9 ± 5.7 cm; weight, 78.2 ± 8.9 kg; and peak oxygen consumption, 4.71 ± 0.61 L/min) completed experimental sessions consisting of repeated (8 × 5 min) maximal intensity efforts. Four experimental treatments were administered in a double-blind, balanced Latin square design: blackcurrant + caffeine, blackcurrant + placebo, caffeine + placebo and placebo + placebo. Differences in power output, heart rate, oxygen consumption, muscle oxygen saturation, rate of perceived exertion, and cognitive function (Stroop) were compared between treatments using two-way repeated-measures analysis of variance and effect size analysis. There were no significant differences (p > .05) in either physiological or cognitive variables with any supplement treatment (blackcurrant + caffeine, blackcurrant + placebo, and caffeine + placebo) relative to placebo + placebo. Moreover, any observed differences were deemed trivial (d < 0.2) in magnitude. However, power output was lower (p < .05) in blackcurrant + placebo compared with blackcurrant + caffeine. A blackcurrant extract beverage administered in isolation or combination with caffeine provided no beneficial effect on cycling performance or physiological measures relative to a placebo control.

Can the Brazilian Caffeine Expectancy Questionnaires Differentiate the CYP1A2 and ADORA2A Gene Polymorphisms?-An Exploratory Study with Brazilian Athletes

This study investigated the ability of the Brazilian Caffeine Expectancy Questionnaire (CaffEQ-BR), full and brief versions, to differentiate genetic profiles regarding the polymorphisms of the CYP1A2 (rs 762551) and ADORA2A (rs 5751876) genes in a cohort of Brazilian athletes. One-hundred and fifty participants were genotyped for CYP1A2 and ADORA2A. After the recruitment and selection phase, 71 (90% male and 10% female, regular caffeine consumers) completed the CaffEQ-BR questionnaires and a self-report online questionnaire concerning sociodemographic data, general health status, and frequency of caffeine consumption. The order of completion of the CaffEQ-BR questionnaires was counterbalanced. The concordance between the full and brief versions of the CaffEQ-BR was analyzed using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). To determine the discriminatory capacity of the questionnaires for genotype, the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was applied for sensitivity and specificity (significance level of 5%). Mean caffeine intake was 244 ± 161 mg·day−1. The frequency of AA genotypes for CYP1A2 was 47.9% (n = 34) and 52.1% (n = 37) for C-allele carriers (AC and CC). The frequencies of TT genotypes for ADORA2A were 22.7% (n = 15) and 77.3% (n = 51) for C-allele carriers (TC and CC). All CaffEQ-BR factors, for the full and brief versions, were ICCs > 0.75, except for factor 6 (anxiety/negative effects; ICC = 0.60), and presented ROC curve values from 0.464 to 0.624 and 0.443 to 0.575 for CYP1A2 and ADORA2A. Overall, the CaffEQ-BR (full and brief versions) did not show discriminatory capacity for CYP1A2 and ADORA2A gene polymorphisms. In conclusion, the CaffEQ-BR was not able to differentiate genotypes for the CYP1A2 or ADORA2A genes in this group of Brazilian athletes.

The therapeutic potential of exercise and caffeine on attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in athletes

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is characterized by evident and persistent inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity, and social difficulties and is the most common childhood neuropsychiatric disorder, and which may persist into adulthood. Seventy to 80% of children and adults with ADHD are treated with stimulant medication, with positive response rates occurring for both populations. Medicated ADHD individuals generally show sustained and improved attention, inhibition control, cognitive flexibility, on-task behavior, and cognitive performance. The ethics of ADHD medication use in athletics has been a debated topic in sport performance for a long time. Stimulants are banned from competition in accordance with World Anti-Doping Association and National Collegiate Athletic Association regulations, due to their ability to not only enhance cognitive performance but also exercise performance. Limited research has been conducted looking at the differences in exercise performance variables in unmedicated ADHD verses medicated ADHD. Not all ADHD athletes choose stimulant medication in their treatment plan due to personal, financial, or other reasons. Non-stimulant treatment options include non-stimulant medication and behavioral therapy. However, the use of caffeinated compounds and exercise has both independently been shown to be effective in the management of ADHD symptoms in human studies and animal models. This mini review will discuss the effect of exercise and caffeine on neurobehavioral, cognitive, and neurophysiological factors, and exercise performance in ADHD athletes, and whether exercise and caffeine should be considered in the treatment plan for an individual with ADHD.

Nutritional Ergogenic Aids in Combat Sports: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Nutritional ergogenic aids (NEAs) are substances included within the group of sports supplements. Although they are widely consumed by athletes, evidence-based analysis is required to support training outcomes or competitive performance in specific disciplines. Combat sports have a predominant use of anaerobic metabolism as a source of energy, reaching peak exertion or sustained effort for very short periods of time. In this context, the use of certain NEAs could help athletes to improve their performance in those specific combat skills (i.e., the number of attacks, throws and hits; jump height; and grip strength, among others) as well as in general physical aspects (time to exhaustion [TTE], power, fatigue perception, heart rate, use of anaerobic metabolism, etc.). Medline/PubMed, Scopus and EBSCO were searched from their inception to May 2022 for randomised controlled trials (RCTs). Out of 677 articles found, 55 met the predefined inclusion criteria. Among all the studied NEAs, caffeine (5–10 mg/kg) showed strong evidence for its use in combat sports to enhance the use of glycolytic pathways for energy production during high-intensity actions due to a greater production of and tolerance to blood lactate levels. In this regard, abilities including the number of attacks, reaction time, handgrip strength, power and TTE, among others, were improved. Buffering supplements such as sodium bicarbonate, sodium citrate and beta-alanine may have a promising role in high and intermittent exertion during combat, but more studies are needed in grappling combat sports to confirm their efficacy during sustained isometric exertion. Other NEAs, including creatine, beetroot juice or glycerol, need further investigation to strengthen the evidence for performance enhancement in combat sports. Caffeine is the only NEA that has shown strong evidence for performance enhancement in combat sports.

Can caffeine supplementation reverse the impact of time of day on cognitive and short-term high intensity performances in young female handball players?

ABBREVIATIONS

CAF: Caffeine PLC: Placebo SRT: Simple Reaction Time AT: Attention Test SJ: Squat Jump IAT: Illinois Agility Test OT: Oral Temperature QUEST: Questionnaire RPE: Rating of Perceived Exertion PD: Peak Distance TD: Total Distance.

Acute Effect of a Dietary Multi-Ingredient Nootropic as a Cognitive Enhancer in Young Healthy Adults: A Randomized, Triple-Blinded, Placebo-Controlled, Crossover Trial

Aim

To study the acute effect of a dietary multi-ingredient nootropic on cognitive performance in young healthy adults. We also analyzed the influence of the dietary multi-ingredient nootropic on emotional state, heart rate (HR), and heart rate variability (HRV).

Methods

This is a randomized, triple-blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover trial. In total, 26 young healthy adults (50% women; 24.9 ± 3.3 years old) ingested 10 g of a dietary multi-ingredient nootropic [Evo-Gamers^®; Harrison Sport Nutrition (HSN), Granada, Spain] or placebo (maltodextrin) in a randomized order (clinicaltrials.gov No. NCT04790188). After 30 min of the ingestion, participants performed a battery of cognitive performance tests to measure the processing speed, inhibitory control, working memory, cognitive flexibility, creativity, and verbal fluency. The emotional status was assessed through questionnaires, and HR and HRV were measured using a heart rate monitor.

Results

In comparison with placebo, the acute ingestion of the nootropic showed a significantly better response time in several cognitive tests (i.e., processing speed, inhibitory control, spatial working memory, and cognitive flexibility, all P < 0.05 and effect size range of 0.4–0.6). It also displayed a higher accuracy in the processing speed, the inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility tests (all P < 0.05; effect size ranged from 0.4 to 0.6). Furthermore, the nootropic showed a higher creativity and positive emotions and lower sadness-depression emotions, whereas HR and HRV remained similar between placebo vs. nootropic conditions. However, there were no differences between the nootropic and placebo in verbal fluency, motivation, or anxiety (all P > 0.05).

Conclusion

An acute ingestion of a dietary multi-ingredient nootropic enhances cognitive performance in comparison with placebo without negatively influencing HR or HRV in young healthy adults.

The Effect of Acute Caffeine Ingestion on Tactical Performance of Professional Soccer Players

In soccer, physical, tactical, and decision-making processes are highly important facets of successful performance. Caffeine has well established effects for promoting both physical and cognitive performance, but the translation of such benefits specifically for soccer match play is not well established. This study examined the effects of acute caffeine ingestion on tactical performance during small-sided games (SSG) in professional soccer players. Nineteen soccer players (22 ± 4 years) underwent a randomized, counterbalanced, crossover, double-blind placebo-controlled trial. The protocol consisted of 5 bouts of 5-min SSG with 3 players plus a goalkeeper in each team (3 + GK × 3 + GK) with each SSG separated by 1 min rest intervals. Tactical performance was assessed using the system of tactical assessment in soccer (FUT-SAT). Prior to each experimental trial, participants ingested caffeine (5 mg·kg⁻¹) or a placebo 60 min before the protocol. Overall, caffeine ingestion resulted in an increased ball possession time when compared to the placebo. When the offensive and defensive core principles were analyzed, the results were equivocal. Caffeine resulted in positive effects on some tactical decisions during the protocol, but it was deleterious or promoted no observed effect on other of the core tactical principles. Caffeine ingestion resulted in less offensive (during SSG3) and defensive (SSG 2, SSG3, and SSG4) errors. Caffeine ingestion also resulted in higher total offensive success during SSG 1 and SSG2, but it was detrimental during SSG3. Additionally, total defensive success was lower for the caffeine conditions during SSG 2 and SSG5 when compared to the placebo. In conclusion, caffeine influenced aspects of tactical decisions in soccer, resulting in fewer offensive and defensive errors, although it may be deleterious considering other tactical parameters. Future studies may clarify the effects of caffeine ingestion on specific decision-making parameters in soccer.

Acute effects of beetroot juice and caffeine co-ingestion during a team-sport-specific intermittent exercise test in semi-professional soccer players: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study

BACKGROUND

Beetroot juice (BJ) and caffeine (CAF) are considered as ergogenic aids among athletes to enhance performance, however, the ergogenic effects of BJ and CAF co-ingestion are unclear during team-sport-specific performance. This study aimed to investigate the acute effects of BJ and CAF co-ingestion on team-sport-specific performance, compared with placebo (PL), BJ, and CAF alone.

METHOD

Sixteen semi-professional male soccer players (age: 19.8 ± 2.2 years, body mass: 69.2 ± 6.1 kg, height: 177.3 ± 6.0 cm) completed four experimental trials using a randomized, double-blind study design: BJ + CAF, CAF + PL, BJ + PL, and PL + PL. Countermovement jump with arm swing (CMJAS) performance and cognitive function by Stroop Word-Color test were evaluated before and after the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test level 1 (YYIR1). Also, rate of perceived exertion (RPE), heart rate, and gastrointestinal (GI) discomfort were measured during each session.

RESULTS

No significant differences were shown between test conditions for total distance covered in YYIR1 (BJ + CAF: 1858 ± 455 m, CAF + PL: 1798 ± 422 m, BJ + PL: 1845 ± 408 m, PL + PL 1740 ± 362 m; p = 0.55). Moreover, CMJAS performance, cognitive function, and RPE during the YYIR1 were not significantly different among conditions (p > 0.05). However, the average heart rate during the YYIR1 was higher in CAF + PL compared to PL + PL (by 6 ± 9 beats/min; p < 0.05), and GI distress was greater in BJ + CAF compared to PL + PL (by 2.4 ± 3.6 a.u.; p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

These results suggest, neither acute co-ingestion of BJ + CAF nor BJ or CAF supplementation alone significantly affected team-sport-specific performance compared to the PL treatment.

Mental Fatigue and Basketball Performance: A Systematic Review

Mental fatigue (MF) is a psycho-biological state that impairs sports-related performances. Recently, it has been proved that MF can affect basketball performance. However, a systematic overview detailing the influences of MF on basketball performance is still lacking. This study aims to investigate the effects of MF on the physical, technical, tactical, and cognitive performance of basketball. We used the databases of PubMed, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, Scopes, and CKNI for articles published up to 31 May 2021. The articles included in this study were projected to test whether MF influences basketball athlete performance. Only experimental design studies were selected, and the control condition was without MF. Finally, seven articles fit the inclusion criteria. The results imply that MF impairs the technical aspects of basketball (free throws, three-point shots, and total turnover) and the players' cognitive [take-the-first (TTF) heuristics and decision-making] performance, which results in athletes not using their techniques skillfully and being unable to make practical decisions during critical points in the game. In addition to that, the influences of MF on physical and tactical performance have not been studied. Further studies should look into comprehensive research on the influences of MF on basketball performance, especially on a player's physical and tactical performance.

Systematic Review Registration: [https://inplasy.com/] [INPLASY2021100017].

Can Nutrients and Dietary Supplements Potentially Improve Cognitive Performance Also in Esports?

Factors influencing brain function and cognitive performance can be critical to athletic performance of esports athletes. This review aims to discuss the potential beneficial effects of micronutrients, i.e., vitamins, minerals and biologically active substances on cognitive functions of e-athletes. Minerals (iodine, zinc, iron, magnesium) and vitamins (B vitamins, vitamins E, D, and C) are significant factors that positively influence cognitive functions. Prevention of deficiencies of the listed ingredients and regular examinations can support cognitive processes. The beneficial effects of caffeine, creatine, and probiotics have been documented so far. There are many plant products, herbal extracts, or phytonutrients that have been shown to affect precognitive activity, but more research is needed. Beetroot juice and nootropics can also be essential nutrients for cognitive performance. For the sake of players’ eyesight, it would be useful to use lutein, which, in addition to improving vision and protecting against eye diseases, can also affect cognitive functions. In supporting the physical and mental abilities of e-athletes the base is a well-balanced diet with adequate hydration. There is a lack of sufficient evidence that has investigated the relationship between dietary effects and improved performance in esports. Therefore, there is a need for randomized controlled trials involving esports players.

Mental Performance and Sport: Caffeine and Co-consumed Bioactive Ingredients

The plant defence compound caffeine is widely consumed as a performance enhancer in a sporting context, with potential benefits expected in both physiological and psychological terms. However, although caffeine modestly but consistently improves alertness and fatigue, its effects on mental performance are largely restricted to improved attention or concentration. It has no consistent effect within other cognitive domains that are important to sporting performance, including working memory, executive function and long-term memory. Although caffeine's central nervous system effects are often attributed to blockade of the receptors for the inhibitory neuromodulator adenosine, it also inhibits a number of enzymes involved both in neurotransmission and in cellular homeostasis and signal propagation. Furthermore, it modulates the pharmacokinetics of other endogenous and exogenous bioactive molecules, in part via interactions with shared cytochrome P450 enzymes. Caffeine therefore enjoys interactive relationships with a wide range of bioactive medicinal and dietary compounds, potentially broadening, increasing, decreasing, or modulating the time course of their functional effects, or vice versa. This narrative review explores the mechanisms of action and efficacy of caffeine and the potential for combinations of caffeine and other dietary compounds to exert psychological effects in excess of those expected following caffeine alone. The review focusses on, and indeed restricted its untargeted search to, the most commonly consumed sources of caffeine: products derived from caffeine-synthesising plants that give us tea (Camellia sinensis), coffee (Coffea genus), cocoa (Theabroma cacao) and guaraná (Paullinia cupana), plus multi-component energy drinks and shots. This literature suggests relevant benefits to mental performance that exceed those associated with caffeine for multi-ingredient energy drinks/shots and several low-caffeine extracts, including high-flavanol cocoa and guarana. However, there is a general lack of research conducted in such a way as to disentangle the relative contributions of the component parts of these products.

Effects of carbohydrate and caffeine mouth rinsing on strength, muscular endurance and cognitive performance

Background

Carbohydrate (CHO) and caffeine (CAF) mouth rinsing have been shown to enhance endurance and sprint performance. However, the effects of CHO and CAF mouth rinsing on muscular and cognitive performance in comparison between male and female athletes are less well-established. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of CHO and CAF rinsing on squat and bench press 1 repetition maximum (1-RM) strength, 3 sets of 40% of 1-RM muscular endurance and cognitive performance in both male and female athletes.

Methods

Thirteen male and fourteen female resistance-trained participants completed four testing sessions following the rinsing of 25 ml of i) 6% of CHO (1.5 g); ii) 2% CAF (500 mg), iii) combined CHO and CAF (CHOCAF) solutions or iv) water (PLA) for 10 s. Heart rate (HR), felt arousal (FA), ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and glucose (GLU) were recorded throughout the test protocol.

Results

There were no significant differences in squat and bench press 1-RM, HR, RPE and GLU (p > 0.05) for males and females, respectively. FA was significantly increased with CAF (p = 0.04, p = 0.01) and CHOCAF (p = 0.03, p = 0.01) condition in both males and females, respectively. Squat endurance performance in the first set was significantly increased with CHOCAF condition compared to PLA in both males (p = 0.01) and females (p = 0.02). Bench press endurance was similar for all conditions in both genders (p > 0.05). Cognitive performance was significantly increased with CHOCAF compared to PLA in males (p = 0.03) and females (p = 0.02).

Conclusion

Combined CHO and CAF mouth rinsing significantly improved lower body muscular endurance and cognitive performance in both males and females.

Caffeinated Drinks and Physical Performance in Sport: A Systematic Review

Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine) is one of the most common substances used by athletes to enhance their performance during competition. Evidence suggests that the performance-enhancing properties of caffeine can be obtained by employing several forms of administration, namely, capsules/tablets, caffeinated drinks (energy drinks and sports drinks), beverages (coffee), and chewing gum. However, caffeinated drinks have become the main form of caffeine administration in sport due to the wide presence of these products in the market. The objective of this systematic review is to evaluate the different effects of caffeinated drinks on physical performance in various sports categories such as endurance, power-based sports, team sports, and skill-based sports. A systematic review of published studies was performed on scientific databases for studies published from 2000 to 2020. All studies included had blinded and cross-over experimental designs, in which the ingestion of a caffeinated drink was compared to a placebo/control trial. The total number of studies included in this review was 37. The analysis of the included studies revealed that both sports drinks with caffeine and energy drinks were effective in increasing several aspects of sports performance when the amount of drink provides at least 3 mg of caffeine per kg of body mass. Due to their composition, caffeinated sports drinks seem to be more beneficial to consume during long-duration exercise, when the drinks are used for both rehydration and caffeine supplementation. Energy drinks may be more appropriate for providing caffeine before exercise. Lastly, the magnitude of the ergogenic benefits obtained with caffeinated drinks seems similar in women and men athletes. Overall, the current systematic review provides evidence of the efficacy of caffeinated drinks as a valid form for caffeine supplementation in sport.

Effects of Energy Drink Consumption on Physical Performance and Potential Danger of Inordinate Usage

The rise in energy drink (ED) intake in the general population and athletes has been achieved with smart and effective marketing strategies. There is a robust base of evidence showing that adolescents are the main consumers of EDs. The prevalence of ED usage in this group ranges from 52% to 68%, whilst in adults is estimated at 32%. The compositions of EDs vary widely. Caffeine content can range from 75 to 240 mg, whereas the average taurine quantity is 342.28 mg/100 mL. Unfortunately, exact amounts of the other ED elements are often not disclosed by manufacturers. Caffeine and taurine in doses 3–6 mg/kg and 1–6 g, respectively, appear to be the main ergogenic elements. However, additive or synergic properties between them seem to be implausible. Because of non-unified protocol design, presented studies show inconsistency between ED ingestion and improved physical performance. Potential side effects caused by abusive consumption or missed contraindications are the aspects that are the most often overlooked by consumers and not fully elucidated by ED producers. In this review, the authors aimed to present the latest scientific information on ED components and their possible impact on improving physical performance as well as to bring emphasis to the danger of inordinate consumption.

Is caffeine mouth rinsing an effective strategy to improve physical and cognitive performance? A systematic review

The aim of this study was to perform a systematic review on the effects of caffeine mouth rinsing on physical and cognitive performance. Following a search through 4 databases, 18 studies were found meeting the inclusion criteria (15 for physical performance and 3 for cognitive performance). All selected studies found an improvement in cognitive performance with caffeine mouth rinse. Four studies found positive effects of caffeine mouthwash on physical performance when repeated during exercise, while one study detected a positive effect with a single mouthwash before exercise, but only in a fasted state. Among these studies that showed positive effects, however, three (2 for physical performance and 1 for cognitive performance) presented fair methodological quality. There was also a variety of methodological approaches in the studies that showed no improvement in physical performance with caffeine mouth rinse, which may have influenced the potential to detect the ergogenic effect of caffeine mouth rinse. Thus, the effects of caffeine mouth rinse on physical performance are mixed, but a potential ergogenic effect might be present in a fasted state and when mouthwash is repeated during exercise. Concerning cognitive performance, caffeine mouth rinse seems to be a beneficial strategy.