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Goggans KR, Belyaeva OV, Klyuyeva AV, Studdard J, Slay A, Newman RB, VanBuren CA, Everts HB, Kedishvili NY. Epidermal retinol dehydrogenases cyclically regulate stem cell markers and clock genes and influence hair composition. Commun Biol 2024; 7:453. [PMID: 38609439 PMCID: PMC11014975 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-024-06160-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
The hair follicle (HF) is a self-renewing adult miniorgan that undergoes drastic metabolic and morphological changes during precisely timed cyclic organogenesis. The HF cycle is known to be regulated by steroid hormones, growth factors and circadian clock genes. Recent data also suggest a role for a vitamin A derivative, all-trans-retinoic acid (ATRA), the activating ligand of transcription factors, retinoic acid receptors, in the regulation of the HF cycle. Here we demonstrate that ATRA signaling cycles during HF regeneration and this pattern is disrupted by genetic deletion of epidermal retinol dehydrogenases 2 (RDHE2, SDR16C5) and RDHE2-similar (RDHE2S, SDR16C6) that catalyze the rate-limiting step in ATRA biosynthesis. Deletion of RDHEs results in accelerated anagen to catagen and telogen to anagen transitions, altered HF composition, reduced levels of HF stem cell markers, and dysregulated circadian clock gene expression, suggesting a broad role of RDHEs in coordinating multiple signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelli R Goggans
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Heersink School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Olga V Belyaeva
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Heersink School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Alla V Klyuyeva
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Heersink School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Jacob Studdard
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Heersink School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Aja Slay
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Heersink School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Regina B Newman
- Department of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Texas Woman's University, Denton, TX, USA
| | - Christine A VanBuren
- Department of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Texas Woman's University, Denton, TX, USA
| | - Helen B Everts
- Department of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Texas Woman's University, Denton, TX, USA.
| | - Natalia Y Kedishvili
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Heersink School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA.
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2
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DiKun KM, Tang XH, Fu L, Choi ME, Lu C, Gudas LJ. Retinoic acid receptor α activity in proximal tubules prevents kidney injury and fibrosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2311803121. [PMID: 38330015 PMCID: PMC10873609 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2311803121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is characterized by a gradual loss of kidney function and affects ~13.4% of the global population. Progressive tubulointerstitial fibrosis, driven in part by proximal tubule (PT) damage, is a hallmark of late stages of CKD and contributes to the development of kidney failure, for which there are limited treatment options. Normal kidney development requires signaling by vitamin A (retinol), which is metabolized to retinoic acid (RA), an endogenous agonist for the RA receptors (RARα, β, γ). RARα levels are decreased in a mouse model of diabetic nephropathy and restored with RA administration; additionally, RA treatment reduced fibrosis. We developed a mouse model in which a spatiotemporal (tamoxifen-inducible) deletion of RARα in kidney PT cells of adult mice causes mitochondrial dysfunction, massive PT injury, and apoptosis without the use of additional nephrotoxic substances. Long-term effects (3 to 4.5 mo) of RARα deletion include increased PT secretion of transforming growth factor β1, inflammation, interstitial fibrosis, and decreased kidney function, all of which are major features of human CKD. Therefore, RARα's actions in PTs are crucial for PT homeostasis, and loss of RARα causes injury and a key CKD phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krysta M. DiKun
- Department of Pharmacology, Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY10065
- Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, New York, NY10065
| | - Xiao-Han Tang
- Department of Pharmacology, Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY10065
| | - Leiping Fu
- Department of Pharmacology, Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY10065
| | - Mary E. Choi
- New York Presbyterian Hospital, New York, NY10065
- Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Joan and Sanford I. Weill Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY10065
| | | | - Lorraine J. Gudas
- Department of Pharmacology, Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY10065
- Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, New York, NY10065
- Department of Urology, New York, NY10065
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3
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Yoo HS, Moss KO, Cockrum MA, Woo W, Napoli JL. Energy status regulates levels of the RAR/RXR ligand 9-cis-retinoic acid in mammalian tissues: Glucose reduces its synthesis in β-cells. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:105255. [PMID: 37714463 PMCID: PMC10582780 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.105255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2023] [Revised: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/10/2023] [Indexed: 09/17/2023] Open
Abstract
9-cis-retinoic acid (9cRA) binds retinoic acid receptors (RAR) and retinoid X receptors (RXR) with nanomolar affinities, in contrast to all-trans-retinoic acid (atRA), which binds only RAR with nanomolar affinities. RXR heterodimerize with type II nuclear receptors, including RAR, to regulate a vast gene array. Despite much effort, 9cRA has not been identified as an endogenous retinoid, other than in pancreas. By revising tissue analysis methods, 9cRA quantification by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry becomes possible in all mouse tissues analyzed. 9cRA occurs in concentrations similar to or greater than atRA. Fasting increases 9cRA in white and brown adipose, brain and pancreas, while increasing atRA in white adipose, liver and pancreas. 9cRA supports FoxO1 actions in pancreas β-cells and counteracts glucose actions that lead to glucotoxicity; in part by inducing Atg7 mRNA, which encodes the key enzyme essential for autophagy. Glucose suppresses 9cRA biosynthesis in the β-cell lines 832/13 and MIN6. Glucose reduces 9cRA biosynthesis in 832/13 cells by inhibiting Rdh5 transcription, unconnected to insulin, through cAMP and Akt, and inhibiting FoxO1. Through adapting tissue specifically to fasting, 9cRA would act independent of atRA. Widespread occurrence of 9cRA in vivo, and its self-sufficient adaptation to energy status, provides new perspectives into regulation of energy balance, attenuation of insulin and glucose actions, regulation of type II nuclear receptors, and retinoid biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Sik Yoo
- Department of Nutritional Sciences and Toxicology, Graduate Program in Metabolic Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Kristin Obrochta Moss
- Department of Nutritional Sciences and Toxicology, Graduate Program in Metabolic Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Michael A Cockrum
- Department of Nutritional Sciences and Toxicology, Graduate Program in Metabolic Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Wonsik Woo
- Department of Nutritional Sciences and Toxicology, Graduate Program in Metabolic Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Joseph L Napoli
- Department of Nutritional Sciences and Toxicology, Graduate Program in Metabolic Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA.
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4
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Yoo HS, Cockrum MA, Napoli JL. Cyp26a1 supports postnatal retinoic acid homeostasis and glucoregulatory control. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:104669. [PMID: 37011860 PMCID: PMC10176252 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.104669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Considerable evidence confirms the importance of Cyp26a1 to all-trans-retinoic acid (RA) homeostasis during embryogenesis. In contrast, despite its presence in postnatal liver as a potential major RA catabolizing enzyme and its acute sensitivity to induction by RA, some data suggested that Cyp26a1 contributes only marginally to endogenous RA homeostasis postnatally. We report reevaluation of a conditional Cyp26a1 knockdown in the postnatal mouse. The current results show that Cyp26a1 mRNA in WT mouse liver increases 16-fold upon refeeding after a fast, accompanied by an increased rate of RA elimination and a 41% decrease in the RA concentration. In contrast, Cyp26a1 mRNA in the refed homozygotic knockdown reached only 2% of its extent in WT during refeeding, accompanied by a slower rate of RA catabolism and no decrease in liver RA, relative to fasting. Refed homozygous knockdown mice also had decreased Akt1 and 2 phosphorylation and pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 4 (Pdk4) mRNA and increased glucokinase (Gck) mRNA, glycogen phosphorylase (Pygl) phosphorylation, and serum glucose, relative to WT. Fasted homozygous knockdown mice had increased glucagon/insulin relative to WT. These data indicate that Cyp26a1 participates prominently in moderating the postnatal liver concentration of endogenous RA and contributes essentially to glucoregulatory control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Sik Yoo
- Graduate Program in Metabolic Biology, Nutritional Sciences and Toxicology, UC-Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Michael A Cockrum
- Graduate Program in Metabolic Biology, Nutritional Sciences and Toxicology, UC-Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Joseph L Napoli
- Graduate Program in Metabolic Biology, Nutritional Sciences and Toxicology, UC-Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA.
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5
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Otto LR, Clemens V, Üsekes B, Cosma NC, Regen F, Hellmann-Regen J. Retinoid homeostasis in major depressive disorder. Transl Psychiatry 2023; 13:67. [PMID: 36813763 PMCID: PMC9947135 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-023-02362-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The small, hormone-like molecule retinoic acid (RA) is a vital regulator in several neurobiological processes that are affected in depression. Next to its involvement in dopaminergic signal transduction, neuroinflammation, and neuroendocrine regulation, recent studies highlight the role of RA in homeostatic synaptic plasticity and its link to neuropsychiatric disorders. Furthermore, experimental studies and epidemiological evidence point to the dysregulation of retinoid homeostasis in depression. Based on this evidence, the present study investigated the putative link between retinoid homeostasis and depression in a cohort of 109 patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) and healthy controls. Retinoid homeostasis was defined by several parameters. Serum concentrations of the biologically most active Vitamin A metabolite, all-trans RA (at-RA), and its precursor retinol (ROL) were quantified and the individual in vitro at-RA synthesis and degradation activity was assessed in microsomes of peripheral blood-derived mononuclear cells (PBMC). Additionally, the mRNA expression of enzymes relevant to retinoid signaling, transport, and metabolism were assessed. Patients with MDD had significantly higher ROL serum levels and greater at-RA synthesis activity than healthy controls providing evidence of altered retinoid homeostasis in MDD. Furthermore, MDD-associated alterations in retinoid homeostasis differed between men and women. This study is the first to investigate peripheral retinoid homeostasis in a well-matched cohort of MDD patients and healthy controls, complementing a wealth of preclinical and epidemiological findings that point to a central role of the retinoid system in depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Rebecca Otto
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Section Clinical Neurobiology, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Vera Clemens
- grid.6363.00000 0001 2218 4662Charité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Section Clinical Neurobiology, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Berk Üsekes
- grid.6363.00000 0001 2218 4662Charité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Section Clinical Neurobiology, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Nicoleta Carmen Cosma
- grid.6363.00000 0001 2218 4662Charité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Section Clinical Neurobiology, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Francesca Regen
- grid.6363.00000 0001 2218 4662Charité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Section Clinical Neurobiology, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Julian Hellmann-Regen
- grid.6363.00000 0001 2218 4662Charité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Section Clinical Neurobiology, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Berlin, Germany
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6
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Coronel J, Yu J, Pilli N, Kane MA, Amengual J. The conversion of β-carotene to vitamin A in adipocytes drives the anti-obesogenic effects of β-carotene in mice. Mol Metab 2022; 66:101640. [PMID: 36400405 PMCID: PMC9707038 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2022.101640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Revised: 10/30/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The β-carotene oxygenase 1 (BCO1) is the enzyme responsible for the cleavage of β-carotene to retinal, the first intermediate in vitamin A formation. Preclinical studies suggest that BCO1 expression is required for dietary β-carotene to affect lipid metabolism. The goal of this study was to generate a gene therapy strategy that over-expresses BCO1 in the adipose tissue and utilizes the β-carotene stored in adipocytes to produce vitamin A and reduce obesity. METHODS We generated a novel adipose-tissue-specific, adeno-associated vector to over-express BCO1 (AT-AAV-BCO1) in murine adipocytes. We tested this vector using a unique model to achieve β-carotene accumulation in the adipose tissue, in which Bco1-/- mice were fed β-carotene. An AT-AAV over-expressing green fluorescent protein was utilized as control. We evaluated the adequate delivery route and optimized cellular and organ specificity, dosage, and exposure of our vectors. We also employed morphometric analyses to evaluate the effect of BCO1 expression in adiposity, as well as HPLC and mass spectrometry to quantify β-carotene and retinoids in tissues, including retinoic acid. RESULTS AT-AAV-BCO1 infusions in the adipose tissue of the mice resulted in the production of retinoic acid, a vitamin A metabolite with strong effects on gene regulation. AT-AAV-BCO1 treatment also reduced adipose tissue size and adipocyte area by 35% and 30%, respectively. These effects were sex-specific, highlighting the complexity of vitamin A metabolism in mammals. CONCLUSIONS The over-expression of BCO1 through delivery of an AT-AAV-BCO1 leads to the conversion of β-carotene to vitamin A in adipocytes, which subsequently results in reduction of adiposity. These studies highlight for the first time the potential of adipose tissue β-carotene as a target for BCO1 over-expression in the reduction of obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johana Coronel
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Jianshi Yu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Nageswara Pilli
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Maureen A. Kane
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jaume Amengual
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA,Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA,Corresponding author. Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
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7
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Holloway C, Zhong G, Kim YK, Ye H, Sampath H, Hammerling U, Isoherranen N, Quadro L. Retinoic acid regulates pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 4 (Pdk4) to modulate fuel utilization in the adult heart: Insights from wild-type and β-carotene 9',10' oxygenase knockout mice. FASEB J 2022; 36:e22513. [PMID: 36004605 PMCID: PMC9544431 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202101910rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Regulation of the pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) complex by the pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase PDK4 enables the heart to respond to fluctuations in energy demands and substrate availability. Retinoic acid, the transcriptionally active form of vitamin A, is known to be involved in the regulation of cardiac function and growth during embryogenesis as well as under pathological conditions. Whether retinoic acid also maintains cardiac health under physiological conditions is unknown. However, vitamin A status and intake of its carotenoid precursor β-carotene have been linked to the prevention of heart diseases. Here, we provide in vitro and in vivo evidence that retinoic acid regulates cardiac Pdk4 expression and thus PDH activity. Furthermore, we show that mice lacking β-carotene 9',10'-oxygenase (BCO2), the only enzyme of the adult heart that cleaves β-carotene to generate retinoids (vitamin A and its derivatives), displayed cardiac retinoic acid insufficiency and impaired metabolic flexibility linked to a compromised PDK4/PDH pathway. These findings provide novel insights into the functions of retinoic acid in regulating energy metabolism in adult tissues, especially the heart.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chelsee Holloway
- Graduate Program in Endocrinology and Animal Bioscience, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA.,Department of Food Science, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA.,Rutgers Center for Lipid Research and Institute of Food Nutrition and Health, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
| | - Guo Zhong
- Department of Pharmaceutics Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Youn-Kyung Kim
- Department of Food Science, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA.,Rutgers Center for Lipid Research and Institute of Food Nutrition and Health, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
| | - Hong Ye
- Department of Food Science, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA.,Rutgers Center for Lipid Research and Institute of Food Nutrition and Health, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA.,Department of Nutritional Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
| | - Harini Sampath
- Rutgers Center for Lipid Research and Institute of Food Nutrition and Health, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA.,Department of Nutritional Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
| | - Ulrich Hammerling
- Department of Food Science, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA.,Rutgers Center for Lipid Research and Institute of Food Nutrition and Health, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
| | - Nina Isoherranen
- Department of Pharmaceutics Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Loredana Quadro
- Department of Food Science, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA.,Rutgers Center for Lipid Research and Institute of Food Nutrition and Health, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
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8
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Yoo HS, Rodriguez A, You D, Lee RA, Cockrum MA, Grimes JA, Wang JC, Kang S, Napoli JL. The glucocorticoid receptor represses, whereas C/EBPβ can enhance or repress CYP26A1 transcription. iScience 2022; 25:104564. [PMID: 35789854 PMCID: PMC9249609 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.104564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2021] [Revised: 05/12/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Retinoic acid (RA) counters insulin's metabolic actions. Insulin reduces liver RA biosynthesis by exporting FoxO1 from nuclei. RA induces its catabolism, catalyzed by CYP26A1. A CYP26A1 contribution to RA homeostasis with changes in energy status had not been investigated. We found that glucagon, cortisol, and dexamethasone decrease RA-induced CYP26A1 transcription, thereby reducing RA oxidation during fasting. Interaction between the glucocorticoid receptor and the RAR/RXR coactivation complex suppresses CYP26A1 expression, increasing RA's elimination half-life. Interaction between CCAAT-enhancer-binding protein beta (C/EBPβ) and the major allele of SNP rs2068888 enhances CYP26A1 expression; the minor allele restricts the C/EBPβ effect on CYP26A1. The major and minor alleles associate with impaired human health or reduction in blood triglycerides, respectively. Thus, regulating CYP26A1 transcription contributes to adapting RA to coordinate energy availability with metabolism. These results enhance insight into CYP26A1 effects on RA during changes in energy status and glucocorticoid receptor modification of RAR-regulated gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Sik Yoo
- Department of Nutritional Sciences and Toxicology, Graduate Program in Metabolic Biology, The University of California, Berkeley Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Adrienne Rodriguez
- Department of Nutritional Sciences and Toxicology, Graduate Program in Metabolic Biology, The University of California, Berkeley Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Dongjoo You
- Department of Nutritional Sciences and Toxicology, Graduate Program in Metabolic Biology, The University of California, Berkeley Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Rebecca A. Lee
- Department of Nutritional Sciences and Toxicology, Graduate Program in Metabolic Biology, The University of California, Berkeley Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Michael A. Cockrum
- Department of Nutritional Sciences and Toxicology, Graduate Program in Metabolic Biology, The University of California, Berkeley Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Jack A. Grimes
- Department of Nutritional Sciences and Toxicology, Graduate Program in Metabolic Biology, The University of California, Berkeley Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Jen-Chywan Wang
- Department of Nutritional Sciences and Toxicology, Graduate Program in Metabolic Biology, The University of California, Berkeley Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Sona Kang
- Department of Nutritional Sciences and Toxicology, Graduate Program in Metabolic Biology, The University of California, Berkeley Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Joseph L. Napoli
- Department of Nutritional Sciences and Toxicology, Graduate Program in Metabolic Biology, The University of California, Berkeley Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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