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Nor Rashid N, Amrani L, Alwan A, Mohamed Z, Yusof R, Rothan H. Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme-2 (ACE2) Downregulation During Coronavirus Infection. Mol Biotechnol 2024:10.1007/s12033-024-01277-5. [PMID: 39266903 DOI: 10.1007/s12033-024-01277-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2024] [Indexed: 09/14/2024]
Abstract
Angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) downregulation represents a detrimental factor in people with a baseline ACE2 deficiency associated with older age, hypertension, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases. Human coronaviruses, including HCoV-NL63, SARS-CoV-1, and SARS CoV-2 infect target cells via binding of viral spike (S) glycoprotein to the ACE2, resulting in ACE2 downregulation through yet unidentified mechanisms. This downregulation disrupts the enzymatic activity of ACE2, essential in protecting against organ injury by cleaving and disposing of Angiotensin-II (Ang II), leading to the formation of Ang 1-7, thereby exacerbating the accumulation of Ang II. This accumulation activates the Angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1R) receptor, leading to leukocyte recruitment and increased proinflammatory cytokines, contributing to organ injury. The biological impacts and underlying mechanisms of ACE2 downregulation during SARS-CoV-2 infection have not been well defined. Therefore, there is an urgent need to establish a solid theoretical and experimental understanding of the mechanisms of ACE2 downregulation during SARS-CoV-2 entry and replication in the host cells. This review aims to discuss the physiological impact of ACE2 downregulation during coronavirus infection, the relationship between ACE2 decline and virus pathogenicity, and the possible mechanisms of ACE2 degradation, along with the therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nurshamimi Nor Rashid
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Lina Amrani
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Universiti Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | | | - Zulqarnain Mohamed
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Universiti Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Rohana Yusof
- Faculty of Applied Sciences, UCSI University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
| | - Hussin Rothan
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Universiti Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
- Pfizer, Pearl River, NY, USA.
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Rajaiah R, Pandey K, Acharya A, Ambikan A, Kumar N, Guda R, Avedissian SN, Montaner LJ, Cohen SM, Neogi U, Byrareddy SN. Differential immunometabolic responses to Delta and Omicron SARS-CoV-2 variants in golden syrian hamsters. iScience 2024; 27:110501. [PMID: 39171289 PMCID: PMC11338146 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2024.110501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 07/10/2024] [Indexed: 08/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Delta (B.1.617.2) and Omicron (B.1.1.529) variants of SARS-CoV-2 represents unique clinical characteristics. However, their role in altering immunometabolic regulations during acute infection remains convoluted. Here, we evaluated the differential immunopathogenesis of Delta vs. Omicron variants in Golden Syrian hamsters (GSH). The Delta variant resulted in higher virus titers in throat swabs and the lungs and exhibited higher lung damage with immune cell infiltration than the Omicron variant. The gene expression levels of immune mediators and metabolic enzymes, Arg-1 and IDO1 in the Delta-infected lungs were significantly higher compared to Omicron. Further, Delta/Omicron infection perturbed carbohydrates, amino acids, nucleotides, and TCA cycle metabolites and was differentially regulated compared to uninfected lungs. Collectively, our data provide a novel insight into immunometabolic/pathogenic outcomes for Delta vs. Omicron infection in the GSH displaying concordance with COVID-19 patients associated with inflammation and tissue injury during acute infection that offered possible new targets to develop potential therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajesh Rajaiah
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Kabita Pandey
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Arpan Acharya
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Anoop Ambikan
- The Systems Virology Lab, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Microbiology, ANA Futura, Karolinska Institutet, 141 52 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Narendra Kumar
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Reema Guda
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Sean N. Avedissian
- Antiviral Pharmacology Laboratory, College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Luis J. Montaner
- Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Samuel M. Cohen
- Havlik Wall Professor of Oncology, Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Ujjwal Neogi
- The Systems Virology Lab, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Microbiology, ANA Futura, Karolinska Institutet, 141 52 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Siddappa N. Byrareddy
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
- Havlik Wall Professor of Oncology, Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
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3
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Acharya A, Surbaugh K, Thurman M, Wickramaratne C, Myers P, Mittal R, Pandey K, Klug E, Stein SJ, Ravnholdt AR, Herrera VL, Rivera DN, Williams P, Santarpia JL, Kaushik A, Dhau JS, Byrareddy SN. Efficient trapping and destruction of SARS-CoV-2 using PECO-assisted Molekule air purifiers in the laboratory and real-world settings. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 264:115487. [PMID: 37729804 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.115487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2023] [Revised: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/22/2023]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is transmitted human-to-human via aerosols and air-borne droplets. Therefore, capturing and destroying viruses from indoor premises are essential to reduce the probability of human exposure and virus transmission. While the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems help in reducing the indoor viral load, a targeted approach is required to effectively remove SARS-CoV-2 from indoor air to address human exposure concerns. The present study demonstrates efficient trapping and destruction of SARS-CoV-2 via nano-enabled filter technology using the UV-A-stimulated photoelectrochemical oxidation (PECO) process. Aerosols containing SARS-CoV-2 were generated by nebulization inside an air-controlled test chamber where an air purifier (Air Mini+) was placed. The study demonstrated the efficient removal of SARS-CoV-2 (99.98 %) from the test chamber in less than two minutes and PECO-assisted destruction (over 99%) on the filtration media in 1 h. Furthermore, in a real-world scenario, the Molekule Air-Pro air purifier removed SARS-CoV-2 (a negative RT-qPCR result post-running the filter device) from the circulating air in a COVID-19 testing facility. Overall, the ability of two FDA-approved class II medical devices, Molekule Air-Mini+ and Air-Pro air purifiers, to remove and destroy SARS-CoV-2 in indoor settings was successfully demonstrated. The study indicates that as the "tripledemic" of COVID-19, influenza, and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) overwhelm the healthcare facilities in the USA, the use of a portable air filtration device will help contain the spread of the viruses in close door facilities, such as in schools and daycare facilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arpan Acharya
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68131, USA
| | - Kerri Surbaugh
- Research and Development, Molekule, Inc., 3802 Spectrum Blvd, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Michellie Thurman
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68131, USA
| | | | - Philip Myers
- Research and Development, Molekule, Inc., 3802 Spectrum Blvd, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Rajat Mittal
- Clean Energy Research Center, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Kabita Pandey
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68131, USA
| | - Elizabeth Klug
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68131, USA
| | - Sarah J Stein
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Ashley R Ravnholdt
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Vicki L Herrera
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Danielle N Rivera
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Paul Williams
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Joshua L Santarpia
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Ajeet Kaushik
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Florida Polytechnic University, 4700 Research Way, Lakeland, FL 33805, USA; Department of Genetics, Cell Biology, and Anatomy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68131, USA
| | - Jaspreet S Dhau
- Research and Development, Molekule, Inc., 3802 Spectrum Blvd, Tampa, FL 33612, USA.
| | - Siddappa N Byrareddy
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68131, USA; Department of Environmental Engineering, Florida Polytechnic University, 4700 Research Way, Lakeland, FL 33805, USA; Department of Genetics, Cell Biology, and Anatomy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68131, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68131, USA.
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Rao SS, Parthasarathy K, Sounderrajan V, Neelagandan K, Anbazhagan P, Chandramouli V. Susceptibility of SARS Coronavirus-2 infection in domestic and wild animals: a systematic review. 3 Biotech 2023; 13:5. [PMID: 36514483 PMCID: PMC9741861 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-022-03416-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2022] [Accepted: 11/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals and viruses have constantly been co-evolving under natural circumstances and pandemic like situations. They harbour harmful viruses which can spread easily. In the recent times we have seen pandemic like situations being created as a result of the spread of deadly and fatal viruses. Coronaviruses (CoVs) are one of the wellrecognized groups of viruses. There are four known genera of Coronavirus family namely, alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ), and delta (δ). Animals have been infected with CoVs belonging to all four genera. In the last few decades the world has witnessed an emergence of severe acute respiratory syndromes which had created a pandemic like situation such as SARS CoV, MERS-CoV. We are currently in another pandemic like situation created due to the uncontrolled spread of a similar coronavirus namely SARSCoV-2. These findings are based on a small number of animals and do not indicate whether animals can transmit disease to humans. Several mammals, including cats, dogs, bank voles, ferrets, fruit bats, hamsters, mink, pigs, rabbits, racoon dogs, and white-tailed deer, have been found to be infected naturally by the virus. Certain laboratory discoveries revealed that animals such as cats, ferrets, fruit bats, hamsters, racoon dogs, and white-tailed deer can spread the illness to other animals of the same species. This review article gives insights on the current knowledge about SARS-CoV-2 infection and development in animals on the farm and in domestic community and their impact on society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudhanarayani S. Rao
- Centre for Drug Discovery and Development, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, 600119 India
| | - Krupakar Parthasarathy
- Centre for Drug Discovery and Development, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, 600119 India
| | - Vignesh Sounderrajan
- Centre for Drug Discovery and Development, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, 600119 India
| | - K. Neelagandan
- Centre for Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, Institute for Stem Cell Science and Regenerative Medicine, Bengaluru, India
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Differential Pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Concern in Human ACE2-Expressing Mice. Viruses 2022; 14:v14061139. [PMID: 35746611 PMCID: PMC9231291 DOI: 10.3390/v14061139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Revised: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused the current pandemic, resulting in millions of deaths worldwide. Increasingly contagious variants of concern (VoC) have fueled recurring global infection waves. A major question is the relative severity of the disease caused by previous and currently circulating variants of SARS-CoV-2. In this study, we evaluated the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 variants in human ACE-2-expressing (K18-hACE2) mice. Eight-week-old K18-hACE2 mice were inoculated intranasally with a representative virus from the original B.1 lineage or from the emerging B.1.1.7 (alpha), B.1.351 (beta), B.1.617.2 (delta), or B.1.1.529 (omicron) lineages. We also infected a group of mice with the mouse-adapted SARS-CoV-2 (MA10). Our results demonstrate that B.1.1.7, B.1.351 and B.1.617.2 viruses are significantly more lethal than the B.1 strain in K18-hACE2 mice. Infection with the B.1.1.7, B.1.351, and B.1.617.2 variants resulted in significantly higher virus titers in the lungs and brain of mice compared with the B.1 virus. Interestingly, mice infected with the B.1.1.529 variant exhibited less severe clinical signs and a high survival rate. We found that B.1.1.529 replication was significantly lower in the lungs and brain of infected mice in comparison with other VoC. The transcription levels of cytokines and chemokines in the lungs of B.1- and B.1.1.529-infected mice were significantly less when compared with those challenged with other VoC. Together, our data provide insights into the pathogenesis of previous and circulating SARS-CoV-2 VoC in mice.
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Okoturo E, Amure M. SARS-CoV-2 saliva testing using RT-PCR: a systematic review. Int J Infect Dis 2022; 121:166-171. [PMID: 35577250 PMCID: PMC9136484 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2022.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Revised: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES There remain challenges in using SARS-CoV-2 RNA diagnostic assays in the respiratory tract in a pandemic. More so certain countries such as Hong Kong have already included saliva as part of their mass-testing protocol. The aim of this study was to conduct a systematic review on the alternate use of saliva as a SARS-CoV-2 RNA testing specimen in the context of mass screening with reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. METHODS Our search methodology was modeled after the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) checklist, and the risk of bias of the selected studies was qualitatively assessed. The percentage individual positive and percentage agreement of both index (saliva) and reference (nasopharyngeal swab), in preference to specificity and sensitivity, were estimated using Kappa statistics. RESULTS A total of 44 studies met the inclusion criteria. The average percentage positive saliva cases was 72.7% (95% confidence interval), which was lower but not substantially different from the percentage positive NPS of 78.7% (95% confidence interval), and there was an average overall agreement of 89.7% (95% confidence interval). CONCLUSION Although the literature supports nasopharyngeal swab as a superior testing specimen, an alternative clinical specimen in saliva may offer potential benefits such that a potentially reduced accuracy may be tolerated, especially in low socioeconomic regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eyituoyo Okoturo
- Head & Neck Cancer Division, Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery Department, Lagos State University Teaching Hospital, Lagos, Nigeria; Molecular Oncology Program, Medical Research Centre, Lagos State University College of Medicine, Lagos, Nigeria.
| | - Mary Amure
- Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery Department, Lagos State University Teaching Hospital, Lagos, Nigeria
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Rothan HA, Kumari P, Stone S, Natekar JP, Arora K, Auroni TT, Kumar M. SARS-CoV-2 Infects Primary Neurons from Human ACE2 Expressing Mice and Upregulates Genes Involved in the Inflammatory and Necroptotic Pathways. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11020257. [PMID: 35215199 PMCID: PMC8876293 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11020257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Revised: 02/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Transgenic mice expressing human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 under the cytokeratin 18 promoter (K18-hACE2) have been extensively used to investigate the pathogenesis and tissue tropism of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. Neuroinvasion and the replication of SARS-CoV-2 within the central nervous system (CNS) of K18-hACE2 mice is associated with increased mortality; although, the mechanisms by which this occurs remain unclear. In this study, we generated primary neuronal cultures from K18-hACE2 mice to investigate the effects of a SARS-CoV-2 infection. We also evaluated the immunological response to SARS-CoV-2 infection in the CNS of K18-hACE2 mice and mouse neuronal cultures. Our data show that neuronal cultures obtained from K18-hACE2 mice are permissive to SARS-CoV-2 infection and support productive virus replication. Furthermore, SARS-CoV-2 infection upregulated the expression of genes involved in innate immunity and inflammation, including IFN-α, ISG-15, CXCL10, CCL2, IL-6 and TNF-α, in the neurons and mouse brains. In addition, we found that SARS-CoV-2 infection of neurons and mouse brains activates the ZBP1/pMLKL-regulated necroptosis pathway. Together, our data provide insights into the neuropathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection in K18-hACE2 mice.
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Stone S, Rothan HA, Natekar JP, Kumari P, Sharma S, Pathak H, Arora K, Auroni TT, Kumar M. SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Concern Infect the Respiratory Tract and Induce Inflammatory Response in Wild-Type Laboratory Mice. Viruses 2021; 14:v14010027. [PMID: 35062231 PMCID: PMC8777867 DOI: 10.3390/v14010027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2021] [Revised: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence of new severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants of concern pose a major threat to public health, due to possible enhanced virulence, transmissibility and immune escape. These variants may also adapt to new hosts, in part through mutations in the spike protein. In this study, we evaluated the infectivity and pathogenicity of SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern in wild-type C57BL/6 mice. Six-week-old mice were inoculated intranasally with a representative virus from the original B.1 lineage, or the emerging B.1.1.7 and B.1.351 lineages. We also infected a group of mice with a mouse-adapted SARS-CoV-2 (MA10). Viral load and mRNA levels of multiple cytokines and chemokines were analyzed in the lung tissues on day 3 after infection. Our data show that unlike the B.1 virus, the B.1.1.7 and B.1.351 viruses are capable of infecting C57BL/6 mice and replicating at high concentrations in the lungs. The B.1.351 virus replicated to higher titers in the lungs compared with the B.1.1.7 and MA10 viruses. The levels of cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β) and chemokine (CCL2) were upregulated in response to the B.1.1.7 and B.1.351 infection in the lungs. In addition, robust expression of viral nucleocapsid protein and histopathological changes were detected in the lungs of B.1.351-infected mice. Overall, these data indicate a greater potential for infectivity and adaptation to new hosts by emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants.
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Hanna J, Tipparaju P, Mulherkar T, Lin E, Mischley V, Kulkarni R, Bolton A, Byrareddy SN, Jain P. Risk Factors Associated with the Clinical Outcomes of COVID-19 and Its Variants in the Context of Cytokine Storm and Therapeutics/Vaccine Development Challenges. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:938. [PMID: 34452063 PMCID: PMC8402745 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9080938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Revised: 08/08/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The recent appearance of SARS-CoV-2 is responsible for the ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and has brought to light the importance of understanding this highly pathogenic agent to prevent future pandemics. This virus is from the same single-stranded positive-sense RNA family, Coronaviridae, as two other epidemic-causing viruses, SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV. During this pandemic, one crucial focus highlighted by WHO has been to understand the risk factors that may contribute to disease severity and predict COVID-19 outcomes. In doing so, it is imperative to understand the virology of SARS-CoV-2 and the immunological response eliciting the clinical manifestation and progression of COVID-19. In this review, we provide clinical data-based analyses of how multiple risk factors (such as sex, race, HLA genotypes, blood groups, vitamin D deficiency, obesity, smoking, and asthma) contribute to the inflammatory overactivation and cytokine storm (frequently seen in COVID-19 patients) with a focus on the IL-6 pathway. We also draw comparisons to the virulence and pathophysiology of SARS and MERS to establish parallels in immune response and discuss the potential for therapeutic approaches that may limit disease progression in patients with higher risk profiles than others. Moreover, we cover the latest information on approved or upcoming COVID-19 vaccines. This paper also provides perspective on emerging variants and associated opportunistic infections such as black molds and fungus that have added to mortality in some parts of the world, such as India. This compilation of existing COVID-19 studies and data will provide an excellent referencing tool for the research, clinical, and public health communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Hanna
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine Philadelphia, 2900 Queen Lane, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA; (J.H.); (P.T.); (T.M.); (E.L.); (V.M.); (R.K.); (A.B.)
| | - Padmavathi Tipparaju
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine Philadelphia, 2900 Queen Lane, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA; (J.H.); (P.T.); (T.M.); (E.L.); (V.M.); (R.K.); (A.B.)
| | - Tania Mulherkar
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine Philadelphia, 2900 Queen Lane, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA; (J.H.); (P.T.); (T.M.); (E.L.); (V.M.); (R.K.); (A.B.)
| | - Edward Lin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine Philadelphia, 2900 Queen Lane, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA; (J.H.); (P.T.); (T.M.); (E.L.); (V.M.); (R.K.); (A.B.)
| | - Victoria Mischley
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine Philadelphia, 2900 Queen Lane, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA; (J.H.); (P.T.); (T.M.); (E.L.); (V.M.); (R.K.); (A.B.)
| | - Ratuja Kulkarni
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine Philadelphia, 2900 Queen Lane, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA; (J.H.); (P.T.); (T.M.); (E.L.); (V.M.); (R.K.); (A.B.)
| | - Aliyah Bolton
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine Philadelphia, 2900 Queen Lane, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA; (J.H.); (P.T.); (T.M.); (E.L.); (V.M.); (R.K.); (A.B.)
| | - Siddappa N. Byrareddy
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA;
| | - Pooja Jain
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine Philadelphia, 2900 Queen Lane, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA; (J.H.); (P.T.); (T.M.); (E.L.); (V.M.); (R.K.); (A.B.)
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10
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Pandey K, Acharya A, Mohan M, Ng CL, Reid SP, Byrareddy SN. Animal models for SARS-CoV-2 research: A comprehensive literature review. Transbound Emerg Dis 2021; 68:1868-1885. [PMID: 33128861 PMCID: PMC8085186 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2020] [Revised: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Emerging and re-emerging viral diseases can create devastating effects on human lives and may also lead to economic crises. The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic due to the novel coronavirus (nCoV), severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which originated in Wuhan, China, has caused a global public health emergency. To date, the molecular mechanism of transmission of SARS-CoV-2, its clinical manifestations and pathogenesis is not completely understood. The global scientific community has intensified its efforts in understanding the biology of SARS-CoV-2 for development of vaccines and therapeutic interventions to prevent the rapid spread of the virus and to control mortality and morbidity associated with COVID-19. To understand the pathophysiology of SARS-CoV-2, appropriate animal models that mimic the biology of human SARS-CoV-2 infection are urgently needed. In this review, we outline animal models that have been used to study previous human coronaviruses (HCoVs), including severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). Importantly, we discuss models that are appropriate for SARS-CoV-2 as well as the advantages and disadvantages of various available methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kabita Pandey
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Arpan Acharya
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Mahesh Mohan
- Texas Biomedical Research Institute, Southwest National Primate Research Center, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Caroline L Ng
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - St Patrick Reid
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Siddappa N Byrareddy
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Nebraska Medical Centre, Omaha, NE, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Centre, Omaha, NE, USA
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11
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Jelinek HF, Mousa M, Alefishat E, Osman W, Spence I, Bu D, Feng SF, Byrd J, Magni PA, Sahibzada S, Tay GK, Alsafar HS. Evolution, Ecology, and Zoonotic Transmission of Betacoronaviruses: A Review. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:644414. [PMID: 34095271 PMCID: PMC8173069 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.644414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Coronavirus infections have been a part of the animal kingdom for millennia. The difference emerging in the twenty-first century is that a greater number of novel coronaviruses are being discovered primarily due to more advanced technology and that a greater number can be transmitted to humans, either directly or via an intermediate host. This has a range of effects from annual infections that are mild to full-blown pandemics. This review compares the zoonotic potential and relationship between MERS, SARS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2. The role of bats as possible host species and possible intermediate hosts including pangolins, civets, mink, birds, and other mammals are discussed with reference to mutations of the viral genome affecting zoonosis. Ecological, social, cultural, and environmental factors that may play a role in zoonotic transmission are considered with reference to SARS-CoV, MERS, and SARS-CoV-2 and possible future zoonotic events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Herbert F. Jelinek
- Center for Biotechnology, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
- Center of Heath Engineering Innovation, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Mira Mousa
- Nuffield Department of Women's and Reproduction Health, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Eman Alefishat
- Center for Biotechnology, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
- Department of Biopharmaceutics and Clinical Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan
| | - Wael Osman
- Department of Chemistry, College of Arts and Sciences, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Ian Spence
- Discipline of Pharmacology, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Dengpan Bu
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing, China
| | - Samuel F. Feng
- Center for Biotechnology, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
- Department of Mathematics, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Jason Byrd
- Department of Pathology, Immunology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Paola A. Magni
- Discipline of Medical, Molecular and Forensic Sciences, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA, Australia
- Murdoch University Singapore, King's Centre, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Shafi Sahibzada
- Antimicrobial Resistance and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, College of Science, Health, Engineering and Education, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA, Australia
| | - Guan K. Tay
- Center for Biotechnology, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
- Division of Psychiatry, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
- School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia
| | - Habiba S. Alsafar
- Center for Biotechnology, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
- Department of Genetics and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
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12
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Ullah A, Ullah K. Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 3CL M pro by Natural and Synthetic Inhibitors: Potential Implication for Vaccine Production Against COVID-19. Front Mol Biosci 2021; 8:640819. [PMID: 33912587 PMCID: PMC8072276 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2021.640819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
COVID-19 has created a pandemic situation all over the world. It has spread in nearly every continent. Researchers all over the world are trying to produce an effective vaccine against this virus, however; no specific treatment for COVID-19 has been discovered -so far. The current work describes the inhibition study of the SARS-CoV-2 main proteinase or 3CL Mpro by natural and synthetic inhibitors, which include 2S albumin and flocculating protein from Moringa oleifera (M. oleifera) and Suramin. Molecular Docking study was carried out using the programs like AutoDock 4.0, HADDOCK2.4, patchdock, pardock, and firedock. The global binding energy of Suramin, 2S albumin, and flocculating proteins were −41.96, −9.12, and −14.78 kJ/mol, respectively. The docking analysis indicates that all three inhibitors bind at the junction of domains II and III. The catalytic function of 3CL Mpro is dependent on its dimeric form, and the flexibility of domain III is considered important for this dimerization. Our study showed that all three inhibitors reduce this flexibility and restrict their motion. The decrease in flexibility of domain III was further confirmed by analysis coming from Molecular dynamic simulation. The analysis results indicate that the temperature B-factor of the enzyme decreases tremendously when the inhibitors bind to it. This study will further explore the possibility of producing an effective treatment against COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anwar Ullah
- Department of Biosciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Kifayat Ullah
- Department of Biosciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan
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13
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Rothan HA, Teoh TC. Cell-Based High-Throughput Screening Protocol for Discovering Antiviral Inhibitors Against SARS-COV-2 Main Protease (3CLpro). Mol Biotechnol 2021; 63:240-248. [PMID: 33464543 PMCID: PMC7814170 DOI: 10.1007/s12033-021-00299-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The global public health has been compromised since the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) emerged in late December 2019. There are no specific antiviral drugs available to combat SARS-CoV-2 infection. Besides the rapid dissemination of SARS-CoV-2, several variants have been identified with a potential epidemiologic and pathogenic variation. This fact has forced antiviral drug development strategies to stay innovative, including new drug discovery protocols, combining drugs, and establishing new drug classes. Thus, developing novel screening methods and direct-targeting viral enzymes could be an attractive strategy to combat SARS-CoV-2 infection. In this study, we designed, optimized, and validated a cell-based assay protocol for high-throughput screening (HTS) antiviral drug inhibitors against main viral protease (3CLpro). We applied the split-GFP complementation to develop GFP-split-3CLpro HTS system. The system consists of GFP-based reporters that become fluorescent upon cleavage by SARS-CoV-2 protease 3CLpro. We generated a stable GFP-split-3CLpro HTS system valid to screen large drug libraries for inhibitors to SARS-CoV-2 main protease in the bio-safety level 2 laboratory, providing real-time antiviral activity of the tested compounds. Using this assay, we identified a new class of viral protease inhibitors derived from quinazoline compounds that worth further in vitro and in vivo validation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hussin A Rothan
- Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - Teow Chong Teoh
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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14
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Neuroinvasion and Encephalitis Following Intranasal Inoculation of SARS-CoV-2 in K18-hACE2 Mice. Viruses 2021; 13:v13010132. [PMID: 33477869 PMCID: PMC7832889 DOI: 10.3390/v13010132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 158] [Impact Index Per Article: 52.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Revised: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection can cause neurological disease in humans, but little is known about the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection in the central nervous system (CNS). Herein, using K18-hACE2 mice, we demonstrate that SARS-CoV-2 neuroinvasion and encephalitis is associated with mortality in these mice. Intranasal infection of K18-hACE2 mice with 105 plaque-forming units of SARS-CoV-2 resulted in 100% mortality by day 6 after infection. The highest virus titers in the lungs were observed on day 3 and declined on days 5 and 6 after infection. By contrast, very high levels of infectious virus were uniformly detected in the brains of all the animals on days 5 and 6. Onset of severe disease in infected mice correlated with peak viral levels in the brain. SARS-CoV-2-infected mice exhibited encephalitis hallmarks characterized by production of cytokines and chemokines, leukocyte infiltration, hemorrhage and neuronal cell death. SARS-CoV-2 was also found to productively infect cells within the nasal turbinate, eye and olfactory bulb, suggesting SARS-CoV-2 entry into the brain by this route after intranasal infection. Our data indicate that direct infection of CNS cells together with the induced inflammatory response in the brain resulted in the severe disease observed in SARS-CoV-2-infected K18-hACE2 mice.
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15
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Abstract
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and diabetes outcomes (CORONADO) trial revealed that 10.6% of patients with diabetes mellitus hospitalized for COVID-19 (COVID-19) die within 7 days. Several studies from New York, Italy, and China confirm that patients with diabetes are at a much higher risk for mortality due to COVID-19. Besides respiratory illness, COVID-19 increases cardiac injury and diabetic ketoacidosis. In the absence of specific guidelines for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19 for patients with diabetes, they remain at higher risk and are more susceptible to COVID-19. Furthermore, there is a scarcity of basic knowledge on how diabetes affects pathogenesis of severe acute respiratory coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) infection. In patients with diabetes, impaired glucose use alters metabolic and consequently biological processes instigating pathological remodeling, which has detrimental effects on cardiovascular systems. A majority of biological processes are regulated by noncoding microRNAs (miRNAs), which have emerged as a promising therapeutic candidate for several diseases. In consideration of the higher risk of mortality in patients with diabetes and COVID-19, novel diagnostic test and treatment strategy are urgently warranted in post-COVID-19 era. Here, we describe potential roles of miRNA as a biomarker and therapeutic candidate, especially for heart failure, in patients with diabetes and COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paras K Mishra
- Department of Cellular and Integrative Physiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska
| | - Ritesh Tandon
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi
| | - Siddappa N Byrareddy
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska
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