Serum fatty acid reference ranges: percentiles from a New Zealand national nutrition survey

Targeted and untargeted metabolomic approach for GDM diagnosis

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a disorder which manifests itself for the first time during pregnancy and is mainly connected with glucose metabolism. It is also known that fatty acid profile changes in erythrocyte membranes and plasma could be associated with obesity and insulin resistance. These factors can lead to the development of diabetes. In the reported study, we applied the untargeted analysis of plasma in GDM against standard glucose-tolerant (NGT) women to identify the differences in metabolomic profiles between those groups. We found higher levels of 2-hydroxybutyric and 3-hydroxybutyric acids. Both secondary metabolites are associated with impaired glucose metabolism. However, they are products of different metabolic pathways. Additionally, we applied lipidomic profiling using gas chromatography to examine the fatty acid composition of cholesteryl esters in the plasma of GDM patients. Among the 14 measured fatty acids characterizing the representative plasma lipidomic cluster, myristic, oleic, arachidonic, and α-linoleic acids revealed statistically significant changes. Concentrations of both myristic acid, one of the saturated fatty acids (SFAs), and oleic acid, which belong to monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), tend to decrease in GDM patients. In the case of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), some of them tend to increase (e.g., arachidonic), and some of them tend to decrease (e.g., α-linolenic). Based on our results, we postulate the importance of hydroxybutyric acid derivatives, cholesteryl ester composition, and the oleic acid diminution in the pathophysiology of GDM. There are some evidence suggests that the oleic acid can have the protective role in diabetes onset. However, metabolic alterations that lead to the onset of GDM are complex; therefore, further studies are needed to confirm our observations.

Age‐related features of the content of substrates of energy metabolism and body mass index in women residing in the S ubarctic and A rctic regions of R ussia

OBJECTIVES

Age is associated with a number of health risks linked to obesity caused by an imbalance in the main energy substrates-fatty acids (FA) and glucose (Glu). Therefore, the objective of this study was to identify age-related features of the metabolism of fatty acids and Glu, their correlations and the relation with the body mass index (BMI) in women of the local Caucasoid population from two northern regions of Russia with different nature, climate, and geography.

METHODS

We examined women aged 21-60 years born and permanently residing in the Subarctic region (SR) and the Arctic region (AR). The participants were divided into three age groups: 21-35, 36-45, and 46-60 years. The levels of FAs, Glu, and triglycerides (TG) in the blood serum were determined by spectrophotometric and gas chromatographic methods; the values of BMI and TyG (triglyceride glucose) index were calculated. To analyze data, we used the descriptive and correlation analyses by nonparametric methods, as well as multiple linear regression analysis.

RESULTS

With age, the surveyed women demonstrated elevated levels of triglyceride, the majority of the studied fatty acids, BMI and TyG index. For three fatty acids, age-related changes were noted in one of the regions only: stearic and linoleic acids in the SR, and docosahexaenoic acid in the AR; no significant changes were observed for dihomo-γ-linolenic and arachidonic acids. We found elevated Glu levels in women aged 46-60 years residing in the SR. Regional differences were due to higher concentrations of FAs and Glu in the AR. All identified correlations were positive. BMI values were associated with FAs and TG, and in women aged 46-60 years, they were additionally associated with Glu. The latter also correlated with some FAs and TG in this group. TyG index associations with saturated FAs (SFAs) became stronger with age.

CONCLUSIONS

Age has a significant impact on the homeostasis of key energy substrates (Glu, TG, SFAs, monounsaturated FAs), on BMI and TyG index, which are indicators of obesity and insulin resistance. Depending on the region of residence (Subarctic or Arctic), we found changes in the FA profile undersaturation (especially long-chain polyunsaturated FAs) and some specific features of Glu homeostasis (for the age groups of 21-35 and 46-60 years) in women of Caucasoid race in the Russian North. Multiple regression analysis showed that BMI, as well as the region of residence and age, are significant predictors for almost all biochemical parameters, especially for TG and TyG index.

Fatty acid uptake in Trypanosoma brucei: Host resources and possible mechanisms

Trypanosoma brucei spp. causes African Sleeping Sickness in humans and nagana, a wasting disease, in cattle. As T. brucei goes through its life cycle in its mammalian and insect vector hosts, it is exposed to distinct environments that differ in their nutrient resources. One such nutrient resource is fatty acids, which T. brucei uses to build complex lipids or as a potential carbon source for oxidative metabolism. Of note, fatty acids are the membrane anchoring moiety of the glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchors of the major surface proteins, Variant Surface Glycoprotein (VSG) and the Procyclins, which are implicated in parasite survival in the host. While T. brucei can synthesize fatty acids de novo, it also readily acquires fatty acids from its surroundings. The relative contribution of parasite-derived vs. host-derived fatty acids to T. brucei growth and survival is not known, nor have the molecular mechanisms of fatty acid uptake been defined. To facilitate experimental inquiry into these important aspects of T. brucei biology, we addressed two questions in this review: (1) What is known about the availability of fatty acids in different host tissues where T. brucei can live? (2) What is known about the molecular mechanisms mediating fatty acid uptake in T. brucei? Finally, based on existing biochemical and genomic data, we suggest a model for T. brucei fatty acid uptake that proposes two major routes of fatty acid uptake: diffusion across membranes followed by intracellular trapping, and endocytosis of host lipoproteins.

Trimester-Specific Reference Ranges for Saturated, Monounsaturated and Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Serum of Pregnant Women: A Cohort Study from the ECLIPSES Group

In the course of pregnancy, increasing importance is being placed on maintaining optimal fatty acid (FA) levels and particularly n-3 PUFAs to ensure correct fetal development. However, reference ranges for FA have been reported in only a few studies. Our objective is to provide quantitative reference intervals for SFAs, MUFAs, and PUFAs (n-6 and n-3) in a large population of healthy pregnant women from a developed country. A prospective study of pregnant women (n = 479) was conducted from the first trimester (T1) to the third trimester (T3). A total of 11 fatty acids were analyzed in serum by gas chromatography mass spectrometry and were expressed as absolute (µmol/L) and relative (percentage of total FA) concentration units. Serum concentrations of SFAs, MUFAs, n-6 PUFAs, n-3 PUFAs, various FA ratios, and the EFA index were determined. The reference intervals (2.5/97.5 percentiles) in absolute values from T1 ranged from 1884.32 to 8802.81 µmol/L for SFAs, from 959.91 to 2979.46 µmol/L for MUFAs, from 2325.77 to 7735.74 µmol/L for n-6 PUFAs, and from 129.01 to 495.58 µmol/L for n-3 PUFAs. These intervals mainly include the values of other studies from European populations. However, reference ranges vary according to some maternal factors. The FA levels proposed, obtained from a large sample of pregnant women, will be a useful tool for assessing the degree of adequacy of FAs in pregnant women and will help to carry out dietary interventions based on certain maternal factors.

Omega-7 Mixed Fatty Acid Supplementation Fails to Reduce Serum Inflammatory Biomarkers: A Placebo-Controlled, Double-Blind Randomized Crossover Trial

We report the effects of mixed omega-7 fatty acid supplementation on changes in serum hsCRP, TNFα, and IL-6 levels and self-reported outcomes in people with non-specific chronic musculoskeletal discomfort. Design: A double-blind, placebo-controlled, 1:1 randomized single crossover trial composed of 688 mg/day palmiteolate for the verum and an equivalent amount of medium-chain triglycerides for the placebo. Method: Data were analyzed in two independent groups and as a crossover group. Results: From 211 screened participants in 2017–2019, 56 were randomized. Six participants dropped out and fifty completers contributed to the statistical analyses. At baseline, none of the investigated biomarkers were significantly correlated to subjectively assessed musculoskeletal discomfort levels. For the two-group analysis (n = 26 and n = 24), none of the serum biomarkers reached statistical significance; however, a statistically significant placebo effect was found in the subjective outcomes. Conclusion: For the crossover analysis (n = 50), three weeks of supplementation with n7FA containing 688 mg per day of palmiteolate did not reduce serum inflammatory biomarkers nor did it improve subjectively measured quality of life (QoL) compared to placebo. Future studies should explore appropriate biomarkers, sufficient power, length of dosing, inclusion criteria for volunteers with higher BMI, and the verification of cis-palmiteolate versus trans-palmiteolate.

Development of Fatty Acid Reference Ranges and Relationship with Lipid Biomarkers in Middle-Aged Healthy Singaporean Men and Women

Dietary fatty acids (FA) are essential for overall human health, yet individual FA reference ranges have yet to be established. Developing individual FA reference ranges can provide context to reported concentrations and whether an individual displays deficient, or excess amounts of FA. Reference ranges of sixty-seven individual FA (μmol/L) were profiled and analyzed using gas chromatography with a flame ionization detector from serum samples collected from 476 middle-aged Singaporean males (BMI:23.3 ± 2.9) and females (BMI:21.8 ± 3.6). Measures of triglycerides (TG), high-density lipoprotein (HDL), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and total cholesterol (TC) (mmol/L) were also collected. The mean FA concentration seen in this cohort (11,458 ± 2478 was similar to that of overweight North American cohorts assessed in past studies. Ten biologically relevant FA were compared between sexes, with females exhibiting significantly higher concentrations in four FA (p < 0.05). A multiple regression model revealed the ten FA contributed significantly to nearly all lipid biomarkers (p < 0.05). A majority of participants who had FA concentrations in the ≥95th percentile also exhibited TG, HDL, LDL, and TC levels in the “high” risk classification of developing cardiovascular disease. Future studies profiling individual FA reference ranges in many unique, global cohorts are necessary to develop cut-off values of individual FA concentrations highly related to disease-risk.

Is There a Link between Zinc Intake and Status with Plasma Fatty Acid Profile and Desaturase Activities in Dyslipidemic Subjects?

The prevalence of obesity and dyslipidemia has increased worldwide. The role of trace elements in the pathogenesis of these conditions is not well understood. This study examines the relationship between dietary zinc (Zn) intake and plasma concentrations of Zn, copper (Cu) and iron (Fe) with lipid profile indicators, fatty acid composition in plasma phospholipids and desaturase enzyme activities in a dyslipidemic population. The role of the newly proposed biomarker of Zn status, the linoleic:dihomo-gama-linolenic acid (LA:DGLA) ratio, in predicting Zn status of dyslipidemic subjects has been explored. The study included 27 dyslipidemic adults, 39-72 years old. Trace elements were determined using atomic absorption spectrometry and fatty acid composition by a liquid gas chromatography. Desaturase activities were calculated from product-precursor fatty acid ratios. Dietary data were obtained using 24 h recall questionnaires. Insufficient dietary intake of Zn, low plasma Zn concentrations and an altered Cu:Zn ratio is related to modified fatty acid profile in subjects with dyslipidemia. Plasma Zn status was associated with obesity. There was no correlation between dietary Zn intake and plasma Zn status. The LA:DGLA ratio was inversely linked to dietary Zn intake. Cu, in addition to Zn, may directly or indirectly, affect the activity of desaturase enzymes.

The Canadian Partnership for Tomorrow Project: a pan-Canadian platform for research on chronic disease prevention

BACKGROUND

Understanding the complex interaction of risk factors that increase the likelihood of developing common diseases is challenging. The Canadian Partnership for Tomorrow Project (CPTP) is a prospective cohort study created as a population-health research platform for assessing the effect of genetics, behaviour, family health history and environment (among other factors) on chronic diseases.

METHODS

Volunteer participants were recruited from the general Canadian population for a confederation of 5 regional cohorts. Participants were enrolled in the study and core information obtained using 2 approaches: attendance at a study assessment centre for all study measures (questionnaire, venous blood sample and physical measurements) or completion of the core questionnaire (online or paper), with later collection of other study measures where possible. Physical measurements included height, weight, percentage body fat and blood pressure. Participants consented to passive follow-up through linkage with administrative health databases and active follow-up through recontact. All participant data across the 5 regional cohorts were harmonized.

RESULTS

A total of 307 017 participants aged 30-74 from 8 provinces were recruited. More than half provided a venous blood sample and/or other biological sample, and 33% completed physical measurements. A total of 709 harmonized variables were created; almost 25% are available for all participants and 60% for at least 220 000 participants.

INTERPRETATION

Primary recruitment for the CPTP is complete, and data and biosamples are available to Canadian and international researchers through a data-access process. The CPTP will support research into how modifiable risk factors, genetics and the environment interact to affect the development of cancer and other chronic diseases, ultimately contributing evidence to reduce the global burden of chronic disease.

Metabolomic Insights into Human Arboviral Infections: Dengue, Chikungunya, and Zika Viruses

The global burden of arboviral diseases and the limited success in controlling them calls for innovative methods to understand arbovirus infections. Metabolomics has been applied to detect alterations in host physiology during infection. This approach relies on mass spectrometry or nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy to evaluate how perturbations in biological systems alter metabolic pathways, allowing for differentiation of closely related conditions. Because viruses heavily depend on host resources and pathways, they present unique challenges for characterizing metabolic changes. Here, we review the literature on metabolomics of arboviruses and focus on the interpretation of identified molecular features. Metabolomics has revealed biomarkers that differentiate disease states and outcomes, and has shown similarities in metabolic alterations caused by different viruses (e.g., lipid metabolism). Researchers investigating such metabolomic alterations aim to better understand host⁻virus dynamics, identify diagnostically useful molecular features, discern perturbed pathways for therapeutics, and guide further biochemical research. This review focuses on lessons derived from metabolomics studies on samples from arbovirus-infected humans.

Trends of serum phospholipid fatty acids over time in rural Uganda: evidence of nutritional transition?

Non-communicable diseases are projected to become the most common causes of death in Africa by 2030. The impact on health of epidemiological and nutritional transitions in sub-Saharan Africa remains unclear. To assess the trends of dietary fatty acids over time in Uganda, we examined fatty acids in serum collected from individuals in rural south-west Uganda, at three time points over two decades. Independent cross-sectional samples of 915 adults and children were selected from the general population cohort in 1990 (n 281), 2000 (n 283) and 2008 (n 351). Serum phospholipid fatty acids were measured by GC. Multivariate regression analyses were performed to compare the geometric means of fatty acids by time period. Serum fatty acid profiling showed high proportions of SFA, cis-MUFA and industrial trans-fatty acids (iTFA), likely to be biomarkers of high consumption of palm oil and hydrogenated fats. In contrast, proportions of n-6 and n-3 PUFA from vegetable oils and fish were low. From 1990 to 2008, serum phospholipids showed increases in absolute amounts of SFA (17·3 % increase in adults and 26·4 % in children), MUFA (16·7 % increase in adults and 16·8 % in children) and n-6:n-3 PUFA (40·1 % increase in adults and 39·8 % in children). The amount of elaidic acid, iTFA from hydrogenated fats, increased in children (60·1 % increase). In this rural Ugandan population, we show evidence of unfavourable trends over time of dietary fatty acids.

Altered Plasma Amino Acids and Lipids Associated With Abnormal Glucose Metabolism and Insulin Resistance in Older Adults

CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVES

Glucose metabolism becomes progressively impaired with older age. Fasting glucose and insulin resistance are risk factors for premature death and other adverse outcomes. We aimed to identifying plasma metabolites associated with altered glucose metabolism and insulin resistance in older community-dwelling adults.

PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS

A targeted metabolomics approach was used to identify plasma metabolites associated with impaired fasting plasma glucose, 2-hour plasma glucose on oral glucose tolerance testing, and homeostatic model assessment insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) in 472 participants who participated in the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging, with a mean (SD) age of 70.7 (9.9) years.

RESULTS

We measured 143 plasma metabolites. In ordinal logistic regression analyses, using a false discovery rate of 5% and adjusting for potential confounders, we found that alanine, glutamic acid, and proline were significantly associated with increased odds of abnormal fasting plasma glucose. Phosphatidylcholine (diacyl C34:4, alkyl-acyl C32:1, C32:2, C34:2, C34:3, and C36:3) was associated with decreased odds of abnormal fasting plasma glucose. Glutamic and acid phosphatidylcholine alkyl-acyl C34:2 were associated with increased and decreased odds of 2-hour plasma glucose, respectively. Glutamic acid was associated with increased odds of higher tertiles of HOMA-IR. Glycine; phosphatidylcholine (diacyl C32:0, alkyl-acyl C32:1, C32:2, C34:1, C34:2, C34:3, C36:2, C36:3, C40:5, C40:6, C42:3, C42:4, and C42:5); sphingomyelin C16:0, C24:1, and C26:1; and lysophosphatidylcholine C18:1 were associated with decreased odds of abnormal HOMA-IR.

CONCLUSIONS

Targeted metabolomics identified four plasma amino acids and 16 plasma lipid species, primarily containing polyunsaturated fatty acids, that were associated with abnormal glucose metabolism and insulin resistance in older adults.

Serum lipids as an indicator for the alteration of liver function in patients with hepatitis B

Background

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) exerts an intense impact on host lipid metabolism. Hence the aim of present study is to determine metabolic derangement that occurred in subjects suffering from hepatitis B patients.

Methods

The fasting blood samples were collected from hepatitis B patients (n = 50) attended in Taluka hospital TandoAdam, Sindh with age and gender matched controls (n = 50). Serum lipid profile and fatty acid (FA) composition were analyzed by micro-lab and gas chromatography.

Results

The hepatitis B patients have significantly lower level (p < 0.01) of lipid profile including total cholesterol (TC), triacylglyceride (TAG), high density lipoprotein-C (HDL-C) very low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (VLDL-C), low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C), and total lipid (TL) in comparison to controls, indicating hypolipidemia in patients. The result of total FA composition of HBV patients in comparison to controls reveal that myristic, palmitic, docosahexaenoic acids were significantly (p < 0.05) higher, while linoleic, eicosatrienoic, arachidonic, eicosapentaenoic acids were lower in HBV patients in comparison to controls. The elongase, ∆5 and ∆6-desaturase enzymes activities were found lower, while ∆9-desaturase activity was higher in hepatitis B patients as compared to controls, which indicates the impaired lipid metabolism.

Conclusion

The serum saturated fatty acid (SFA) and monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) were increased while polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) was reduced in both total and free form in hepatitis B patients due to altered activities of enzyme desaturases with impaired PUFA metabolism and non-enzymatic oxidation.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12944-018-0683-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Circulating Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids as Biomarkers for Dietary Intake across Subgroups: The CODAM and Hoorn Studies

AIMS

To evaluate whether participant characteristics and way of expressing circulating fatty acids (FA) influence the strengths of associations between self-reported intake and circulating levels of linoleic acid (LA), alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).

METHODS

Cross-sectional analyses were performed in pooled data from the CODAM (n = 469) and Hoorn (n = 702) studies. Circulating FA were measured by gas liquid chromatography and expressed as proportions (% of total FA) and concentrations (µg/mL). Dietary intakes were calculated from a validated food frequency questionnaire. Effects of participant characteristics on associations between dietary and circulating FA were calculated using interaction analyses.

RESULTS

Standardized regression coefficients between dietary FA and proportions of circulating FA (% of total FA) were LA β = 0.28, ALA β = 0.13, EPA β = 0.34, and DHA β = 0.45. Body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, and presence of CVD influenced associations for LA; gender influenced LA, EPA, and DHA; alcohol intake influenced LA and DHA; and glucose tolerance status influenced ALA (p values interaction <0.05). Coefficients for circulating FA as concentrations were LA β = 0.19, ALA β = 0.10, EPA β = 0.31, and DHA β = 0.41.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that characteristics such as BMI, alcohol intake, and expressing circulating FA as proportions or concentrations, influence associations between dietary and circulating FA.

Simple dietary criteria to improve serum n-3 fatty acid levels of mothers and their infants

OBJECTIVE

Sufficient maternal dietary intake of n-3 fatty acids (FA) supports offspring development. We aimed to construct simple criteria for dietary counselling to improve intake of n-3 FA.

DESIGN

Serum phospholipid FA from mothers and infants were analysed by GC one month after delivery. Dietary intake of foods during pregnancy and one month after delivery were recorded using 3 d food diaries and an index for healthy eating was calculated. Fish consumption was established by questionnaires. Dietary consumption of foods resulting in an increase in serum n-3 FA was defined.

SETTING

A mother-child follow-up study in Southwest Finland.

SUBJECTS

Mothers (n 90) and 1-month-old infants (n 63).

RESULTS

After delivery, the mother's consumption of fish at least three times per week resulted in an increase in total serum n-3 FA (mean difference (95 % CI): 1·7 (0·7, 2·8) % of total FA, P<0·001) and DHA (1·1 (0·5, 1·8) % of total FA, P<0·001) compared with non-consumers. Persistent fish intake once weekly throughout pregnancy increased total serum n-3 FA (P=0·001) and DHA (P<0·001). Overall, a healthy diet (middle and highest tertiles of healthy eating index score v. the lowest tertile) resulted in higher total serum n-3 FA (P=0·004) and DHA (P=0·008). Mother's diet along with higher serum levels of n-3 FA were related to serum FA levels in 1-month-old infants.

CONCLUSIONS

An overall healthy diet and persistent consumption of fish at least once weekly throughout pregnancy or more frequent fish intake three times per week increases n-3 FA in serum phospholipids of both mothers and their infants.

An initial evaluation of newly proposed biomarker of zinc status in humans - linoleic acid: dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (LA:DGLA) ratio

BACKGROUND

Zinc is an essential micronutrient for humans with important physiological functions. A sensitive and specific biomarker for assessing Zn status is still needed.

OBJECTIVE

The major aim of this study was to examine if the changes in the content of plasma phospholipid LA, DGLA and LA: DGLA ratio can be used to efficiently predict the dietary Zn intake and plasma Zn status of humans.

METHODS

The study was performed on healthy human volunteers, 25-55 years of age. The dietary Zn intake was assessed using 24 h recall questionnaires. Plasma phospholipid fatty acid analysis was done by gas chromatography, and plasma analysis of minerals by atomic absorption spectrometry. Biochemical, anthropometrical and hematological parameters were assessed.

RESULTS

No significant relationship was found between the dietary and plasma zinc status (r = 0.07; p = 0.6). There was a statistically significant correlation between DGLA and plasma Zn (r = 0.39, p = 0.00). No relationship was observed between the linoleic acid and plasma Zn, while there was a significant negative correlation between LA: DGLA ratio and plasma Zn status (r = -0.35, p = 0.01). Similarly, there were statistically significant difference in DGLA status (p = 0.004) and LA: DGLA ratio (p = 0.042) between the Zn formed groups.

CONCLUSIONS

This study is an initial step in evaluating LA: DGLA ratio as a biomarker of Zn status in humans. The results are encouraging as they show that concentration of DGLA is decreased and LA: DGLA ratio increased in people with lower dietary Zn intake. However, additional studies are needed to fully examine the sensitivity of this biomarker.

Comprehensive profiling of plasma fatty acid concentrations in young healthy Canadian adults

Circulating fatty acids (FA) are associated with a multitude of chronic diseases. However, a major gap in establishing such relationships is the lack of accepted fatty acid reference ranges representing healthy individuals. Data on validated FA reference ranges would provide a better understanding of study baseline measures and aid in the evaluation and interpretation of pharmaceutical or dietary interventions. Reference ranges for plasma FA levels have been reported in a few small studies and on a limited number of FA. Therefore, we determined the average and percentiles of a broad set of 61 FA (C14 - C24:1) from plasma total lipids from an ethnically diverse population of healthy young Canadian males and females (Total n = 826). Plasma concentrations of some of the major FA ranged from 0.3 to 4.1 mmol/L for palmitic acid, 0.1 to 1.0 mmol/L for stearic acid, 0.03 to 3.2 mmol/L for oleic acid, 0.2 to 5.0 mmol/L for linoleic acid (LA), 12.0 to 186.9 μmol/L for α-linolenic acid, and 7.2 to 237.5 μmol/L for docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Males had significantly higher plasma concentrations of γ-linolenic acid (GLA) and n-3 docosapentaenoic acid and lower concentrations of palmitoleic acid, LA and DHA than females. Comparison of FA concentrations between Caucasians, East Asians and South Asians revealed that South Asians had significantly lower levels of palmitoleic acid (p < 0.01) and oleic acid (p = 0.01) while East Asians had lower levels of GLA (p = 0.02) and dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (p = 0.03). Overall, these data provide a comprehensive set of quantitative values that profiles a small cohort of Canadians which highlights the utility of establishing validated FA reference ranges that may be used to understand how deficient, suboptimal, or excess amounts of a given FA may be associated with chronic disease.