Red-koji fermented red ginseng ameliorates high fat diet-induced metabolic disorders in mice

Fermentation: improvement of pharmacological effects and applications of botanical drugs

Fermentation is an important concoction technique for botanical drugs. Fermentation transforms and enhances the active ingredients of botanical drugs through specific microbiological processes, ultimately affecting their pharmacological effects. This review explores the use of fermented botanical drugs in areas such as anti-tumor, hypolipidemic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, cosmetology, and intestinal flora regulation. It elucidates the potential pharmacological mechanisms and discusses the benefits of fermentation technology for botanical drugs, including reducing toxic side effects, enhancing drug efficacy, and creating new active ingredients. This article also discussesdelves into the common strains and factors influencing the fermentation process, which are crucial for the successful transformation and enhancement of these drugs. Taken together, this study aimed to provide a reference point for further research and wider applications of botanical drug fermentation technology.

Regulation of appetite-related neuropeptides by Panax ginseng: A novel approach for obesity treatment

Obesity is a primary factor provoking various chronic disorders, including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and cancer, and causes the death of 2.8 million individuals each year. Diet, physical activity, medications, and surgery are the main therapies for overweightness and obesity. During weight loss therapy, a decrease in energy stores activates appetite signaling pathways under the regulation of neuropeptides, including anorexigenic [corticotropin-releasing hormone, proopiomelanocortin (POMC), cholecystokinin (CCK), and cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript] and orexigenic [agouti-related protein (AgRP), neuropeptide Y (NPY), and melanin-concentrating hormone] neuropeptides, which increase food intake and lead to failure in attaining weight loss goals. Ginseng and ginsenosides reverse these signaling pathways by suppressing orexigenic neuropeptides (NPY and AgRP) and provoking anorexigenic neuropeptides (CCK and POMC), which prevent the increase in food intake. Moreover, the results of network pharmacology analysis have revealed that constituents of ginseng radix, including campesterol, beta-elemene, ginsenoside Rb1, biotin, and pantothenic acid, are highly correlated with neuropeptide genes that regulate energy balance and food intake, including ADIPOQ, NAMPT, UBL5, NUCB2, LEP, CCK, GAST, IGF1, RLN1, PENK, PDYN, and POMC. Based on previous studies and network pharmacology analysis data, ginseng and its compounds may be a potent source for obesity treatment by regulating neuropeptides associated with appetite.

Walnut Meal Extracts Rich In Polyphenols Mitigate Insulin Resistance and Modulate Gut Microbiota in High Fat Diet-Fed Rats

Walnut kernel is a traditional Chinese herb recorded in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia with the efficacies of invigorating kidney, tonifying lung, and relaxing bowel. However, the potential mechanisms were unclear. This article aims to uncover the interdict mechanisms of walnut meal extracts (WMP) on high-fat diet (HFD) induced metabolic disorders in rats and reveal how the WMP benefits are associated with changes in the intestinal flora. Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were fed a standard chow diet or an HFD for 18 weeks. After 6 weeks, the HFD rats were supplemented with 750 mg WMP/kg body weight or the vehicle for 12 weeks. The structure of gut microbiota was assessed by analyzing 16S rDNA sequences. WMP suppressed the weight gain and visceral obesity. WMP treatment also improved lipid profiles and increased antioxidative activities. WMP fully reversed hepatic steatosis with the upregulation of adipocytokines involved in lipid catabolism (e.g., adiponectin, PPAR-γ, visfatin, CEBPα) and the increased activities of lipoprotein lipase and hormone-sensitive lipase, which were associated with glucose tolerance improvement and insulin resistance (IR) mitigation. As revealed by 16S rDNA sequencing, WMP restored the diversity of intestinal flora reduced by HFD. WMP dramatically reduced the abundance of Gram-negative bacteria, especially Fusobacterium varium and Bacteroides vulgatus, and sharply increased the abundance of Lactobacillus animalis decreased by HFD. Our findings demonstrated that WMP suppressed the weight gain and adiposity in HFD-fed rats and fully reversed HFD induced IR and hepatic steatosis while dramatically reducing the abundance of Fusobacteriaceae and Enterobacteriaceae, underscoring the gut-liver axis as a primary target of walnut polyphenols.

Lemon Balm and Corn Silk Mixture Alleviates Metabolic Disorders Caused by a High-Fat Diet

We recently reported that varying combination ratios of lemon balm (Mellissa officinalis L.) and corn silk extracts (Stigma of Zea mays L. fruit) could reduce the obesity caused by a high-fat diet (HFD). The present study investigated the dose-dependent effect of a 1:1 (w:w) mixture of lemon balm and corn silk extracts (M-LB/CS) on HFD-mediated metabolic disorders and compared the effect with metformin. Oral administration of 50–200 mg/kg of M-LB/CS for 84 days significantly inhibited HFD-induced body weight gain, adipocyte hypertrophy, and lipogenic gene induction without affecting food consumption in mice. Biochemical analyses showed that M-LB/CS blocked abnormal lipid accumulation in the blood by escalating fecal lipid excretion. In addition, M-LB/CS prevented HFD-mediated pancreatic atrophy, decreased the number of insulin- and glucagon-immunoreactive cells, and inhibited increases in glycated hemoglobin, glucose, and insulin. Moreover, M-LB/CS also reduced hepatic injury, lipid accumulation, gluconeogenesis, and lipid peroxidation in parallel with the induction of AMP-activated protein kinase and antioxidant enzymes. Furthermore, M-LB/CS protected the kidney by inhibiting tubular vacuolation and reducing serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen levels. The prophylactic effect of 100 mg/kg M-LB/CS-administration was comparable to that of metformin. Therefore, M-LB/CS may be an alternative option for managing obesity and its related metabolic disorders.

Lemon Balm and Corn Silk Extracts Mitigate High-Fat Diet-Induced Obesity in Mice

Lemon balm and corn silk are valuable medicinal herbs, which exhibit variety of beneficial effects for human health. The present study explored the anti-obesity effects of a mixture of lemon balm and corn silk extracts (M-LB/CS) by comparison with the effects of single herbal extracts in high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity in mice. HFD supplementation for 84 days increased the body weight, the fat mass density, the mean diameter of adipocytes, and the thickness of fat pads. However, oral administration of M-LB/CS significantly alleviated the HFD-mediated weight gain and adipocyte hypertrophy without affecting food consumption. Of the various combination ratios of M-LB/CS tested, the magnitude of the decreases in weight gain and adipocyte hypertrophy by administration of 1:1, 1:2, 2:1, and 4:1 (w/w) M-LB/CS was more potent than that by single herbal extracts alone. In addition, M-LB/CS reduced the HFD-mediated increases in serum cholesterol, triglyceride, and low-density lipoprotein, prevented the reduction in serum high-density lipoprotein, and facilitated fecal excretion of cholesterol and triglyceride. Moreover, M-LB/CS mitigated the abnormal changes in specific mRNAs associated with lipogenesis and lipolysis in the adipose tissue. Furthermore, M-LB/CS reduced lipid peroxidation by inhibiting the HFD-mediated reduction in glutathione, catalase, and superoxide dismutase. Therefore, M-LB/CS is a promising herbal mixture for preventing obesity.

Monascus ruber fermented Panax ginseng ameliorates lipid metabolism disorders and modulate gut microbiota in rats fed a high-fat diet

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) is rich in a variety of biologically active ingredients, which shows good effect in the treatment of metabolic diseases. Monascus has lipid-lowering activity and one of its metabolites, lovastatin, is widely used in clinical practice.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The main purpose of this study was to clarify the effects of fermented Panax ginseng by Monascus ruber (PM) on lipid metabolism and gut microbiota in rats fed a high-fat diet.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

SPF Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into 5 groups, the therapeutic effect of PM on HFD-induced obesity, hyperlipidemia, hepatic steatosis, and disordered gut microbiota were determined in rats.

RESULTS

PM could attenuate features of obesity in rats, decrease serum TC, LDL-C and IgA levels, increase excretion of bile acids in feces. Hepatic histopathologic analysis revealed that PM decrease lipid accumulation in hepatocytes. Consistently, mRNA expression levels of cholesterol metabolism-related genes were regulated in the livers of HFD-fed rats administered with PM. In addition, PM could enhance the diversity and relative abundance of gut microbiota, reduce the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes (F/B) ratio, increase significantly the relative abundance of Prevotella_9, and decrease these of Muribaculaceae.

CONCLUSIONS

PM could regulate lipid metabolism and the structure of the gut microbiota in the HFD rats. Our findings provide valuable experience for the development of ginseng. PM could be a potentially effective strategy to prevent and treat metabolic diseases and alleviate the gut microbiota disturbance caused by it.

Anti-Obesity Effect of Fermented Panax notoginseng Is Mediated Via Modulation of Appetite and Gut Microbial Population

Panax notoginseng (PN) is a traditional herbal medicine containing several active compounds such as saponins and ginsenosides with many therapeutic applications including anti-obesity activity. Fermentation by lactic acid bacteria has the potential to metabolize ginsenosides to more active forms. This study examined whether fermentation has any benefits on the protective effects of a PN extract against obesity using a high-fat diet (HFD)-fed mouse model. PN was fermented with Lactobacillus plantarum which exhibited high β-glucosidase activity. Upon fermentation, the PN extract exhibited an altered ginsenoside profile, a dramatic increase in the lactate level. Treatment of the HFD group with fermented PN (FPN), but not PN, decreased both the food and calorie intake significantly, which was consistent with the more potent suppressing effects of FPN than PN on the signaling pathways involved in appetite and energy intake. The PN treatment also modulated the gut microbial composition. The PN and FPN treatment groups showed clear differences in the population of gut microbiota. The relative abundance of Bacteroidetes, Erysipelotrichaceae, Coprococus, and Dehalobacterium were significantly higher in the FPN group then the normal, HFD, and XEN groups. Furthermore, the relative abundances of Akkermansia, Dehalobacterium, Erysipeliotrichaceae and parpabacteroides were significantly higher in the FPN group than the PN group, but the relative abundances of Allobaculum, Erysipelotrichi and Erysipelotrichale were significantly lower. The relative abundance of Bacteroides and Lactococcus was significantly higher and lower, respectively in the PN and FPN groups than the HFD group. In conclusion, the altered ginsenoside and organic acid's profile, and altered gut microbial composition are believed to be the major factors contributing to the anti-obesity properties of FPN.

Fermented Red Ginseng Alleviates Ovalbumin-Induced Inflammation in Mice by Suppressing Interleukin-4 and Immunoglobulin E Expression

Ginseng (the root of Panax ginseng Meyer) has been reported to have many biologic therapeutic effects, including anti-inflammatory properties, and ginsenosides are considered as one of the factors responsible for these therapeutic effects. To improve their therapeutic action, probiotic bacteria are used to ferment and chemically transform ginsenosides in red ginseng (RG). In this study, we aimed to investigate the beneficial effects of RG fermented by probiotic bacteria (FRG) against ovalbumin (OVA)-induced allergic rhinitis in a mouse model. We induced the mouse model via OVA inhalation; experimental results revealed increased immunoglobulin E (IgE) and interleukin (IL)-4 levels, leading to Th2-type cytokine response. The mice with induced allergy were then orally administered RG and FRG over 2 weeks, as a result of which, IL-4 and IgE levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, nasal fluid, and serum were found to be ameliorated more effectively by FRG than by RG, suggesting that FRG has better immune regulatory effects than RG. FRG also downregulated immune cell levels, such as those of eosinophils and basophils, and significantly decreased the thickness of OVA-induced respiratory epithelium compared to RG. Collectively, the results showed that FRG treatment alleviates inflammation, thereby extending a protective effect to mice with OVA-induced inflammatory allergic rhinitis.

Anti-Diabetic Obesity Effects of Wasabia Japonica Matsum Leaf Extract on 45% Kcal High-Fat Diet-Fed Mice

The present study examined the effects of Wasabi leaf (WL) on 45% Kcal high-fat diet (HFD)-fed mild diabetic obese mice. In particular, the hepatoprotective (i.e., liver weight, histopathology of liver, serum aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, and gamma-glutamyltransferase) effects of 12 weeks of continuous oral administration of 250 mg/kg metformin, and 200, 100, or 50 mg/kg WL were investigated. In addition, the hypolipidemic (i.e., serum triglyceride, total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein levels), hypoglycemic (i.e., glycated hemoglobin, blood glucose and insulin levels, pancreatic weight, and immunohistochemical-histopathological analysis of the pancreas), and anti-obesity effects (i.e., body weight, mean food consumption, total and abdominal body fat mass, periovarian fat weight, and histopathology of the periovarian and abdominal wall adipocytes) were monitored. The liver and general antioxidant defense systems were also assessed by lipid metabolism-related gene expression. All diabetes manifestations and related complications, including obesity and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), were dose-dependently reduced after 84 days of oral treatment with metformin or each of the three dosages of WL. In particular, 50 mg/kg WL showed effective suppression effects against HFD-induced diabetes and related complications of obesity, NAFLD, and hyperlipidemia, comparable to the effects of metformin.

Ginseng Extracts, GS-KG9 and GS-E3D, Prevent Blood-Brain Barrier Disruption and Thereby Inhibit Apoptotic Cell Death of Hippocampal Neurons in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Rats

Type 1 diabetes mellitus is known to be linked to the impairment of blood–brain barrier (BBB) integrity following neuronal cell death. Here, we investigated whether GS-KG9 and GS-E3D, bioactive ginseng extracts from Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer), inhibit BBB disruption following neuronal death in the hippocampus in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats showing type 1-like diabetes mellitus. GS-KG9 and GS-E3D (50, 150, or 300 mg/kg, twice a day for 4 weeks) administered orally showed antihyperglycemic activity in a dose-dependent manner and significantly attenuated the increase in BBB permeability and loss of tight junction proteins. GS-KG9 and GS-E3D also inhibited the expression and activation of matrix metalloproteinase-9 and the infiltration of macrophages into the brain parenchyma, especially into the hippocampal region. In addition, microglia and astrocyte activation in the hippocampus and the expression of proinflammatory mediators such as tnf-α, Il-1β, IL-6, cox-2, and inos were markedly alleviated in GS-KG9 and GS-E3D-treated group. Furthermore, apoptotic cell death of hippocampal neurons, especially in CA1 region, was significantly reduced in GS-KG9 and GS-E3D-treated groups as compared to vehicle control. These results suggest that GS-KG9 and GS-E3D effectively prevent apoptotic cell death of hippocampal neurons by inhibiting BBB disruption and may be a potential therapy for the treatment of diabetic patients.

Acute and Subchronic Oral Toxicity of Fermented Green Tea with Aquilariae Lignum in Rodents

Green tea is generally considered safe, but there have been concerns regarding side effects relating to the main component, catechins, especially hepatotoxicities. We have previously shown beneficial effects of fermented green tea with Aquilariae Lignum (fGT) via an oral route in diabetic and obese models. Thus, the toxicological safety of fGT was assessed at limited oral doses for a rodent. Mice or rats of both genders were orally administered distilled water as a control and fGT at 2.0, 1.0, and 0.5 g/kg. There were no mortalities or gross abnormalities in the fGT groups for 2 weeks following the single oral dose in mice. No fGT-relevant abnormalities were found in postmortem and histopathological examinations, suggesting LD₅₀ of fGT at more than 2.0 g/kg with no specific target organs. There were also no fGT-relevant mortalities or abnormal signs in the repeated oral dose for 13 weeks in rats. In the fGT groups, no body weight changes or daily metabolic changes were found, and hematological and serum biochemical ranges were normal. The postmortem and histopathological examinations revealed few fGT-related abnormalities in most of the organs including the liver, although slight lymphoid cell hyperplasia in the lymph node was observed in a few rats with fGT at 2.0 g/kg. This may be secondary to increased immune response to the highest dose because there were no histopathological lesions or organ weight changes. It suggests nontoxic safety of fGT at up to 2.0 g/kg, which provides useful information for clinical use.

Laxative effects of triple fermented barley extracts (FBe) on loperamide (LP)-induced constipation in rats

BACKGROUND

Constipation, a common health problem, causes discomfort and affects the quality of life. This study intended to evaluate the potential laxative effect of triple fermented barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) extract (FBe), produced by saccharification, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Weissella cibaria, on loperamide (LP)-induced constipation in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats, a well-established animal model of spastic constipation.

METHODS

Spastic constipation was induced via oral treatment with LP (3 mg/kg) for 6 days 1 h before the administration of each test compound. Similarly, FBe (100, 200 and 300 mg/kg) was orally administered to rats once a day for 6 days. The changes in number, weight, and water content of fecal, motility ratio, colonic mucosa histology, and fecal mucous contents were recorded. The laxative properties of FBe were compared with those of a cathartic stimulant, sodium picosulfate. A total of 48 (8 rats in 6 groups) healthy male rats were selected and following 10 days of acclimatization. Fecal pellets were collected one day before administration of the first dose and starting from immediately after the fourth administration for a duration of 24 h. Charcoal transfer was conducted after the sixth and final administration of the test compounds.

RESULTS

In the present study, oral administration of 100-300 mg/kg of FBe exhibited promising laxative properties including intestinal charcoal transit ratio, thicknesses and mucous producing goblet cells of colonic mucosa with decreases of fecal pellet numbers and mean diameters remained in the lumen of colon, mediated by increases in gastrointestinal motility.

CONCLUSION

Therefore, FBe might act as a promising laxative agent and functional food ingredient to cure spastic constipation, with less toxicity observed at a dose of 100 mg/kg.

Anti-diabetic effects of blue honeyberry on high-fed-diet-induced type II diabetic mouse

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE

The blue honeysuckle berry (Lonicera caerulea var. edulis L.) is a small deciduous shrub belonging to the Caprifoliaceae family that is native to Russia, China, Japan, and Korea. The berry of this shrub is edible, sweet and juicy and is commonly known as the blue honeyberry (BHB). This study examined the anti-diabetic potential of BHB on high-fat-diet-induced mild diabetic mice. The hypoglycemic, and nephroprotective effects of the 12-week oral administration of blue honeyberry extract were analyzed.

MATERIALS/METHODS

The hypoglycemic effects were based on the observed changes in insulin, blood glucose, and glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c). Furthermore, the changes in the weight of the pancreas, including its histopathology and immunohistochemical investigation were also performed. Moreover, the nephroprotective effects were analyzed by observing the changes in kidney weight, its histopathology, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), and serum creatinine levels.

RESULTS

The results showed that the high-fat diet (HFD)-induced control mice showed a noticeable increase in blood glucose, insulin, HbA1c, BUN, and creatinine levels. Furthermore, growth was observed in lipid droplet deposition related to the degenerative lesions in the vacuolated renal tubules with the evident enlargement and hyperplasia of the pancreatic islets. In addition, in the endocrine pancreas, there was an increase in the insulin-and glucagon-producing cells, as well as in the insulin/glucagon cell ratios. On the other hand, compared to the HFD-treated mice group, all these diabetic and related complications were ameliorated significantly in a dose-dependent manner after 84 days of the continuous oral administration of BHBe at 400, 200 and 100 mg/kg, and a dramatic resettlement in the hepatic glucose-regulating enzyme activities was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

By assessing the key parameters for T2DM, the present study showed that the BHBe could act as a potential herbal agent to cure diabetes (type II) and associated ailments in HFD-induced mice.

Protective effects of enhanced minor ginsenosides in Lactobacillus fermentum KP-3-fermented ginseng in mice fed a high fat diet

Lactobacillus fermentum KP-3 was isolated from Korean pickle and used to ferment ginseng. The changes in the minor ginsenosides in the fermented ginseng were analyzed and the material was evaluated in high fat diet-fed mice. Total ginsenosides increased from 0.746 mg g-1 to 0.939 mg g-1 after fermentation, and the levels of minor ginsenosides (Rg2, Rg3, Rh1, Rh2, F2, and Ro) increased from 0.186 mg g-1 to 0.704 mg g-1. In an animal study, the serum TC and LDL levels in the HFD group were significantly higher than those of the control group. Compared with the HFD group, the probiotic-fermented ginseng significantly decreased the serum TC and LDL levels. In addition, the serum and liver ALT and AST levels were dramatically increased in the HFD group, but these increases were significantly inhibited by treatment with the probiotic-fermented ginseng. Furthermore, fermented ginseng reduced high fat diet-induced liver lipid accumulation. Overall, fermentation with L. fermentum KP-3 enhanced minor ginsenosides in ginseng and this probiotic-fermented ginseng ameliorated hyperlipidemia and liver injury induced by a high fat diet.

Fermented red ginseng and ginsenoside Rd alleviate ovalbumin-induced allergic rhinitis in mice by suppressing IgE, interleukin-4, and interleukin-5 expression

Background

To increase the pharmacological effects of red ginseng (RG, the steamed root of Panax ginseng Meyer), RG products modified by heat process or fermentation have been developed. However, the antiallergic effects of RG and modified/fermented RG have not been simultaneously examined. Therefore, we examined the allergic rhinitis (AR)-inhibitory effects of water-extracted RG (wRG), 50% ethanol-extracted RG (eRG), and bifidobacteria-fermented eRG (fRG) in vivo.

Methods

RBL-2H3 cells were stimulated with phorbol 12-myristate-13-acetate/A23187. Mice with AR were prepared by treatment with ovalbumin. Allergic markers IgE, tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-4, and IL-5 were assayed in the blood, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, nasal mucosa, and colon using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Mast cells, eosinophils, and Th2 cell populations were assayed using a flow cytometer.

Results

RG products potently inhibited IL-4 expression in phorbol 12-myristate-13-acetate/A23187-stimulated RBL-2H3 cells. Of tested RG products, fRG most potently inhibited IL-4 expression. RG products also alleviated ovalbumin-induced AR in mice. Of these, fRG most potently reduced nasal allergy symptoms and blood IgE levels. fRG treatment also reduced IL-4 and IL-5 levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, nasal mucosa, and reduced mast cells, eosinophils, and Th2 cell populations. Furthermore, treatment with fRG reduced IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 levels in the colon and restored ovalbumin-suppressed Bacteroidetes and Actinobacteria populations and ovalbumin-induced Firmicutes population in gut microbiota. Treatment with ginsenoside Rd significantly alleviated ovalbumin-induced AR in mice.

Conclusion

fRG and ginsenoside Rd may alleviate AR by suppressing IgE, IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 expression and restoring the composition of gut microbiota.

Protective effects of triple fermented barley extract (FBe) on indomethacin-induced gastric mucosal damage in rats

BACKGROUND

Hordeum vulgare L (barley) contains numerous phenolic substances with proven anticancer, antioxidant and gastroprotective activities. Saccharification increases the functionality and bioavailability of these compounds thus can aid in the development of a natural product based medicine. This study aimed to investigate the possible gastroprotective effects of saccharification on the indomethacin (IND)-induced gastric ulcers in rats using Weissella cibaria- and Saccharomyces cerevisiae-triple fermented H. vulgare extract (FBe).

METHODS

In total, 60 healthy male 6-week old Sprague-Dawley SD (SPF/VAF Outbred CrljOri:CD1) rats were commercially purchased. The FBe extract (100, 200, and 300 mg kg^- 1) was orally administered 30 min before an oral treatment of IND (25 mg kg^- 1). Six hours after IND treatment, variations in the histopathology, myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity, gross lesion scores, lipid peroxidation, and antioxidant defense system component (superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione (GSH)) levels were measured.

RESULTS

FBe treatment showed significant (p < 0.01 or p < 0.05) and dose-dependent decrease in gastric mucosal damage. In the present study hemorrhagic gross lesions, gastric MPO activity, and histopathological gastric ulcerative lesions were observed in IND-treated rats compared to the IND control rats. In particular, FBe, in a dose-dependent manner, strengthened the antioxidant defense systems, decreased lipid peroxidation and CAT activity by increasing the GSH levels and SOD activity, respectively. The 200 mg kg^- 1 dose of FBe was similarly gastroprotective as the 10 mg kg^- 1 dose of omeprazole in rats with IND-induced gastric mucosal damage.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of the present study show that an oral administration of FBe had positive gastroprotective effects through strengthening the body antioxidant defense system and anti-inflammatory effects.

Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels improves metabolic and ovarian parameters in female obese rats with malfunctioning hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal axis

Background

Obesity is a chronic and multifactorial disease characterized by increased adipose tissue. In females, obesity leads to reduced ovulation and lower chances of conception in diseases like polycystic ovary syndrome, making it important to characterize complementary medicine to attenuate such deleterious effects. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess the effects of a hydroethanolic extract from Syzigium cumini leaves in female reproductive impairments present in the obesity model of neonatal L-monosodium glutamate injection.

Methods

Newborn Wistar rats received saline (CTRL) or L-monosodium glutamate 4 mg/g BW (MSG). At 90 days of age, CTRL and some MSG rats received saline, while others received hydroethanolic extract of S. cumini leaves (HESc 500 mg/kg/day, MSG-Syz group) for 30 consecutive days. Estrous cycle was determined by daily vaginal washes. On days 26 and 28 of treatment, oral glucose tolerance test and blood collection were performed for biochemical assessment. At the end, animals were euthanized during estrous phase; blood was collected to measure sex hormones and organs collected for weighing and histological evaluation.

Results

MSG-Syz showed reduced Lee Index, retroperitoneal fat pads and restored gluco-insulin axis. Moreover, HESc treatment reduced serum cholesterol levels when compared to MSG. Treatment with HESc did not restore the oligociclicity observed in obese animals, though MSG-Syz reestablished ovarian follicle health back to CTRL levels, with proliferating primordial follicles – these effects were followed by a decrease on periovarian adipocyte area.

Conclusions

This is the first report to show the reversibility of the reproductive dysfunctions seen in MSG female rats through ethnopharmacological treatment. Moreover, it expands the use of HESc as a prominent tool to treat metabolic and reproductive disorders. Finally, we provide novel evidence that, without a functioning hypothalamus-pituitary-gonads axis, metabolic improvement is ineffective for estrous cyclicity, but critical for ovarian follicle health.

Hepatoprotective and anti-obesity effects of Korean blue honeysuckle extracts in high fat diet-fed mice

[Purpose]

This study aimed to study the protective effects and mechanism of Blue Honeysuckle (BH) extracts (Berries of Lonicera caerulea L.) on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and obesity risk factors in a high fat-diet (HFD) model.

[Methods]

Animals adapted to HFD were selected after 1 week of adaption period and divided into 6 groups (8 mice in each group; 40 HFD-fed mice and 8 normal fat pellet diet (NFD)-fed mice). After the end of 12 weeks of continuous oral administrations of 3 different dosages of BH extract, 400, 200 and 100 mg/kg, or metformin 250 mg/kg, dissolved in a volume of 10 mL/kg distilled water, the hepatoprotective, hypolipidemic, hypoglycemic, nephroprotective, and anti-obesity effects were analyzed.

[Results]

The BH extract improved fat density and mass, adipocyte histopathology, hepatocyte hypertrophy, hepatic enzyme activity, lipid metabolism, and related gene expression including ACC1, AMPK α1 and AMPK α2 in hepatic tissue, leptin, UCP2, adiponectin, C/EBP α, C/EBPβ and SREBP1c in adipose tissue. Especially, 200 mg/kg of BH extract constantly improved NAFLD and obesity risk factors through AMPK upregulation-mediated hepatic glucose enzyme activity, lipid metabolism-related gene expression, and activation of the antioxidant defense system, to a level comparable to that of metformin 250 mg/kg in HFD-fed mice.

[Conclusion]

BH extract has the potential to reduce the risk factors associated with obesity, in addition to the remarkable effect of preventing NAFLD. Future research will need to be done to determine whether these results are consistent in human studies.

Anti-obesity and fatty liver-preventing activities of Lonicera caerulea in high-fat diet-fed mice

Blue honeysuckle (BH, Lonicera caerulea) is used as a traditional medicine in Russia, Japan and China, but is not commonly considered as an edible berry in Europe, USA or Korea. BH has been revealed to decrease serum cholesterol and triacylglycerol (triglyceride or TG) levels through the activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), thus it is expected to be a health functional food and pharmaceutical agent for the prevention of non-alcoholic liver damage, in addition to effects as a suppressor of hyperlipidemia and as an anti-obesity agent. In the present study, the pharmacological activity of BH extract (BHe) was observed in high-fat diet (HFD)-fed mice. Significant increases in fat pad weight, body weight, fat accumulation (body and abdominal fat density, and thickness of the periovarian and abdominal wall) and serum biochemical levels (aspartate transaminase, alanine amino-transferase, alkaline phosphatase, lactate dehydrogenase, γ-glutamyltransferase, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein and TG, with the exception of high-density lipoprotein) were observed in HFD-fed mice. In addition, increases in adipocyte hypertrophy, the area of steatohepatitis and hepatocyte hypertrophy were observed, whereas decreased zymogen content was identified upon histopathological observation. Increased deterioration of the endogenous antioxidant defense system (liver catalase, glutathione and superoxide dismutase) and hepatic lipid peroxidation was observed. In addition, there were decreases in hepatic glucokinase activity, AMPKα1 and AMPKα2 mRNA expression, adipose tissue uncoupling protein 2 expression, and adiponectin mRNA expression, increases in phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and glucose-6-phosphatase activity, hepatic acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 mRNA expression, and the expression of leptin, CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein (C/EBP) α, C/EBPβ and sterol-regulatory-element-binding protein 1c mRNA in the periovarian tissue. Furthermore, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and obesity were significantly inhibited by the continuous administration of BHe for 84 days. These results revealed that BHe may be a promising novel drug or functional food candidate for the treatment of obesity and NAFLD.

Fermented ginseng extract, BST204, disturbs adipogenesis of mesenchymal stem cells through inhibition of S6 kinase 1 signaling

Background

The biological and pharmacological effects of BST204, a fermented ginseng extract, have been reported in various disease conditions. However, its molecular action in metabolic disease remains poorly understood. In this study, we identified the antiadipogenic activity of BST204 resulting from its inhibition of the S6 kinase 1 (S6K1) signaling pathway.

Methods

The inhibitory effects of BST204 on S6K1 signaling were investigated by immunoblot, nuclear fractionation, immunoprecipitation analyses. The antiadipogenic effect of BST204 was evaluated by measuring mRNA levels of adipogenic genes and by chromatin immunoprecipitation and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis.

Results

Treatment with BST204 inhibited activation and nuclear translocation of S6K1, further decreasing the interaction between S6K1 and histone H2B in 10T1/2 mesenchymal stem cells. Subsequently, phosphorylation of H2B at serine 36 (H2BS36p) by S6K1 was reduced by BST204, inducing an increase in the mRNA expression of Wnt6, Wnt10a, and Wnt10b, which disturbed adipogenic differentiation and promoted myogenic and early osteogenic gene expression. Consistently, BST204 treatment during adipogenic commitment suppressed the expression of adipogenic marker genes and lipid drop formation.

Conclusion

Our results indicate that BST204 blocks adipogenesis of mesenchymal stem cells through the inhibition of S6K1-mediated histone phosphorylation. This study suggests the potential therapeutic strategy using BST204 to combat obesity and musculoskeletal diseases.

Effects of Panax ginseng on Obesity in Animal Models: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

OBJECTIVE

To determine the antiobesity effects of Panax ginseng in animals.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic search for all controlled trials (up to March 2017) that assessed the antiobesity effects of P. ginseng in animal obesity models in the PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane library, Web of Science, and Scopus databases. The primary outcome was final body weight measured at the longest follow-up time after administration of the intervention. The secondary outcome was the lipid profile. We assessed methodological quality using the SYRCLE risk of bias tool, and RevMan 5.3 was used to perform a meta-analysis. Finally, a subgroup analysis of parameters including intervention duration, animal models, and type of ginseng was performed.

RESULT

We identified 16 studies that met the inclusion criteria. Data from the meta-analysis indicated that the intervention group had a significantly lower body weight than the control group (SMD: -1.50, 95% CI: -1.90 to -1.11, χ2: 78.14, P < 0.0001, I2 = 58%). Final body weight was lower in an animal obesity model induced by high-fat diet than in genetic models. Also the intervention group had a significantly higher serum HDL level and lower serum LDL, TG, and TC level than the control group.

CONCLUSION

Our meta-analysis indicated that oral administration of P. ginseng significantly inhibits weight gain and improves serum lipid profiles in animal obesity models. However, causes of obesity and type of ginseng may affect treatment effects.

Anti-obesity effects of yellow catfish protein hydrolysate on mice fed a 45% kcal high-fat diet

Obesity contributes to the etiologies of a variety of comorbid conditions, such as type 2 diabetes, hypertension and cardiovascular disease. In the present study, the anti-obesity effects of yellow catfish protein hydrolysate (YPh) were observed in mice fed a 45% kcal high-fat diet (HFD) compared with those of mice treated with simvastatin. The HFD-fed control mice exhibited noticeable increase in body weight, and whole-body and abdominal fat densities, periovarian and abdominal wall-deposited fat pad weight, as well as in the levels of triglycerides (TG), blood total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, creatinine, blood urea nitrogen, and in the fecal TG and TC contents. However, they exhibited a decrease in serum high-density lipoprotein levels. In addition, an increase was detected in periovarian and dorsal abdominally deposited fat pad thickness, adipocyte hypertrophy, the number of steatohepatitis regions, hepatocyte hypertrophy and lipid droplet deposition-related renal tubular vacuolation degenerative lesions, along with increased hepatic lipid peroxidation and a deteriorated endogenous antioxidant defense system (glutathione, catalase and superoxide dismutase). However, all the above-mentioned obesity-related complications were dose-dependently and significantly inhibited after 84 days of thye consecutive oral administration of 125, 250 and 500 mg/kg YPh. In addition, YPh dose-dependently depleted the liver endogenous antioxidant defense system and inhibited hepatic lipid peroxidation. Overall, the effects of 250 mg/kg YPh on HFD-induced obesity and related complications were similar or more potent than those of 10 mg/kg simvastatin. These results indicate that YPh is a promising new potent medicinal ingredient for possible use in the treatment of obesity and related complications.

GBCK25, fermented ginseng, attenuates cardiac dysfunction in high fat diet-induced obese mice

The fermentation of medicinal herbs facilitated by microbes is assumed to exert promising therapeutic efficacy on the absorption, bioavailability, and pharmacological effects by speeding up the making or conversion of active constituents into their metabolites. We examined the cardioprotective potential of fermented ginseng, GBCK25, against high-fat diet (HFD)-induced metabolic and functional illnesses as following the essential analysis such as electrocardiographic parameters, alterations of body and organ weights, and echocardiographic studies. The results exhibited that body weights were significantly reduced and the gain of different organ weights were partly eased by GBCK25 treatment. Echocardiography results proposed the amelioration of heart function through normalized levels of left ventricle systolic pressure, ejection fraction, and fractional shortening. These outcomes deliver straight confirmation that GBCK25 could be a potential nutraceutical source for the relief of HFD-induced obesity mediated cardiac dysfunctions.

Blood glycemia-modulating effects of melanian snail protein hydrolysates in mice with type II diabetes

Freshwater animal proteins have long been used as nutrient supplements. In this study, melanian snail (Semisulcospira libertina) protein hydrolysates (MPh) were found to exert anti-diabetic and protective effects against liver and kidney damage in mice with type II diabetes adapted to a 45% kcal high-fat diet (HFD). The hypoglycemic, hepatoprotective and nephroprotective effects of MPh were analyzed after 12 weeks of the continuous oral administration of MPh at 125, 250 and 500 mg/kg. Diabetic control mice exhibited an increase in body weight, and blood glucose and insulin levels, with a decrease in serum high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels. In addition, an increase in the regions of steatohepatitis, hepatocyte hypertrophy, and lipid droplet deposit-related renal tubular vacuolation degenerative lesions were detected, with noticeable expansion and hyperplasia of the pancreatic islets, and an increase in glucagon- and insulin-producing cells, insulin/glucagon cell ratios in the endocrine pancreas and hepatic lipid peroxidation, as well as decreased zymogen contents. Furthermore, a deterioration of the endogenous antioxidant defense system was observed, with reduced glucose utilization related hepatic glucokinase (GK) activity and an increase in hepatic gluconeogenesis-related phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) and glucose-6-phosphatase (G6pase) activity. However, all of these diabetic complications were significantly inhibited by oral treatment with MPh in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, the marked dose-dependent inhibition of hepatic lipid peroxidation, the depletion of the liver endogenous antioxidant defense system, and changes in hepatic glucose-regulating enzyme activities were also observed. The results of this study suggest that MPh exerts potent anti-diabetic effects, along with the amelioration of related complications in mice with type II diabetes. The overall effects of MPh at a dose of 125 mg/kg on HFD-induced diabetes and related complications were similar or more potent than those of metformin (250 mg/kg).

Monascus ruber-Fermented Buckwheat (Red Yeast Buckwheat) Suppresses Adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 Cells

Although various treatments have been used for weight loss to date, obese people rarely have safe and effective treatment options. Therefore, the antiobesity effects of several natural compounds are being actively investigated. This study was conducted to investigate the antiadipogenic effects of Monascus ruber-fermented Fagopyrum esculentum (red yeast buckwheat, RYB) in 3T3-L1 cells. We assessed the intracellular lipid content and adipocyte differentiation by oil red O staining and the expression of genes and proteins associated with adipocyte differentiation by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and western blotting in 3T3-L1 cells. RYB dose dependently inhibited 3T3-L1 cell differentiation at concentrations of 50-800 μg/mL, without cytotoxic effects. It also suppressed the expression of adipogenic transcription factors, including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ and CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein α, and adipocyte-specific genes, such as adipocyte fatty acid-binding protein (aP2), fatty acid synthase, and leptin, during preadipocyte differentiation into adipocytes. Furthermore, RYB reduced cyclin-dependent kinase 2 and cyclin expression and increased p21 and p27 expression, thus causing cell cycle arrest at the G1/S phase. Collectively, these results suggest that RYB may be an effective nutraceutical for weight loss as indicated by its ability to suppress adipogenesis-specific gene expression and cause cell cycle arrest at the G1/S interphase.

Anti-climacterium effects of pomegranate concentrated solutions in ovariectomized ddY mice

In the present study, the complex anti-climacterium potential of standardized pomegranate concentrated solution (PCS) was investigated using bilateral ovariectomy (OVX) female ddY mice. Changes in body weight and gain during experimental periods, food consumption, serum estradiol levels, total body and abdominal fat densities, abdominal fat pads, and uterus weights were observed, along with the histopathology of abdominal fat pads and uterus for anti-obesity and estrogenic effects. In addition, liver weights, serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels, and histopathological inspections were performed to explore the hepato-protective effects. Serum total cholesterol (TC), low density lipoprotein (LDL), high density lipoprotein, and triglyceride (TG) levels were monitored for hypolipidemic effects with total body and femur mean bone mineral density (BMD), right femur wet, dry and ash weights, strength, serum osteocalcin, bone-specific alkaline phosphatase (bALP) contents, and histological and histomorphometrical analyses for anti-osteoporosis activity. As a result of OVX, notable increases in body weight and gains, food consumption, abdominal fat mass densities, weights of abdominal fat pads deposited in the abdominal cavity, and serum AST, ALT, TC, LDL, TG, and osteocalcin levels were observed, along with decreases in the uterus, liver, and femur weights, mean total body and femur BMD, femur strength, serum bALP, and estradiol levels. In addition, marked hypertrophic alterations in adipocytes located in the deposited abdominal fat pads, liver steatosis, uterine disused atrophic changes, and decreases in bone mass and structures of the femur were also observed in OVX control mice with significant increases in bone resorption markers based on histopathological and histomorphometrical analysis. However, these estrogen-deficient climacterium symptoms were significantly (P<0.05 or P<0.01) inhibited after 84 days of continuous treatment with estradiol and PCS (1, 2 and 4 ml/kg), respectively. The present results suggested that PCS was able to effectively inhibit or refine the climacterium symptoms, including obesity, hyperlipidemia, hepatic steatosis, and osteoporosis, induced by OVX in ddY mice.

Ginseng and obesity

Although ginseng has been shown to have an antiobesity effect, antiobesity-related mechanisms are complex and have not been completely elucidated. In the present study, we evaluated ginseng’s effects on food intake, the digestion, and absorption systems, as well as liver, adipose tissue, and skeletal muscle in order to identify the mechanisms involved. A review of previous in vitro and in vivo studies revealed that ginseng and ginsenosides can increase energy expenditure by stimulating the adenosine monophosphate-activated kinase pathway and can reduce energy intake. Moreover, in high fat diet-induced obese and diabetic individuals, ginseng has shown a two-way adjustment effect on adipogenesis. Nevertheless, most of the previous studies into antiobesity effects of ginseng have been animal based, and there is a paucity of evidence supporting the suggestion that ginseng can exert an antiobesity effect in humans.

Changes in the Ginsenoside Content During Fermentation Using an Appliance for the Preparation of Red Ginseng

The total amount of ginsenoside in fermented red ginseng (FRG) is increased by microbial fermentation. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether fermentation time and temperature affect the ginsenoside content during fermentation using an appliance for the preparation of red ginseng. The FRG and fermented red ginseng extracts (FRG-e) were prepared using an appliance for the preparation of red ginseng. The temperature was recorded and time points for sampling were scheduled at pre-fermentation (0[Formula: see text]h) and 18, 36, 48, 60 and 72[Formula: see text]h after the addition of the microbial strains. Samples of FRG and FRG-e were collected to identify changes in the ginsenoside contents at each time point during the fermentation process. The ginsenoside content was analyzed using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The levels of ginsenoside Rh1, Rg3, and compound Y, which are known to have effective pharmacological properties, increased more than three-fold in the final products of FRG relative to samples prior to fermentation. Although the ginsenoside constituents of FRG-e decreased or increased and then decreased during fermentation, the total amount of ginsenoside in FRG-e was even higher than those in FRG; the total amounts of ginsenoside in FRG-e and FRG were 8282.8 and 738.0[Formula: see text]mg, respectively. This study examined the changes in composition of ginsenosides and suggests a method to manufacture high-content total ginsenosides according to the fermentation temperature and process time. Reducing the extraction time is expected to improve the decrease of ginsenosides in FRG-e as a function of the fermentation time.

Antioxidant and hepatoprotective effects of fermented red ginseng against high fat diet-induced hyperlipidemia in rats

This study was performed to investigate the antioxidant and hepatoprotective effects of fermented red ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer; FRG) on high-fat diet-induced hyperlipidemia in rats. Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into four groups of seven: normal control, NC; high-fat diet control, HFC; high-fat diet-0.5% FRG, HF-FRGL; and high-fat diet-1% FRG, HF-FRGH. All rats were fed a high-fat diet for eight weeks, except those in the NC group, while rats in the FRG treatment groups received drinking water containing 0.5% or 1% FRG. After eight weeks of treatment, levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C), and high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C) in the serum were measured. The concentration of the oxidative stress marker malondialdehyde (MDA), and activity of antioxidant enzymes including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) in rat liver were evaluated. Histological analysis of the liver was performed using hematoxylin and eosin. The high-fat diet markedly increased serum levels of ALT, AST, TC, TG, and LDL-C and hepatic MDA levels, while administration of FRG to the hyperlipidemic rats resulted in a significant decline in the levels of these parameters. Furthermore, the decline in the levels of serum HDL-C and hepatic SOD, CAT, and GSH-Px induced by the high-fat diet was attenuated by FRG treatment. In addition, histopathological analysis of liver sections suggested that FRG treatment also provided protection against liver damage. These results suggested that FRG improved lipid profiles, inhibited lipid peroxidation, and played a protective role against liver injury in hyperlipidemic rats.

Selection of the Optimal Herbal Compositions of Red Clover and Pomegranate According to Their Protective Effect against Climacteric Symptoms in Ovariectomized Mice

This study aimed to ascertain the optimal range of red clover dry extracts (RC) and dried pomegranate concentrate powder (PCP) to induce anti-climacteric effects. Thus, the dose ranges showing protective effect of mixed formulae consisting of RC and PCP were examined in ovariectomized mice. At 28 days after bilateral ovariectomy (OVX), mixed herbal compositions (RC:PCP = 1:1, 1:2, 1:4, 1:8, 2:1, 4:1, and 8:1) were administered orally, at 120 mg/kg once daily for 84 days. We evaluated that RC and PCP mixture attenuate OVX-caused obesity, hyperlipidemia, hepatic steatosis, and osteoporosis. Compared to OVX-induced control mice, body weight and abdominal fat weight in OVX-induced mice were significantly decreased, concomitantly with increase of uterus weight by RC:PCP mixture. Additionally, significant increases in serum estradiol levels were observed in all RC:PCP-treated mice. RC:PCP mixture also showed protective effect against OVX-induced hyperlipidemia, hepatic steatosis. Total body and femur mean bone mineral density (BMD), osteocalcin, bALP contents were effectively increased by RC:PCP mixture. Taken together, RC:PCP mixture (2:1, 1:1, and 4:1) has remarkable protective effects against the changes induced by OVX. In particular, RC:PCP mixture (2:1) shows the strongest effect and may be considered as a potential protective agent against climacteric symptoms.

Effect of fermented medicinal plants on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, fecal noxious gas emissions, and diarrhea score in weanling pigs

BACKGROUND

Antibiotics used as growth promoters in livestock have been banned in the European Union since 2006. Alternatives of antibiotics have focused on phytogenic plants, such as herbs and medicinal plants. No studies have evaluated the use of fermented medicinal plants (FMP) made up of Gynura procumbens, Rehmannia glutinosa and Scutellaria baicalensis in weanling pigs. Therefore, an experiment was conducted to determine the effects of FMP on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, fecal noxious gas emissions and diarrhea score in weanling pigs.

RESULTS

FMP supplementation increased (P < 0.05) average daily gain, average daily feed intake, gain:feed, apparent total tract digestibility of dry matter, nitrogen and gross energy compared with NC treatment, while a linear effect (P < 0.05) was observed on those criteria. Ammonia, total mercaptans and hydrogen sulfide concentrations were decreased (P < 0.05) by the supplementation of FMP compared with NC. Additionally, diarrhea score was lower (P < 0.05) by FMP addition compared with NC during days 0-7 and days 8-14.

CONCLUSION

These results suggested that FMP could be used as an alternative to antibiotics by enhancing growth performance and nutrient digestibility, and decreasing fecal noxious gas emission and early diarrhea score of weanling pigs.

Fermentation of Green Tea with 2% Aquilariae lignum Increases the Anti-Diabetic Activity of Green Tea Aqueous Extracts in the High Fat-Fed Mouse

Anti-diabetic effects on the metabolomic differences between green tea (GT) and Aquilariae lignum-fermented green tea (fGT) were investigated in the high fat-fed mouse. To prove the differences, hypoglycemic (blood glucose, insulin and glycated hemoglobin levels, pancreas weights and histopathological-immunohistochemistrical analysis of pancreas–insulin/glucagon cells), hepato- and nephron-protective (the changes in liver and kidney weight, histopathology of liver and kidney, serum aminotransferases (AST and ALT) levels, blood urea nitrogen, and serum creatinine levels), and hypolipidemic (the changes of serum total cholesterol, triglyceride, low- and high-density lipoprotein levels with fecal TC and TG contents) effects were evaluated. In addition, liver lipid peroxidation, the glutathione contents, and catalase and superoxide dismutase activities were measured according to the hepatic glucose-regulating enzyme activities of glucokinase (GK), glucose-6-phosphatase (G6pase) and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) for action mechanisms. As a result, fGT showed a stronger hypoglycemic, hepato- and nephron-protective, hypolipidemic, and anti-oxidant effect than GT in high fat-fed mice. In addition, fGT-treated mice exerted more favorable inhibitory activities against GK, G6pase, PERCK activities as compared to GT-treated mice. Taken together, fGT fermented with Aquilariae lignum, 1:49 (2%; g/g) has a stronger effect compared with GT. Therefore, fGT has the potential to increase bioactivity against type 2 diabetics.

Anti-Diabetic and Hepato-Renal Protective Effects of Ziyuglycoside II Methyl Ester in Type 2 Diabetic Mice

Type 2 diabetes is a metabolic disorder caused by abnormal carbohydrate metabolism, and closely associated with abnormal lipid metabolism and hepato-renal dysfunction. This study investigated the anti-diabetic and hepato-renal protective properties of ziyuglycoside I (ZG01) derivative on type 2 diabetes. ZG01 was isolated from roots of Sanguisorba officinalis and chemically modified by deglycosylation and esterification to obtained ziyuglycoside II methyl ester (ZG02-ME). Here, we showed that ZG02-ME has stronger anti-diabetic activity than the original compound (ZG01) through decreasing blood glucose, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), and insulin levels in a mouse model of type 2 diabetes (db/db mice). We further found that ZG02-ME treatment effectively ameliorated serum insulin, leptin and C-peptide levels, which are key metabolic hormones, in db/db mice. In addition, we showed that elevated basal blood lipid levels were decreased by ZG02-ME treatment in db/db mice. Furthermore, treatment of ZG02-ME significantly decreased serum AST, ALT, BUN, creatinine, and liver lipid peroxidation in db/db mice. These results demonstrated that compared to ZG01, chemically modified ZG02-ME possess improved anti-diabetic properties, and has hepato-renal protective activities in type 2 diabetes.

Dried pomegranate potentiates anti-osteoporotic and anti-obesity activities of red clover dry extracts in ovariectomized rats

Red clover (RC) shows potential activity against menopausal symptoms and pomegranates have antioxidative and beneficial effects on postmenopausal symptoms; thus, we investigated whether the anti-climacteric activity of RC could be enhanced by the addition of dried pomegranate concentrate powder (PCP) extracts in ovariectomized (OVX) rats. Regarding the anti-osteoporotic effects, bone mineral density increased significantly in OVX induced rats treated with 60 and 120 mg/kg of an RC:PCP 2:1 mixture, respectively, compared with OVX control rats. Additionally, femoral, tibia, and L4 bone resorption was decreased in OVX induced control rats treated with the RC:PCP 2:1 mixture (60 and 120 mg/kg), respectively, compared with OVX control rats. Regarding anti-obesity effects, the OVX induced rats treated with 60 and 120 mg/kg of the RC:PCP 2:1 mixture showed a decrease in total fat pad thickness, the mean diameters of adipocytes and the body weights gain compared with OVX induced control rats. The estradiol and bone-specific alkaline phosphatase levels were significantly increased in OVX induced rats treated with the RC:PCP 2:1 mixture (120 mg/kg) compared with OVX induced control rats, also, the uterine atrophy was significantly inhibited in 60 and 120 mg/kg of the RC:PCP 2:1 mixture treatment compared with OVX control rats. In conclusion, our results indicate that PCP enhanced the anti-climacteric effects of RC in OVX rats. The RC:PCP 2:1 mixture used in this study may be a promising new potent and protective agent for relieving climacteric symptoms.

Effects of pectin lyase-modified red ginseng extracts in high-fat diet-fed obese mice

Red ginseng and its extracts have been used as traditional medicines and functional foods in countries worldwide. The aim of this study was to examine the bioavailability of pectin lyase-modified red ginseng extracts (GS-E3D), and the effects of GS-E3D on adipogenesis of 3T3-L1 adipocytes, as well as on metabolic disorders such as hyperglycemia, dyslipidemia, and fatty liver in high-fat diet fed obese C57BL/6 mice. Mice were divided into 5 groups: normal diet group, high fat diet-vehicle group, high fat diet + 0.1 g/kg GS-E3D (0.1-GS-E3D), high fat diet + 0.3 g/kg (0.3-GS-E3D), high fat diet + 1.0 g/kg (1.0-GS-E3D). Treatment of GS-E3D reduced differentiation of 3T3-L1 adipocytes with low cytotoxicity. In the animal model, compared to the high fat diet control, serum glucose, total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, TG, and leptin level were reduced in treatment animals in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, we found that GS-E3D could decrease total hepatic lipid droplets. These results suggest that GS-E3D, as a dietary supplement, has beneficial effects on obesity and may have useful effects in health-care products.

Ginseng diminishes lung disease in mice immunized with formalin-inactivated respiratory syncytial virus after challenge by modulating host immune responses

Formalin-inactivated respiratory syncytial virus (FI-RSV) immunization is known to cause severe pulmonary inflammatory disease after subsequent RSV infection. Ginseng has been used in humans for thousands of years due to its potential health benefits. We investigated whether ginseng would have immune modulating effects on RSV infection in mice previously immunized with FI-RSV. Oral administration of mice with ginseng increased IgG2a isotype antibody responses to FI-RSV immunization, indicating T-helper type 1 (Th1) immune responses. Ginseng-treated mice that were nonimmunized or previously immunized with FI-RSV showed improved protection against RSV challenge compared with control mice without ginseng treatment. Ginseng-mediated improved clinical outcomes after live RSV infection were evidenced by diminished weight losses, decreased interleukin-4 cytokine production but increased interferon-γ production, modulation of CD3 T-cell populations toward a Th1 response, and reduced inflammatory response. Ginseng-mediated protective host immune modulation against RSV pulmonary inflammation was observed in different strains of wild-type and mutant mice. These results indicate that ginseng can modulate host immune responses to FI-RSV immunization and RSV infection, resulting in protective effects against pulmonary inflammatory disease.

Dietary fermented soybean suppresses UVB-induced skin inflammation in hairless mice via regulation of the MAPK signaling pathway

Soybean may be a promising ingredient for regulating UVB-induced inflammatory damage to the skin. We investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of diets supplemented with fermented soybean on UVB-induced skin photodamage and the effectiveness of soybean (S) and fermented soybean (FS) dietary supplementation. To investigate the effects of two major isoflavones-daidzein and genistein-from FS, we used cocultures with keratinocytes and fibroblasts. Genistein treatment strongly inhibited the production of IL-6 and MAPK signaling. Forty hairless male mice divided into four groups were fed with a control diet (group N: normal, group C; +UVB) or diets with 2.5% S+UVB or 2.5% FS+UVB (group S, group FS) for 8 weeks. Macrophage infiltration to the dermis was reduced more in groups S and FS than in group C. The expression levels of iNOS and COX-2 were significantly decreased in group FS (by 7.7% ± 0.4% and 21.2% ± 0.3%, respectively [p < 0.05]).

Fermentation with Aquilariae Lignum enhances the anti-diabetic activity of green tea in type II diabetic db/db mouse

The major components of tea may be significantly influenced according to the type of fermentation, and consequently the effects of different teas will differ. We examined whether green tea fermented with Aquilariae Lignum (fGT) shows a stronger anti-diabetic effect than unfermented green tea (GT) on mice with type 2 diabetes. To evaluate the anti-obesity effect of fGT, we assessed body weight, fecal excretion, serum leptin levels, exocrine pancreatic zymogen granule contents, and periovarian fat weight and adiponectin contents. Blood glucose levels, pancreatic weight, and numbers of pancreatic islet insulin- and glucagon-producing cells were determined to evaluate anti-hypoglycemic effects, while total cholesterol, triglyceride, and low- and high-density lipoprotein levels were determined to evaluate anti-hyperlipidemic effects. The antioxidant effect of fGT was detected by measuring malondialdehyde and glutathione contents and the activities of catalase and superoxide dismutase. fGT showed anti-obesity, anti-hypoglycemic, anti-hyperlipidemia, and antioxidant effects. Additionally, fGT exerted stronger anti-diabetic effects compared with GT. Collectively, these results suggested that fGT fermented with the appropriate amounts of Aquilariae Lignum (49:1) has a stronger effect compared with GT. Thus, fGT is a promising and potent new therapeutic agent for type 2 diabetes.