Electrospun Nanofibers/Nanofibrous Scaffolds Loaded with Silver Nanoparticles as Effective Antibacterial Wound Dressing Materials

Recent advances in mesoporous silica nanoparticles formulations and drug delivery for wound healing

Wound healing is a natural process that can be disrupted by disease. Nanotechnology is a promising platform for the development of new therapeutic agents to accelerate acute and chronic wound healing. Drug delivery by means of nanoparticles as well as wound dressings have emerged as suitable options to improving the healing process. The characteristics of mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) make them efficient carriers of pharmaceutical agents alone or in combination with dressings. In order to maximize the effect of a drug and minimize its adverse consequences, it may be possible to include targeted and intelligent release of the drug into the design of MSNs. Its use to facilitate closure of adjacent sides of a cut as a tissue adhesive, local wound healing, controlled drug release and induction of blood coagulation are possible applications of MSNs. This review summarizes research on MSN applications for wound healing. It includes a general overview, wound healing phases, MSN formulation, therapeutic possibilities of MSNs and MSN-based drug delivery systems for wound healing.

Antibacterial and wound healing stimulant nanofibrous dressing consisting of soluplus and soy protein isolate loaded with mupirocin

Severe cutaneous injuries may not heal spontaneously and may necessitate the use of supplementary therapeutic methods. Electrospun nanofibers possess high porosity and specific surface area, which provide the necessary microenvironment for wound healing. Here in, the nanofibers of Soluplus-soy protein isolate (Sol-SPI) containing mupirocin (Mp) were fabricated via electrospinning for wound treatment. The fabricated nanofibers exhibited water absorption capacities of about 300.83 ± 29.72% and water vapor permeability values of about 821.8 ± 49.12 g/m2 day. The Sol/SPI/Mp nanofibers showed an in vitro degradability of 33.73 ± 3.55% after 5 days. The ultimate tensile strength, elastic modulus, and elongation of the Sol/SPI/Mp nanofibers were measured as 3.61 ± 0.29 MPa, 39.15 ± 5.08 MPa, and 59.11 ± 1.94%, respectively. Additionally, 85.90 ± 6.02% of Mp loaded in the nanofibers was released in 5 days in vitro, and by applying the Mp-loaded nanofibers, 93.06 ± 5.40% and 90.40 ± 5.66% of S. aureus and E. coli bacteria were killed, respectively. Human keratinocyte cells (HaCat) demonstrated notable biocompatibility with the prepared nanofibers. Furthermore, compare to other groups, Sol-SPI-Mp nanofibers caused the fastest re-epithelialization and wound healing in a rat model. The findings of this study present a novel nanofiber-based wound dressing that accelerates the healing of severe skin wounds with the risk of infection.

Electrospun Carvacrol-Loaded Polyacrylonitrile/Poly(ethylene oxide) Nanofibrous Films as Wound Dressings

Preventing microbial infections and accelerating wound closure are essential in the process of wound healing. In this study, various concentrations of carvacrol (CA) were loaded into polyacrylonitrile/poly(ethylene oxide) (PAN/PEO) nanofiber membranes to develop potential wound dressing materials via an electrospinning technique. The morphology and structure of the PAN/PEO/CA nanofiber membrane were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), respectively. Subsequently, antimicrobial performance testing showed that the PAN/PEO/CA nanofiber membrane exhibited antimicrobial activity in a concentration-dependent manner. Moreover, SEM and transmission electron microscopy revealed that the number of Staphylococcus aureus decreased significantly and the microstructure of the biofilm was seriously damaged. Next, compared with the control and PAN/PEO groups, the PAN/PEO/5% CA group in a full-thickness skin infection model not only exhibited reduced wound exudate on day 2 after infection but also displayed a greater ability to achieve complete skin regeneration, with faster wound healing. Finally, the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway analysis revealed that the downregulated differentially expressed genes between PAN/PEO- and PAN/PEO/5% CA-treated S. aureus were enriched in the two-component system and S. aureus infection. In conclusion, the antimicrobial materials of PAN/PEO/CA inhibited microbial growth and promoted wound healing with potential applications in the clinical management of wounds.

Nanomaterial strategies in wound healing: A comprehensive review of nanoparticles, nanofibres and nanosheets

Wound healing is a complex process that orchestrates the coordinated action of various cells, cytokines and growth factors. Nanotechnology offers exciting new possibilities for enhancing the healing process by providing novel materials and approaches to deliver bioactive molecules to the wound site. This article elucidates recent advancements in utilizing nanoparticles, nanofibres and nanosheets for wound healing. It comprehensively discusses the advantages and limitations of each of these materials, as well as their potential applications in various types of wounds. Each of these materials, despite sharing common properties, can exhibit distinct practical characteristics that render them particularly valuable for healing various types of wounds. In this review, our primary focus is to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in applying nanoparticles, nanofibres, nanosheets and their combinations to wound healing, serving as a valuable resource to guide researchers in their appropriate utilization of these nanomaterials in wound-healing research. Further studies are necessary to gain insight into the application of this type of nanomaterials in clinical settings.

Superior In Vivo Wound-Healing Activity of Biosynthesized Silver Nanoparticles with Nepeta cataria (Catnip) on Excision Wound Model in Rat

Silver nanoparticles were biosynthesized with Nepeta cataria plant extract. It was determined that the synthesized Nc-AgNPs gave a strong absorbance peak at 438 nm wavelength in the UV-vis spectrophotometer. SEM and TEM analyses of Nc-AgNPs showed that the synthesized nanoparticles had a spherical morphology. Based on XRD analysis, the average crystallite size of Nc-AgNPs was calculated at 15.74 nm. At the same time, EDS spectrum analysis exhibited dominant emission energy at 3 keV, indicative of Nc-AgNPs. Nc-AgNPs showed an inhibition zone of 12 nm in gram-negative Escherichia coli, 10 nm in gram-positive Enterococcus faecalis, and 11 nm in Staphylococcus aureus. Nc-AgNPs showed high antioxidant properties, with 63% at 5000 μg/mL. The wound-healing properties of Nc-AgNPs were evaluated in vivo in wound models created in a total of 20 Wistar albino male rats, divided into four groups. After 10 days of treatment, the highest wound closure rate was seen in the Nc-AgNP + Vaseline (Group IV) treatment group, at 94%. It was observed that Nc-AgNP + Vaseline nanoformulation significantly increased wound healing, similar to Silverdin®, and Vaseline alone supported healing but did not result in complete closure. Histopathological examination revealed an increase in mature Type 1 collagen in Group IV and positive control (Group II), with better collagen maturation in vehicle control (Group III) compared to negative control (Group I). Immunohistochemical analysis showed complete epithelialization in Group IV and Group II, with distinct cytokeratin expressions, while Group III exhibited mild expressions.

Resveratrol-Ampicillin Dual-Drug Loaded Polyvinylpyrrolidone/Polyvinyl Alcohol Biomimic Electrospun Nanofiber Enriched with Collagen for Efficient Burn Wound Repair

Background

The healing of burn wounds is a complicated physiological process that involves several stages, including haemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodelling to rebuild the skin and subcutaneous tissue integrity. Recent advancements in nanomaterials, especially nanofibers, have opened a new way for efficient healing of wounds due to burning or other injuries.

Methods

This study aims to develop and characterize collagen-decorated, bilayered electrospun nanofibrous mats composed of PVP and PVA loaded with Resveratrol (RSV) and Ampicillin (AMP) to accelerate burn wound healing and tissue repair.

Results

Nanofibers with smooth surfaces and web-like structures with diameters ranging from 200 to 400 nm were successfully produced by electrospinning. These fibres exhibited excellent in vitro properties, including the ability to absorb wound exudates and undergo biodegradation over a two-week period. Additionally, these nanofibers demonstrated sustained and controlled release of encapsulated Resveratrol (RSV) and Ampicillin (AMP) through in vitro release studies. The zone of inhibition (ZOI) of PVP-PVA-RSV-AMP nanofibers against Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Escherichia coli (E. coli) was found 31±0.09 mm and 12±0.03, respectively, which was significantly higher as compared to positive control. Similarly, the biofilm study confirmed the significant reduction in the formation of biofilms in nanofiber-treated group against both S. aureus and E. coli. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis proved the encapsulation of RSV and AMP successfully into nanofibers and their compatibility. Haemolysis assay (%) showed no significant haemolysis (less than 5%) in nanofiber-treated groups, confirmed their cytocompatibility with red blood cells (RBCs). Cell viability assay and cell adhesion on HaCaT cells showed increased cell proliferation, indicating its biocompatibility as well as non-toxic properties. Results of the in-vivo experiments on a burn wound model demonstrated potential burn wound healing in rats confirmed by H&E-stained images and also improved the collagen synthesis in nanofibers-treated groups evidenced by Masson-trichrome staining. The ELISA assay clearly indicated the efficient downregulation of TNF-alpha and IL-6 inflammatory biomarkers after treatment with nanofibers on day 10.

Conclusion

The RSV and AMP-loaded nanofiber mats, developed in this study, expedite burn wound healing through their multifaceted approach.

Mechanisms of bacterial resistance to environmental silver and antimicrobial strategies for silver: A review

The good antimicrobial properties of silver make it widely used in food, medicine, and environmental applications. However, the release and accumulation of silver-based antimicrobial agents in the environment is increasing with the extensive use of silver-based antimicrobials, and the prevalence of silver-resistant bacteria is increasing. To prevent the emergence of superbugs, it is necessary to exercise rational and strict control over drug use. The mechanism of bacterial resistance to silver has not been fully elucidated, and this article provides a review of the progress of research on the mechanism of bacterial resistance to silver. The results indicate that bacterial resistance to silver can occur through inducing silver particles aggregation and Ag+ reduction, inhibiting silver contact with and entry into cells, efflux of silver particles and Ag+ in cells, and activation of damage repair mechanisms. We propose that the bacterial mechanism of silver resistance involves a combination of interrelated systems. Finally, we discuss how this information can be used to develop the next generation of silver-based antimicrobials and antimicrobial therapies. And some antimicrobial strategies are proposed such as the "Trojan Horse" - camouflage, using efflux pump inhibitors to reduce silver efflux, working with "minesweeper", immobilization of silver particles.

Synthesis of Cross-Linked and Sterilized Water-Soluble Electrospun Nanofiber Biomatrix of Streptomycin-Imbedded PVA/CHN/β-CD for Wound Healing

The diagnosis and prognosis of chronic wounds are demanding and require objective assessment. Because of their potential medicinal applications, the syntheses of biopolymeric chitosan (CHN) structure and PVA-based mixed electrospun nanofibers with biomimetic features were thoroughly investigated. This study created different formulas, including a guest molecule and capping agent, using supporting PVA as a vehicle. CHN was used as a biomodifier, and beta-cyclodextrin (ß-CD) as a smoother and more efficiently entraps streptomycin (STP) compared with the silver sheet wound dressing. The relevant analyses showed that the size distribution increased with the incorporation of PVA, CHN, and ß-CD to 120.3, 161.9, and 192.02 nm. The webs boosted particle size and released content stability to 96.4% without compromising the nanofiber structure. Examining the synergistic effects of the PVA/CHN/STP/ß-CD nanoformulation against pathogenic strains of S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, and Aspergillus niger, clean zones were 47 ± 3.4, 45 ± 3.0, and 49 ± 3.7 mm were produced. PVA/CHN/STP/ß-CD formula exhibited a 98.9 ± 0.6% cell viability and wound closure of 100% at 72 h. The results reveal that the PVA/CHN/STP/ß-CD formula is promising for medical applications, especially in wound healing, compared with the silver sheet.

Development and optimization of Clitoria teratea synthesized silver nanoparticles and its application to nanogel systems for wound healing

OBJECTIVE

The present research deals with sequential optimization strategy based on Central Composite Design to optimize the process variables for efficient production of Clitoria teratea (CLT) synthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using biological synthesis.

METHODS

Two substantial factors influencing the dependent variables viz UV-visible absorbance, particle size, zeta potential and polydispersity index (PDI) were identified as NaOH concentration, RH concentration, temperature as independent variables. In-vitro and ex-vivo studies of prepared CLT-AgNPs gel and marketed gel were carried out using dialysis membrane and egg membrane, respectively. In addition, antimicrobial study was also performed on the bacterial strains.

RESULTS

The particles size (114 nm), PDI (0.45), and zeta potential (-29.5 mV) of optimized formulation were found, respectively. In-vitro profile of AgNPs from prepared CLT-AgNPs gel was noted (95.6%) in 8 h. It was found that the prepared CLT-AgNPs gel stimulates fibroblast and agranulocytosis development resulting better and timely wound healing.

CONCLUSIONS

The prepared CLT-AgNPs gel can be as a potential substitute in the management and treatment of acute and chronic wounds.

An Erythrocyte-Templated Iron Single-Atom Nanozyme for Wound Healing

Iron single-atom nanozymes represent a promising artificial enzyme with superior activity owing to uniform active sites that can precisely mimic active center of nature enzymes. However, current synthetic strategies are hard to guarantee each active site at single-atom state. In this work, an erythrocyte-templated strategy by utilizing intrinsic hemin active center of hemoglobin as sing-atom source for nanozyme formation is developed. By combining cell fixation, porous salinization, and high-temperature carbonization, erythrocytes are successfully served as uniform templates to synthesize nanozymes with fully single-atom FeN4 active sites which derived from hemin of hemoglobin, resulting in an enhanced peroxidase (POD)-like activity. Interestingly, the catalytic activity of erythrocyte-templated nanozyme (ETN) shows dependence on animal species, among which murine ETN performed superior catalytic efficiency. In addition, the as-prepared ETNs display a honeycomb-like network structure, serving as a sponge to accelerate hemostasis based on the interactions with prothrombin and fibrinogen. These features enable ETN to effectively kill methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) by combining POD-like catalysis with near-infrared (NIR) induced photothermal effect, and subsequently suitable to promote wound healing. This study provides a proof-of-concept for facile fabrication of multifunctional nanozymes with uniform single-atom active sites by utilizing intrinsic iron structure characteristics of biogenic source like erythrocytes.

Cellulose Acetate-Based Wound Dressings Loaded with Bioactive Agents: Potential Scaffolds for Wound Dressing and Skin Regeneration

Wound healing and skin regeneration are major challenges in chronic wounds. Among the types of wound dressing products currently available in the market, each wound dressing material is designed for a specific wound type. Some of these products suffer from various shortcomings, such as poor antibacterial efficacy and mechanical performance, inability to provide a moist environment, poor permeability to oxygen and capability to induce cell migration and proliferation during the wound healing process. Hydrogels and nanofibers are widely reported wound dressings that have demonstrated promising capability to overcome these shortcomings. Cellulose acetate is a semisynthetic polymer that has attracted great attention in the fabrication of hydrogels and nanofibers. Loading bioactive agents such as antibiotics, essential oils, metallic nanoparticles, plant extracts, and honey into cellulose acetate-based nanofibers and hydrogels enhanced their biological effects, including antibacterial, antioxidant, and wound healing. This review reports cellulose acetate-based hydrogels and nanofibers loaded with bioactive agents for wound dressing and skin regeneration.

Electrospun Nanofiber Scaffolds Loaded with Metal-Based Nanoparticles for Wound Healing

Failures of wound healing have been a focus of research worldwide. With the continuous development of materials science, electrospun nanofiber scaffolds loaded with metal-based nanoparticles provide new ideas and methods for research into new tissue engineering materials due to their excellent antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and wound healing abilities. In this review, the stages of extracellular matrix and wound healing, electrospun nanofiber scaffolds, metal-based nanoparticles, and metal-based nanoparticles supported by electrospun nanofiber scaffolds are reviewed, and their characteristics and applications are introduced. We discuss in detail the current research on wound healing of metal-based nanoparticles and electrospun nanofiber scaffolds loaded with metal-based nanoparticles, and we highlight the potential mechanisms and promising applications of these scaffolds for promoting wound healing.

Personalised Medicine and the Potential Role of Electrospinning for Targeted Immunotherapeutics in Head and Neck Cancer

Advanced head and neck cancer (HNC) is functionally and aesthetically destructive, and despite significant advances in therapy, overall survival is poor, financial toxicity is high, and treatment commonly exacerbates tissue damage. Although response and durability concerns remain, antibody-based immunotherapies have heralded a paradigm shift in systemic treatment. To overcome limitations associated with antibody-based immunotherapies, exploration into de novo and repurposed small molecule immunotherapies is expanding at a rapid rate. Small molecule immunotherapies also have the capacity for chelation to biodegradable, bioadherent, electrospun scaffolds. This article focuses on the novel concept of targeted, sustained release immunotherapies and their potential to improve outcomes in poorly accessible and risk for positive margin HNC cases.

The recent development of carbon-based nanoparticles as a novel approach to skin tissue care and management - A review

Since the skin is the first barrier of the body's defense against pathogens, delays in the healing process are affected by infections. Therefore, applying advanced substitute assistance improves the patient's quality of life. Carbon-based nanomaterials show better capabilities than conventional methods for managing skin wound infections. Due to their physicochemical properties such as small size, large surface area, great surface-to-volume ratio, and excellent ability to communicate with the cells and tissue, carbon-based nanoparticles have been considered in regenerative medicine. moreover, the carbon nano family offers attractive potential in wound healing via the improvement of angiogenesis and antibacterial compared to traditional approaches become one of the particular research interests in the field of skin tissue engineering. This review emphasizes the wound-healing process and the role of carbon-based nanoparticles in wound care management interaction with tissue engineering technology.

Recent Progress and Trends in the Development of Electrospun and 3D Printed Polymeric-Based Materials to Overcome Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) developed by microorganisms is considered one of the most critical public health issues worldwide. This problem is affecting the lives of millions of people and needs to be addressed promptly. Mainly, antibiotics are the substances that contribute to AMR in various strains of bacteria and other microorganisms, leading to infectious diseases that cannot be effectively treated. To avoid the use of antibiotics and similar drugs, several approaches have gained attention in the fields of materials science and engineering as well as pharmaceutics over the past five years. Our focus lies on the design and manufacture of polymeric-based materials capable of incorporating antimicrobial agents excluding the aforementioned substances. In this sense, two of the emerging techniques for materials fabrication, namely, electrospinning and 3D printing, have gained significant attraction. In this article, we provide a summary of the most important findings that contribute to the development of antimicrobial systems using these technologies to incorporate various types of nanomaterials, organic molecules, or natural compounds with the required property. Furthermore, we discuss and consider the challenges that lie ahead in this research field for the coming years.

A bilayer biocompatible polycaprolactone/zinc oxide/Capparis spinosa L. ethyl acetate extract/polylactic acid nanofibrous composite scaffold for novel wound dressing applications

Capparis spinosa L. (CSL) is used in traditional medicinal purposes for wound dressing because it contains natural phenolic and flavonoid active compounds. In the current study, a bilayer of biocompatible and mechanically stable nanofiber scaffolds with polycaprolactone (PCL)/zinc oxide and Capparis spinosa L. ethyl acetate extract (CSLE)/polylactic acid (PLA) layers was successfully prepared by an electrostatic spinning technique. Microstructural observations carried out by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) have shown that the nanofibers with a smooth surface are continuous and bead-free, and that the size distribution is uniform, with an average diameter of 314.15 nm. The results of careful observation further suggested that polymers in the nanofibers have excellent compatibility with drugs. The results of Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy suggested that CSLE and zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO) were successfully loaded in the nanofiber membranes. Water contact angle measurements revealed that the bilayer nanofiber membranes exhibited satisfactory wettability (outside layer, 130°; inner layer, 72.4°). Tensile testing showed that the bilayer PCL/ZnO-CSLE/PLA nanofibers remained unbroken until reaching 10.69 MPa, which is much higher than the tensile strengths of the individual layers or the individual components. Moreover, agar disk diffusion assessment confirmed that the bilayer nanofiber membranes obviously hindered bacterial growth. Cytotoxicity studies showed that the bilayer nanofiber membranes effectively accelerated cell proliferation. The investigated PCL/ZnO-CSLE/PLA bilayer nanofibers have potential for use as membranes for wound dressing applications.

Nanofibrous Scaffolds for Diabetic Wound Healing

Chronic wounds are one of the secondary health complications that develop in individuals who have poorly managed diabetes mellitus. This is often associated with delays in the wound healing process, resulting from long-term uncontrolled blood glucose levels. As such, an appropriate therapeutic approach would be maintaining blood glucose concentration within normal ranges, but this can be quite challenging to achieve. Consequently, diabetic ulcers usually require special medical care to prevent complications such as sepsis, amputation, and deformities, which often develop in these patients. Although several conventional wound dressings, such as hydrogels, gauze, films, and foams, are employed in the treatment of such chronic wounds, nanofibrous scaffolds have gained the attention of researchers because of their flexibility, ability to load a variety of bioactive compounds as single entities or combinations, and large surface area to volume ratio, which provides a biomimetic environment for cell proliferation relative to conventional dressings. Here, we present the current trends on the versatility of nanofibrous scaffolds as novel platforms for the incorporation of bioactive agents suitable for the enhancement of diabetic wound healing.

Nano-biotechnology in tumour and cancerous disease: A perspective review

In recent years, drug manufacturers and researchers have begun to consider the nanobiotechnology approach to improve the drug delivery system for tumour and cancer diseases. In this article, we review current strategies to improve tumour and cancer drug delivery, which mainly focuses on sustaining biocompatibility, biodistribution, and active targeting. The conventional therapy using cornerstone drugs such as fludarabine, cisplatin etoposide, and paclitaxel has its own challenges especially not being able to discriminate between tumour versus normal cells which eventually led to toxicity and side effects in the patients. In contrast to the conventional approach, nanoparticle-based drug delivery provides target-specific delivery and controlled release of the drug, which provides a better therapeutic window for treatment options by focusing on the eradication of diseased cells via active targeting and sparing normal cells via passive targeting. Additionally, treatment of tumours associated with the brain is hampered by the impermeability of the blood-brain barriers to the drugs, which eventually led to poor survival in the patients. Nanoparticle-based therapy offers superior delivery of drugs to the target by breaching the blood-brain barriers. Herein, we provide an overview of the properties of nanoparticles that are crucial for nanotechnology applications. We address the potential future applications of nanobiotechnology targeting specific or desired areas. In particular, the use of nanomaterials, biostructures, and drug delivery methods for the targeted treatment of tumours and cancer are explored.

One-pot microwave synthesis of chitosan-stabilized silver nanoparticles entrapped polyethylene oxide nanofibers, with their intrinsic antibacterial and antioxidant potency for wound healing

Different physical and chemical techniques could be used to prepare chitosan/Silver nanoparticle (CHS/AgNPs) nanocomposite. The microwave heating reactor was rationally adopted as a benign tool for preparing CHS/AgNPs owing to less energy consumption and shorter time required for completing the nucleation and growth particles. UV-Vis, FTIR, and XRD, provided conclusive evidence of the AgNPs creation, while TEM micrographs elucidated that the size was spherical (20 nm). CHS/AgNPs were embedded in polyethylene oxide (PEO) nanofiber via electrospinning, and their biological properties, cytotoxicity evaluation, antioxidant, and antibacterial activity assays were investigated. The generated nanofibers have mean diameters of 130.9 ± 9.5, 168.7 ± 18.8, and 186.8 ± 8.19 nm for PEO, PEO/ CHS, and PEO/ CHS (AgNPs), respectively. Because of the tiny AgNPs particle size loaded in PEO/CHS (AgNPs) fabricated nanofiber, good antibacterial activity with ZOI against E. coli was 51.2 ± 3.2, and S. aureus was 47.2 ± 2.1 for PEO/ CHS (AgNPs) nanofibers. Non-toxicity was observed against Human Skin Fibroblast and Keratinocytes cell lines (>93.5 %), which justifies its great antibacterial potential to remove or prevent infection in wounds with fewer adverse effects.

Nanomaterials-Based Wound Dressing for Advanced Management of Infected Wound

The effective prevention and treatment of bacterial infections is imperative to wound repair and the improvement of patient outcomes. In recent years, nanomaterials have been extensively applied in infection control and wound healing due to their special physiochemical and biological properties. Incorporating antibacterial nanomaterials into wound dressing has been associated with improved biosafety and enhanced treatment outcomes compared to naked nanomaterials. In this review, we discuss progress in the application of nanomaterial-based wound dressings for advanced management of infected wounds. Focus is given to antibacterial therapy as well as the all-in-one detection and treatment of bacterial infections. Notably, we highlight progress in the use of nanoparticles with intrinsic antibacterial performances, such as metals and metal oxide nanoparticles that are capable of killing bacteria and reducing the drug-resistance of bacteria through multiple antimicrobial mechanisms. In addition, we discuss nanomaterials that have been proven to be ideal drug carriers for the delivery and release of antimicrobials either in passive or in stimuli-responsive manners. Focus is given to nanomaterials with the ability to kill bacteria based on the photo-triggered heat (photothermal therapy) or ROS (photodynamic therapy), due to their unparalleled advantages in infection control. Moreover, we highlight examples of intelligent nanomaterial-based wound dressings that can detect bacterial infections in-situ while providing timely antibacterial therapy for enhanced management of infected wounds. Finally, we highlight challenges associated with the current nanomaterial-based wound dressings and provide further perspectives for future improvement of wound healing.

Recent advances in green synthesized nanoparticles for bactericidal and wound healing applications

Nanotechnology has become an exciting area of research in diverse fields, such as: healthcare, food, agriculture, cosmetics, paints, lubricants, fuel additives and other fields. This review is a novel effort to update the practioneers about the most current developments in the widespread use of green synthesized nanoparticles in medicine. Biosynthesis is widely preferred among different modes of nanoparticle synthesis since they do not require toxic chemical usage and they are environment-friendly. In the green bioprocess, plant, algal, fungal and cyanobacterial extract solutions have been utilized as nucleation/capping agents to develop effective nanomaterials for advanced medical applications. Several metal salts, such as silver, zinc, titanium and other inorganic salts, were utilized to fabricate innovative nanoparticles for healthcare applications. Irrespective of the type of wound, infection in the wound area is a widespread problem. Micro-organisms, the prime reason for wound complications, are gradually gaining resistance against the commonly used antimicrobial drugs. This necessitates the need to generate nanoparticles with efficient antimicrobial potential to keep the pathogenic microbes under control. These nanoparticles can be topically applied as an ointment and also be used by incorporating them into hydrogels, sponges or electrospun nanofibers. The main aim of this review is to highlight the recent advances in the Ag, ZnO and TiO₂ nanoparticles with possible wound healing applications, coupled with the bactericidal ability of a green synthesis process.

Growth Factor Binding Peptides in Poly (Ethylene Glycol) Diacrylate (PEGDA)-Based Hydrogels for an Improved Healing Response of Human Dermal Fibroblasts

Growth factors (GF) are critical cytokines in wound healing. However, the direct delivery of these biochemical cues into a wound site significantly increases the cost of wound dressings and can lead to a strong immunological response due to the introduction of a foreign source of GFs. To overcome this challenge, we designed a poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) hydrogel with the potential capacity to sequester autologous GFs directly from the wound site. We demonstrated that synthetic peptide sequences covalently tethered to PEGDA hydrogels physically retained human transforming growth factor beta 1 (hTGFβ1) and human vascular endothelial growth factor (hVEGF) at 3.2 and 0.6 ng/mm², respectively. In addition, we demonstrated that retained hTGFβ1 and hVEGF enhanced human dermal fibroblasts (HDFa) average cell surface area and proliferation, respectively, and that exposure to both GFs resulted in up to 1.9-fold higher fraction of area covered relative to the control. After five days in culture, relative to the control surface, non-covalently bound hTGFβ1 significantly increased the expression of collagen type I and hTGFβ1 and downregulated vimentin and matrix metalloproteinase 1 expression. Cumulatively, the response of HDFa to hTGFβ1 aligns well with the expected response of fibroblasts during the early stages of wound healing.

Synthesis and Characterization of Ligand-Stabilized Silver Nanoparticles and Comparative Antibacterial Activity against E. coli

Silver is a well-established antimicrobial agent. Conjugation of organic ligands with silver nanoparticles has been shown to create antimicrobial nanoparticles with improved pharmacodynamic properties and reduced toxicity. Twelve novel organic ligand functionalized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were prepared via a light-controlled reaction with derivatives of benzothiazole, benzoxazine, quinazolinone, 2-butyne-1,4-diol, 3-butyne-1-ol, and heptane-1,7-dioic. UV-vis, Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and energy-dispersive X-ray (EDAX) analysis were used to confirm the successful formation of ligand-functionalized nanoparticles. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) revealed mean nanoparticle diameters between 25 and 278 nm. Spherical and nanotube-like morphologies were observed using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Seven of the twelve nanoparticles exhibited strong antimicrobial activity and five of the twelve demonstrated significant antibacterial capabilities against E. coli in a zone-of-inhibition assay. The synthesis of functionalized silver nanoparticles such as the twelve presented is critical for the further development of silver-nanoconjugated antibacterial agents.

Antimicrobial Activity of Blow Spun PLA/Gelatin Nanofibers Containing Green Synthesized Silver Nanoparticles against Wound Infection-Causing Bacteria

One of the main challenges in wound healing is the wound infection due to various causes, of which moisture is the most important reason. Owing to this fact, wound dressings that can collect wound moisture in addition to showing antibacterial properties have provided an important basis for wound healing research. In this study, gelatin and poly lactic acid (PLA) polymers were used in a wound dressing textile to provide gelation and structure strength properties, respectively. Meanwhile, silver nanoparticles (SNPs) synthesized through the green method were integrated into these fibers to provide the formed textile with antibacterial properties. Nanoparticles were made using donkey dung extract, and nanofibers were produced by the solution blow spinning method which has high production efficiency and low energy consumption among spinning methods. The produced nanoparticles were characterized and evaluated by UV-Vis, DLS, XRD, and FTIR methods, and the production of silver nanoparticles that were coated with metabolites in the extract was proven. In addition, the morphology and diameter of the resulted fibers and presence of nanoparticles were confirmed by the SEM method. The size and size distribution of the synthesized fibers were determined through analyzing SEM results. Gelatin nanofibers demonstrated a mean size of 743 nm before and 773 nm after nanoparticle coating. PLA nanofibers demonstrated a mean size of 57 nm before and 182 nm after nanoparticle coating. Finally, 335 nm was the mean diameter size of gelatin/PLA/SNPs nanofibers. Also, the textiles synthesized by PLA and gelatin which contained silver nanoparticles showed higher antibacterial activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative species compared to PLA and gelatin tissues without nanoparticles. Cytotoxicity test on L929 cells showed that silver nanoparticles incorporated textiles of PLA and gelatin show a very low level and non-significant toxicity compared to the free particles.

Gellan Gum in Wound Dressing Scaffolds

Several factors, such as bacterial infections, underlying conditions, malnutrition, obesity, ageing, and smoking are the most common issues that cause a delayed process of wound healing. Developing wound dressings that promote an accelerated wound healing process and skin regeneration is crucial. The properties of wound dressings that make them suitable for the acceleration of the wound healing process include good antibacterial efficacy, excellent biocompatibility, and non-toxicity, the ability to provide a moist environment, stimulating cell migration and adhesion, and providing gaseous permeation. Biopolymers have demonstrated features appropriate for the development of effective wound dressing scaffolds. Gellan gum is one of the biopolymers that has attracted great attention in biomedical applications. The wound dressing materials fabricated from gellan gum possess outstanding properties when compared to traditional dressings, such as good biocompatibility, biodegradability, non-toxicity, renewability, and stable nature. This biopolymer has been broadly employed for the development of wound dressing scaffolds in different forms. This review discusses the physicochemical and biological properties of gellan gum-based scaffolds in the management of wounds.

Recent Advances in Silver Nanoparticles Containing Nanofibers for Chronic Wound Management

Infections are the primary cause of death from burns and diabetic wounds. The clinical difficulty of treating wound infections with conventional antibiotics has progressively increased and reached a critical level, necessitating a paradigm change for enhanced chronic wound care. The most prevalent bacterium linked with these infections is Staphylococcus aureus, and the advent of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus has posed a substantial therapeutic challenge. Most existing wound dressings are ineffective and suffer from constraints such as insufficient antibacterial activity, toxicity, failure to supply enough moisture to the wound, and poor mechanical performance. Using ineffective wound dressings might prolong the healing process of a wound. To meet this requirement, nanoscale scaffolds with their desirable qualities, which include the potential to distribute bioactive agents, a large surface area, enhanced mechanical capabilities, the ability to imitate the extracellular matrix (ECM), and high porosity, have attracted considerable interest. The incorporation of nanoparticles into nanofiber scaffolds constitutes a novel approach to “nanoparticle dressing” that has acquired significant popularity for wound healing. Due to their remarkable antibacterial capabilities, silver nanoparticles are attractive materials for wound healing. This review focuses on the therapeutic applications of nanofiber wound dressings containing Ag-NPs and their potential to revolutionize wound healing.

Protein and polysaccharide-based asymmetric mat with tuned bilayer configuration for enhanced wound healing efficiency

In this research we focused on the fabrication of an asymmetric bilayer membrane with core-shell/simple layer configuration providing the functions of needed hierarchically hydrophilicity and porosity, anti-infectious, tissue adhesion as well as degradation and integration with tissue, cells proliferation, and enhanced promotion of tissue regeneration. The bilayer membrane composed of collagen (Col), chitosan (CS), aloe vera (AV) and gelatin (Gel), not only simulates the features of the epidermis and dermis layer of a natural skin but also benefits from the materials necessary for the regeneration of injured skin tissue during the healing process. The results of full-thickness skin wound evaluation revealed that the fabricated asymmetric membrane could facilitate wound healing within 10 days mainly through enhancing cellular activities, enhancing collagen deposition, and promoting proliferation. Results of histopathological analysis and immunohistochemistry after 10 days of treatment, demonstrated more re-epithelialization and collagen density for the treated groups compared to the control group.

Evaluation of the Antibacterial Properties of Iron Oxide, Polyethylene Glycol, and Gentamicin Conjugated Nanoparticles against Some Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria

Antibacterial resistance is observed as a public health issue around the world. Every day, new resistance mechanisms appear and spread over the world. For that reason, it is imperative to improve the treatment schemes that have been developed to treat infections caused by wound infections, for instance, Staphylococcus epidermidis (S. epidermidis), Proteus mirabilis (P. mirabilis), and Acinetobacter baumannii (A. baumannii). In this case, we proposed a method that involves mixing the Gentamicin (Gen) with iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe3O4 NPs) and a polymer (polyethylene glycol (PEG)) with Fe3O4 NPs. X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), scanning electron microscope (SEM), and transmission electron microscope (TEM) were used to characterize Fe3O4 NPs. Zeta potential and dynamic light scattering (DLS) were also assessed. The antibacterial activity of Fe3O4 NPs, Fe3O4 NPs+PEG, Fe3O4 NPs+Gen, and Fe3O4 NPs+PEG+Gen composites was investigated. The results showed a significant improvement in the antibacterial activity of nanoparticles against bacterial isolates, especially for the Fe3O4 NPs+PEG+Gen as the diameter of the inhibition zone reached 26.33 ± 0.57 mm for A. baumannii, 25.66 ± 0.57 mm for P. mirabilis, and 23.66 ± 0.57 mm for S. epidermidis. The Fe3O4 NPs, Fe3O4 NPs+PEG, Fe3O4+Gen, and Fe3O4+PEG+Gen also showed effectiveness against the biofilm produced by these isolated bacteria. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of Fe3O4 NPs for S. epidermidis was 25 µg mL−1 and for P. mirabilis and A. baumannii was 50 µg mL−1. The findings suggest that the prepared nanoparticles could be potential therapeutic options for treating wound infections caused by S. epidermidis, P. mirabilis, and A. baumannii.

Polycaprolactone/Chitosan Composite Nanofiber Membrane as a Preferred Scaffold for the Culture of Mesothelial Cells and the Repair of Damaged Mesothelium

Mesothelial cells are specific epithelial cells lining the serosal cavity and internal organs. Nonetheless, few studies have explored the possibility to culture mesothelial cells in a nanostructure scaffold for tissue engineering applications. Therefore, this study aims to fabricate nanofibers from a polycaprolactone (PCL) and PCL/chitosan (CS) blend by electrospinning, and to elucidate the effect of CS on the cellular response of mesothelial cells. The results demonstrate that a PCL and PCL/CS nanofiber membrane scaffold could be prepared with a comparable fiber diameter (~300 nm) and porosity for cell culture. Blending CS with PCL influenced the mechanical properties of the scaffold due to interference of PCL crystallinity in the nanofibers. However, CS substantially improves scaffold hydrophilicity and results in a ~6-times-higher cell attachment rate in PCL/CS. The mesothelial cells maintain high viability in both nanofiber membranes, but PCL/CS provides better maintenance of cobblestone-like mesothelial morphology. From gene expression analysis and immunofluorescence staining, the incorporation of CS also results in the upregulated expression of mesothelial marker genes and the enhanced production of key mesothelial maker proteins, endorsing PCL/CS to better maintain the mesothelial phenotype. The PCL/CS scaffold was therefore chosen for the in vivo studies, which involved transplanting a cell/scaffold construct containing allograft mesothelial cells for mesothelium reconstruction in rats. In the absence of mesothelial cells, the mesothelium wound covered with PCL/CS showed an inflammatory response. In contrast, a mesothelium layer similar to native mesothelium tissue could be obtained by implanting the cell/scaffold construct, based on hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and immunohistochemical staining.

Reactive oxygen species scavenging nanofibers with chitosan-stabilized Prussian blue nanoparticles for enhanced wound healing efficacy

Chronic inflammatory wounds pose therapeutic challenges in the biomedical field. Polymeric nanofibrous matrices provide extracellular-matrix-like structures to facilitate wound healing; however, wound infection and the subsequent accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) delay healing. Therefore, we herein developed electrospun nanofibers (NFs), composed of chitosan-stabilized Prussian blue (PBChi) nanoparticles (NPs) and poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), with ROS scavenging activity to impart antioxidant and wound healing properties. The PBChi NPs were prepared using chitosan with different molecular weights, and their weight ratio with respect to PVA was optimized to yield PBChi-NP-coated PVA NFs with well-defined NF structures. In situ and in vitro antioxidant activity assays showed that the PBChi/PVA NFs could effectively remove ROS. Particularly, PBChi/PVA NFs with a lower chitosan molecular weight exhibited greater antioxidant activity. The hydroxyl radical scavenging activity of PBChi10k/PVA NFs was 60.4 %, approximately two-fold higher than that of PBChi100k/PVA NFs. Further, at the concentration of 10 μg/mL, they could significantly lower the in vitro ROS level by up to 50.7 %. The NFs caused no significant reduction in cell viability, owing to the excellent biocompatibility of PVA with PBChi NPs. Treatment using PBChi/PVA NFs led to faster cell proliferation in in vitro scratch wounds, reducing their size from 202 to 162 μm. The PBChi/PVA NFs possess notable antioxidant and cell proliferation properties as ROS-scavenging wound dressings.

Recent Progress in Development of Dressings Used for Diabetic Wounds with Special Emphasis on Scaffolds

Diabetic wound (DW) is a secondary application of uncontrolled diabetes and affects about 42.2% of diabetics. If the disease is left untreated/uncontrolled, then it may further lead to amputation of organs. In recent years, huge research has been done in the area of wound dressing to have a better maintenance of DW. These include gauze, films, foams or, hydrocolloid-based dressings as well as polysaccharide- and polymer-based dressings. In recent years, scaffolds have played major role as biomaterial for wound dressing due to its tissue regeneration properties as well as fluid absorption capacity. These are three-dimensional polymeric structures formed from polymers that help in tissue rejuvenation. These offer a large surface area to volume ratio to allow cell adhesion and exudate absorbing capacity and antibacterial properties. They also offer a better retention as well as sustained release of drugs that are directly impregnated to the scaffolds or the ones that are loaded in nanocarriers that are impregnated onto scaffolds. The present review comprehensively describes the pathogenesis of DW, various dressings that are used so far for DW, the limitation of currently used wound dressings, role of scaffolds in topical delivery of drugs, materials used for scaffold fabrication, and application of various polymer-based scaffolds for treating DW.

Nanoparticle-Containing Wound Dressing: Antimicrobial and Healing Effects

The dressings containing nanoparticles of metals and metal oxides are promising types of materials for wound repair. In such dressings, biocompatible and nontoxic hydrophilic polymers are used as a matrix. In the present review, we take a look at the anti-microbial effect of the nanoparticle-modified wound dressings against various microorganisms and evaluate their healing action. A detailed analysis of 31 sources published in 2021 and 2022 was performed. Furthermore, a trend for development of modern antibacterial wound-healing nanomaterials was shown as exemplified in publications starting from 2018. The review may be helpful for researchers working in the areas of biotechnology, medicine, epidemiology, material science and other fields aimed at the improvement of the quality of life.

Nanomaterials-based drug delivery approaches for wound healing

Abstract:

Wound healing is a complex and dynamic process that requires intricate synchronization between multiple cell types within appropriate extracellular microenvironment. Wound healing process involves four overlapping phases in a precisely regulated manner, consisting of hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and maturation. For an effective wound healing all four phases must follow in a sequential pattern within a time frame. Several factors might interfere with one or more of these phases in healing process, thus causing improper or impaired wound healing resulting in non-healing chronic wounds. The complications associated with chronic non-healing wounds, along with the limitations of existing wound therapies, have led to the development and emergence of novel and innovative therapeutic interventions. Nanotechnology presents unique and alternative approaches to accelerate the healing of chronic wounds by the interaction of nanomaterials during different phases of wound healing. This review focuses on recent innovative nanotechnology-based strategies for wound healing and tissue regeneration based on nanomaterials, including nanoparticles, nanocomposites and scaffolds. The efficacy of the intrinsic therapeutic potential of nanomaterials (including silver, gold, zinc oxide, copper, cerium oxide, etc.) and the ability of nanomaterials as carriers (liposomes, hydrogels, polymeric nanomaterials, nanofibers) as therapeutic agents associated with wound-healing applications have also been addressed. The significance of these nanomaterial-based therapeutic interventions for wound healing needs to be highlighted to engage researchers and clinicians towards this new and exciting area of bio-nanoscience. We believe that these recent developments will offer researchers an updated source on the use of nanomaterials as an advanced approach to improve wound healing.

Lignin-Based Porous Biomaterials for Medical and Pharmaceutical Applications

Over the past decade, lignin-based porous biomaterials have been found to have strong potential applications in the areas of drug delivery, tissue engineering, wound dressing, pharmaceutical excipients, biosensors, and medical devices. Lignin-based porous biomaterials have the addition of lignin obtained from lignocellulosic biomass. Lignin as an aromatic compound is likely to modify the materials’ mechanical properties, thermal properties, antioxidant, antibacterial property, biodegradability, and biocompatibility. The size, shape, and distribution of pores can determine the materials’ porous structure, porosity, surface areas, permeability, porosity, water solubility, and adsorption ability. These features could be suitable for medical applications, especially controlled drug delivery systems, wound dressing, and tissue engineering. In this review, we provide an overview of the current status and future potential of lignin-based porous materials for medical and pharmaceutical uses, focusing on material types, key properties, approaches and techniques of modification and fabrication, and promising medical applications.

Mechanic-Driven Biodegradable Polyglycolic Acid/Silk Fibroin Nanofibrous Scaffolds Containing Deferoxamine Accelerate Diabetic Wound Healing

The extracellular matrix (ECM), comprising of hundreds of proteins, mainly collagen, provides physical, mechanical support for various cells and guides cell behavior as an interactive scaffold. However, deposition of ECM, especially collagen content, is seriously impaired in diabetic wounds, which cause inferior mechanical properties of the wound and further delay chronic wound healing. Thus, it is critical to develop ECM/collagen alternatives to remodel the mechanical properties of diabetic wounds and thus accelerate diabetic wound healing. Here, we firstly prepared mechanic-driven biodegradable PGA/SF nanofibrous scaffolds containing DFO for diabetic wound healing. In our study, the results in vitro showed that the PGA/SF-DFO scaffolds had porous three-dimensional nanofibrous structures, excellent mechanical properties, biodegradability, and biocompatibility, which would provide beneficial microenvironments for cell adhesion, growth, and migration as an ECM/collagen alternative. Furthermore, the data in vivo showed PGA/SF-DFO scaffolds can adhere well to the wound and have excellent biodegradability, which is helpful to avoid secondary damage by omitting the removal process of scaffolds. The finite element analysis results showed that the application of silk fibroin-based scaffolds could significantly reduce the maximum stress around the wound. Besides, PGA/SF-DFO scaffolds induced collagen deposition, re-vascularization, recovered impaired mechanical properties up to about 70%, and ultimately accelerated diabetic wound healing within 14 days. Thus, our work provides a promising therapeutic strategy for clinically chronic wound healing.

Nano-silver functionalized polysaccharides as a platform for wound dressings: A review

The healing of defected skin tissue is a complex process, especially for chronic wounds. Poor healing of these wounds may cause extensive suffering and high cost for patients. Traditional wound dressings are typically designed for a single function and they cannot satisfy all requirements for the whole process of wound healing. Therefore, it is necessary to develop new types of wound dressings with multiple functions for wound healing. In particular, adding an antibacterial function has been shown to be of great benefit during tissue repair. Nano‑silver is widely used in wound treatment because of various advantages, such as its wide antibacterial spectrum and lower drug resistance. Therefore, wound dressings loaded with nano‑silver have attracted widespread attention in wound healing. Naturally derived polysaccharides hold great potential as wound dressings, because of their abundant availability, low prices and good biocompatibility. In this review, nano‑silver functionalized polysaccharide-based wound dressings are systematically reviewed, including their preparation methods, antibacterial performances and classification of nano‑silver wound dressings. Moreover, the toxicity of nano‑silver based wound dressings is discussed and the prospective research direction is elaborated. This review aims to provide readers with an overview of the latest developments in silver nanotechnology, and to provide a little guidance for the research of nano‑silver functionalized polysaccharide-based wound dressings.

Collagen-Based Nanofibers for Skin Regeneration and Wound Dressing Applications

Skin regeneration after an injury is very vital, but this process can be impeded by several factors. Regenerative medicine is a developing biomedical field with the potential to decrease the need for an organ transplant. Wound management is challenging, particularly for chronic injuries, despite the availability of various types of wound dressing scaffolds in the market. Some of the wound dressings that are in clinical practice have various drawbacks such as poor antibacterial and antioxidant efficacy, poor mechanical properties, inability to absorb excess wound exudates, require frequent change of dressing and fails to offer a suitable moist environment to accelerate the wound healing process. Collagen is a biopolymer and a major constituent of the extracellular matrix (ECM), making it an interesting polymer for the development of wound dressings. Collagen-based nanofibers have demonstrated interesting properties that are advantageous both in the arena of skin regeneration and wound dressings, such as low antigenicity, good biocompatibility, hemostatic properties, capability to promote cellular proliferation and adhesion, and non-toxicity. Hence, this review will discuss the outcomes of collagen-based nanofibers reported from the series of preclinical trials of skin regeneration and wound healing.

Electrospun Antibacterial Nanomaterials for Wound Dressings Applications

Chronic wounds are caused by bacterial infections and create major healthcare discomforts; to overcome this issue, wound dressings with antibacterial properties are to be utilized. The requirements of antibacterial wound dressings cannot be fulfilled by traditional wound dressing materials. Hence, to improve and accelerate the process of wound healing, an antibacterial wound dressing is to be designed. Electrospun nanofibers offer a promising solution to the management of wound healing, and numerous options are available to load antibacterial compounds onto the nanofiber webs. This review gives us an overview of some recent advances of electrospun antibacterial nanomaterials used in wound dressings. First, we provide a brief overview of the electrospinning process of nanofibers in wound healing and later discuss electrospun fibers that have incorporated various antimicrobial agents to be used in wound dressings. In addition, we highlight the latest research and patents related to electrospun nanofibers in wound dressing. This review also aims to concentrate on the importance of nanofibers for wound dressing applications and discuss functionalized antibacterial nanofibers in wound dressing.

Functionalized Antimicrobial Nanofibers: Design Criteria and Recent Advances

The rise of antibiotic resistance has become a major threat to human health and it is spreading globally. It can cause common infectious diseases to be difficult to treat and leads to higher medical costs and increased mortality. Hence, multifunctional polymeric nanofibers with distinctive structures and unique physiochemical properties have emerged as a neo-tool to target biofilm and overcome deadly bacterial infections. This review emphasizes electrospun nanofibers' design criteria and properties that can be utilized to enhance their therapeutic activity for antimicrobial therapy. Also, we present recent progress in designing the surface functionalization of antimicrobial nanofibers with non-antibiotic agents for effective antibacterial therapy. Lastly, we discuss the future trends and remaining challenges for polymeric nanofibers.

Zingiber cassumunar Roxb. Essential Oil-Loaded Electrospun Poly(lactic acid)/Poly(ethylene oxide) Fiber Blend Membrane for Antibacterial Wound Dressing Application

The essential oil from Zingiber cassumunar Roxb. (Plai) has long been used in Thai herbal remedies to treat inflammation, pains, sprains, and wounds. It was therefore loaded into an electrospun fibrous membrane for use as an analgesic and antibacterial dressing for wound care. The polymer blend between poly(lactic acid) and poly(ethylene oxide) was selected as the material of choice because its wettability can be easily tuned by changing the blend ratio. Increasing the hydrophilicity and water uptake ability of the material while retaining its structural integrity and porosity provides moisture balance and removes excess exudates, thereby promoting wound healing. The effect of the blend ratio on the fiber morphology and wettability was investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and contact angle measurement, respectively. The structural determination of the prepared membranes was conducted using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The release behavior of (E)-1-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl) butadiene (DMPBD), a marker molecule with potent anti-inflammatory activity from the fiber blend, showed a controlled release characteristic. The essential oil-loaded electrospun membrane also showed antibacterial activity against S. aureus and E. coli. It also exhibited no toxicity to both human fibroblast and keratinocyte cells, suggesting that the prepared material is suitable for wound dressing application.