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Alves LDF, Moore JB, Kell DB. The Biology and Biochemistry of Kynurenic Acid, a Potential Nutraceutical with Multiple Biological Effects. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:9082. [PMID: 39201768 PMCID: PMC11354673 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25169082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2024] [Revised: 08/16/2024] [Accepted: 08/19/2024] [Indexed: 09/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Kynurenic acid (KYNA) is an antioxidant degradation product of tryptophan that has been shown to have a variety of cytoprotective, neuroprotective and neuronal signalling properties. However, mammalian transporters and receptors display micromolar binding constants; these are consistent with its typically micromolar tissue concentrations but far above its serum/plasma concentration (normally tens of nanomolar), suggesting large gaps in our knowledge of its transport and mechanisms of action, in that the main influx transporters characterized to date are equilibrative, not concentrative. In addition, it is a substrate of a known anion efflux pump (ABCC4), whose in vivo activity is largely unknown. Exogeneous addition of L-tryptophan or L-kynurenine leads to the production of KYNA but also to that of many other co-metabolites (including some such as 3-hydroxy-L-kynurenine and quinolinic acid that may be toxic). With the exception of chestnut honey, KYNA exists at relatively low levels in natural foodstuffs. However, its bioavailability is reasonable, and as the terminal element of an irreversible reaction of most tryptophan degradation pathways, it might be added exogenously without disturbing upstream metabolism significantly. Many examples, which we review, show that it has valuable bioactivity. Given the above, we review its potential utility as a nutraceutical, finding it significantly worthy of further study and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luana de Fátima Alves
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Building 220, Søltofts Plads, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - J. Bernadette Moore
- School of Food Science & Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK;
- Department of Biochemistry, Cell & Systems Biology, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Crown St., Liverpool L69 7ZB, UK
| | - Douglas B. Kell
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Building 220, Søltofts Plads, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
- Department of Biochemistry, Cell & Systems Biology, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Crown St., Liverpool L69 7ZB, UK
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Zhao X, Lu J, Zhang J, Liu C, Wang H, Wang Y, Du Q. Sleep restriction promotes brain oxidative stress and inflammation, and aggravates cognitive impairment in insulin-resistant mice. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2024; 166:107065. [PMID: 38718616 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2024.107065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2024] [Accepted: 04/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/16/2024]
Abstract
Sleep deprivation and insulin resistance (IR) are two risk factors for Alzheimer's disease. As the population of people with IR increases and sleep restriction (SR) due to staying up late becomes the "new normal", it is necessary to investigate the effects and molecular pathogenesis of chronic SR on cognitive function in insulin resistance. In this study, 4-week-old mice were fed a high-fat diet (HFD) for 8 weeks to establish IR model, and then the mice were subjected to SR for 21 days, and related indicators were assessed, including cognitive capacity, apoptosis, oxidative stress, glial cell activation, inflammation, blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability and adiponectin levels, for exploring the potential regulatory mechanisms. Compared with control group, IR mice showed impaired cognitive capacity, meanwhile, SR not only promoted Bax/Bcl2-induced hippocampal neuronal cell apoptosis and Nrf2/HO1- induced oxidative stress, but also increased microglia activation and inflammatory factor levels and BBB permeability, thus aggravating the cognitive impairment in IR mice. Consequently, changing bad living habits and ensuring sufficient sleep are important intervention strategies to moderate the aggravation of IR-induced cognitive impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Zhao
- Centre of General Practice, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University, Foshan 528200, China
| | - Jiancong Lu
- The Third Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510630, China
| | - Jingyi Zhang
- Centre of General Practice, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University, Foshan 528200, China
| | - Ce Liu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University, Foshan 528200, China
| | - Huijun Wang
- School of Forensic Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China.
| | - Yan Wang
- Biomedical Research Center, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China; Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Southern Medical University, Foshan 528200, China.
| | - Qingfeng Du
- Centre of General Practice, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University, Foshan 528200, China; School of Traditional Chinese medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chinese Medicine Pharmaceutics, Guangzhou 510515, China.
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Grishanova AY, Perepechaeva ML. Kynurenic Acid/AhR Signaling at the Junction of Inflammation and Cardiovascular Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:6933. [PMID: 39000041 PMCID: PMC11240928 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25136933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2024] [Revised: 06/14/2024] [Accepted: 06/21/2024] [Indexed: 07/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Persistent systemic chronic inflammatory conditions are linked with many pathologies, including cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), a leading cause of death across the globe. Among various risk factors, one of the new possible contributors to CVDs is the metabolism of essential amino acid tryptophan. Proinflammatory signals promote tryptophan metabolism via the kynurenine (KYN) pathway (KP), thereby resulting in the biosynthesis of several immunomodulatory metabolites whose biological effects are associated with the development of symptoms and progression of various inflammatory diseases. Some participants in the KP are agonists of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), a central player in a signaling pathway that, along with a regulatory influence on the metabolism of environmental xenobiotics, performs a key immunomodulatory function by triggering various cellular mechanisms with the participation of endogenous ligands to alleviate inflammation. An AhR ligand with moderate affinity is the central metabolite of the KP: KYN; one of the subsequent metabolites of KYN-kynurenic acid (KYNA)-is a more potent ligand of AhR. Understanding the role of AhR pathway-related metabolites of the KP that regulate inflammatory factors in cells of the cardiovascular system is interesting and important for achieving effective treatment of CVDs. The purpose of this review was to summarize the results of studies about the participation of the KP metabolite-KYNA-and of the AhR signaling pathway in the regulation of inflammation in pathological conditions of the heart and blood vessels and about the possible interaction of KYNA with AhR signaling in some CVDs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Maria L. Perepechaeva
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biophysics, Federal Research Center of Fundamental and Translational Medicine, Timakova Str. 2, Novosibirsk 630060, Russia;
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Galizzi G, Deidda I, Amato A, Calvi P, Terzo S, Caruana L, Scoglio S, Mulè F, Di Carlo M. Aphanizomenon flos-aquae (AFA) Extract Prevents Neurodegeneration in the HFD Mouse Model by Modulating Astrocytes and Microglia Activation. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24054731. [PMID: 36902167 PMCID: PMC10003388 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24054731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Obesity and related metabolic dysfunctions are associated with neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease. Aphanizomenon flos-aquae (AFA) is a cyanobacterium considered a suitable supplement for its nutritional profile and beneficial properties. The potential neuroprotective effect of an AFA extract, commercialized as KlamExtra®, including the two AFA extracts Klamin® and AphaMax®, in High-Fat Diet (HFD)-fed mice was explored. Three groups of mice were provided with a standard diet (Lean), HFD or HFD supplemented with AFA extract (HFD + AFA) for 28 weeks. Metabolic parameters, brain insulin resistance, expression of apoptosis biomarkers, modulation of astrocytes and microglia activation markers, and Aβ deposition were analyzed and compared in the brains of different groups. AFA extract treatment attenuated HFD-induced neurodegeneration by reducing insulin resistance and loss of neurons. AFA supplementation improved the expression of synaptic proteins and reduced the HFD-induced astrocytes and microglia activation, and Aβ plaques accumulation. Together, these outcomes indicate that regular intake of AFA extract could benefit the metabolic and neuronal dysfunction caused by HFD, decreasing neuroinflammation and promoting Aβ plaques clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giacoma Galizzi
- Istituto per la Ricerca e l’Innovazione Biomedica (IRIB), CNR, via U. La Malfa 153, 90146 Palermo, Italy
- Correspondence: (G.G.); (M.D.C.); Tel.: +39-09-1680-9538 (G.G.); +39-09-1680-9538 (M.D.C.)
| | - Irene Deidda
- Istituto per la Ricerca e l’Innovazione Biomedica (IRIB), CNR, via U. La Malfa 153, 90146 Palermo, Italy
| | - Antonella Amato
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche Chimiche e Farmaceutiche (STEBICEF), Università Degli Studi di Palermo, Viale Delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Pasquale Calvi
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche Chimiche e Farmaceutiche (STEBICEF), Università Degli Studi di Palermo, Viale Delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy
- Dipartimento di Biomedicina, Neuroscienze, e Diagnostica Avanzata (Bi.N.D) (sez. Anatomia Umana), Università di Palermo, via del Vespro 129, 90127 Palermo, Italy
| | - Simona Terzo
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche Chimiche e Farmaceutiche (STEBICEF), Università Degli Studi di Palermo, Viale Delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Luca Caruana
- Istituto per la Ricerca e l’Innovazione Biomedica (IRIB), CNR, via U. La Malfa 153, 90146 Palermo, Italy
| | | | - Flavia Mulè
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche Chimiche e Farmaceutiche (STEBICEF), Università Degli Studi di Palermo, Viale Delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Marta Di Carlo
- Istituto per la Ricerca e l’Innovazione Biomedica (IRIB), CNR, via U. La Malfa 153, 90146 Palermo, Italy
- Correspondence: (G.G.); (M.D.C.); Tel.: +39-09-1680-9538 (G.G.); +39-09-1680-9538 (M.D.C.)
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Long-Term Ingestion of Sicilian Black Bee Chestnut Honey and/or D-Limonene Counteracts Brain Damage Induced by High Fat-Diet in Obese Mice. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24043467. [PMID: 36834882 PMCID: PMC9966634 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24043467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Revised: 01/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Obesity is linked to neurodegeneration, which is mainly caused by inflammation and oxidative stress. We analyzed whether the long-term intake of honey and/or D-limonene, which are known for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions, when ingested separately or in combination, can counteract the neurodegeneration occurring in high fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity. After 10 weeks of HFD, mice were divided into: HFD-, HFD + honey (HFD-H)-, HFD + D-limonene (HFD-L)-, HFD + honey + D-limonene (HFD-H + L)-fed groups, for another 10 weeks. Another group was fed a standard diet (STD). We analyzed the brain neurodegeneration, inflammation, oxidative stress, and gene expression of Alzheimer's disease (AD) markers. The HFD animals showed higher neuronal apoptosis, upregulation of pro-apoptotic genes Fas-L, Bim P27 and downregulation of anti-apoptotic factors BDNF and BCL2; increased gene expression of the pro-inflammatory IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α and elevated oxidative stress markers COX-2, iNOS, ROS and nitrite. The honey and D-limonene intake counteracted these alterations; however, they did so in a stronger manner when in combination. Genes involved in amyloid plaque processing (APP and TAU), synaptic function (Ache) and AD-related hyperphosphorylation were higher in HFD brains, and significantly downregulated in HFD-H, HFD-L and HFD-H + L. These results suggest that honey and limonene ingestion counteract obesity-related neurodegeneration and that joint consumption is more efficacious than a single administration.
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Turska M, Paluszkiewicz P, Turski WA, Parada-Turska J. A Review of the Health Benefits of Food Enriched with Kynurenic Acid. Nutrients 2022; 14:4182. [PMID: 36235834 PMCID: PMC9570704 DOI: 10.3390/nu14194182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Revised: 10/02/2022] [Accepted: 10/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Kynurenic acid (KYNA), a metabolite of tryptophan, is an endogenous substance produced intracellularly by various human cells. In addition, KYNA can be synthesized by the gut microbiome and delivered in food. However, its content in food is very low and the total alimentary supply with food accounts for only 1-3% of daily KYNA excretion. The only known exception is chestnut honey, which has a higher KYNA content than other foods by at least two orders of magnitude. KYNA is readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract; it is not metabolized and is excreted mainly in urine. It possesses well-defined molecular targets, which allows the study and elucidation of KYNA's role in various pathological conditions. Following a period of fascination with KYNA's importance for the central nervous system, research into its role in the peripheral system has been expanding rapidly in recent years, bringing some exciting discoveries. KYNA does not penetrate from the peripheral circulation into the brain; hence, the following review summarizes knowledge on the peripheral consequences of KYNA administration, presents data on KYNA content in food products, in the context of its daily supply in diets, and systematizes the available pharmacokinetic data. Finally, it provides an analysis of the rationale behind enriching foods with KYNA for health-promoting effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Turska
- Department of Molecular Biology, The John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, 20-708 Lublin, Poland
| | - Piotr Paluszkiewicz
- Department of General, Oncological and Metabolic Surgery, Institute of Hematology and Transfusion Medicine, 02-778 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Waldemar A. Turski
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Lublin, 20-090 Lublin, Poland
| | - Jolanta Parada-Turska
- Department of Rheumatology and Connective Tissue Diseases, Medical University of Lublin, 20-090 Lublin, Poland
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Zheng X, Zhao Y, Naumovski N, Zhao W, Yang G, Xue X, Wu L, Granato D, Peng W, Wang K. Systems Biology Approaches for Understanding Metabolic Differences Using 'Multi-Omics' Profiling of Metabolites in Mice Fed with Honey and Mixed Sugars. Nutrients 2022; 14:nu14163445. [PMID: 36014951 PMCID: PMC9412287 DOI: 10.3390/nu14163445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Revised: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Honey is proposed to be the oldest natural sweetener and it is a standard component of several dietary patterns. Recent evidence suggests that replacing sugars, such as fructose, with honey has potential health benefits. In this study, we determined the effects of honey supplementation in mice on cardiometabolic and inflammatory markers and changes in gut microbiota and metabolomic profiles. We compared mice fed a honey diet (1 or 2 g/kg) with those fed an analog diet (mixed fructose, glucose, and sucrose (FSG) solutions) at exact dosages for one month. We found the same blood glucose fluctuating trends for honey- and FGS-fed mice. The honey diets resulted in less weight gain and fewer ballooned hepatocytes. Additionally, honey diets decreased the total serum cholesterol and TNF-α and increased the antioxidant enzyme activity. Each diet type was associated with distinct gut microbiota and metabolomics profiles. Systems biology analysis revealed that Lactococcus spp., Lachnospiraceae spp., and oleamide had the strongest correlations with lipid metabolic networks. Although in an animal model, this study provides a good understanding of the potential benefits of choosing honey rather than mixed sugars in regular dietary patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing Zheng
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
| | - Yazhou Zhao
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
| | - Nenad Naumovski
- University of Canberra Health Research Institute (UCHRI), University of Canberra, Locked Bag 1, Bruce, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Wen Zhao
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
| | - Guan Yang
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong 999077, China
| | - Xiaofeng Xue
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
| | - Liming Wu
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
| | - Daniel Granato
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Limerick, V94 T9PX Limerick, Ireland
- Correspondence: (D.G.); (W.P.); (K.W.)
| | - Wenjun Peng
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
- Correspondence: (D.G.); (W.P.); (K.W.)
| | - Kai Wang
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
- Correspondence: (D.G.); (W.P.); (K.W.)
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Insulin and Its Key Role for Mitochondrial Function/Dysfunction and Quality Control: A Shared Link between Dysmetabolism and Neurodegeneration. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:biology11060943. [PMID: 35741464 PMCID: PMC9220302 DOI: 10.3390/biology11060943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Revised: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 06/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Insulin was discovered and isolated from the beta cells of pancreatic islets of dogs and is associated with the regulation of peripheral glucose homeostasis. Insulin produced in the brain is related to synaptic plasticity and memory. Defective insulin signaling plays a role in brain dysfunction, such as neurodegenerative disease. Growing evidence suggests a link between metabolic disorders, such as diabetes and obesity, and neurodegenerative diseases, especially Alzheimer's disease (AD). This association is due to a common state of insulin resistance (IR) and mitochondrial dysfunction. This review takes a journey into the past to summarize what was known about the physiological and pathological role of insulin in peripheral tissues and the brain. Then, it will land in the present to analyze the insulin role on mitochondrial health and the effects on insulin resistance and neurodegenerative diseases that are IR-dependent. Specifically, we will focus our attention on the quality control of mitochondria (MQC), such as mitochondrial dynamics, mitochondrial biogenesis, and selective autophagy (mitophagy), in healthy and altered cases. Finally, this review will be projected toward the future by examining the most promising treatments that target the mitochondria to cure neurodegenerative diseases associated with metabolic disorders.
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