Extracellular Vesicles as Therapeutic Tools for the Treatment of Chronic Wounds

Preclinical and Clinical Studies on the Use of Extracellular Vesicles Derived from Mesenchymal Stem Cells in the Treatment of Chronic Wounds

To date, the widespread implementation of therapeutic strategies for the treatment of chronic wounds, including debridement, infection control, and the use of grafts and various dressings, has been time-consuming and accompanied by many challenges, with definite success not yet achieved. Extensive studies on mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have led to suggestions for their use in treating various diseases. Given the existing barriers to utilizing such cells and numerous pieces of evidence indicating the crucial role of the paracrine signaling system in treatments involving MSCs, extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from these cells have garnered significant attention in treating chronic wounds in recent years. This review begins with a general overview of current methods for chronic wound treatment, followed by an exploration of EV structure, biogenesis, extraction methods, and characterization. Subsequently, utilizing databases such as Google Scholar, PubMed, and ScienceDirect, we have explored the latest findings regarding the role of EVs in the healing of chronic wounds, particularly diabetic and burn wounds. In this context, the role and mode of action of these nanoparticles in healing chronic wounds through mechanisms such as oxygen level elevation, oxidative stress damage reduction, angiogenesis promotion, macrophage polarization assistance, etc., as well as the use of EVs as carriers for engineered nucleic acids, have been investigated. The upcoming challenges in translating EV-based treatments for healing chronic wounds, along with possible approaches to address these challenges, are discussed. Additionally, clinical trial studies in this field are also covered.

Optimizing mesenchymal stem cell extracellular vesicles for chronic wound healing: Bioengineering, standardization, and safety

Chronic wounds represent a significant global burden, afflicting millions with debilitating complications. Despite standard care, impaired healing persists due to factors like persistent inflammation and impaired tissue regeneration. Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) offer an innovative regenerative medicine approach, delivering stem cell-derived therapeutic cargo in engineered nanoscale delivery systems. This review examines pioneering bioengineering strategies to engineer MSC-EVs into precision nanotherapeutics for chronic wounds. Emerging technologies like CRISPR gene editing, microfluidic manufacturing, and biomimetic delivery systems are highlighted for their potential to enhance MSC-EV targeting, optimize therapeutic cargo enrichment, and ensure consistent clinical-grade production. However, key hurdles remain, including batch variability, rigorous safety assessment for potential tumorigenicity, immunogenicity, and biodistribution profiling. Crucially, collaborative frameworks harmonizing regulatory science with bioengineering and patient advocacy hold the key to expediting global clinical translation. By overcoming these challenges, engineered MSC-EVs could catalyze a new era of off-the-shelf regenerative therapies, restoring hope and healing for millions afflicted by non-healing wounds.

TGF-β1 induces formation of TSG-6-enriched extracellular vesicles in fibroblasts which can prevent myofibroblast transformation by modulating Erk1/2 phosphorylation

Extracellular vesicles have emerged as important mediators of cell-to-cell communication in the pathophysiology of fibrotic diseases. One such disease is Peyronie's disease (PD), a fibrotic disorder of the penis caused by uncontrolled transformation of resident fibroblasts to alpha-smooth muscle actin positive myofibroblasts. These cells produce large amounts of extracellular matrix, leading to formation of a plaque in the penile tunica albuginea (TA), causing pain, penile curvature, and erectile dysfunction. We have used primary fibroblasts derived from the TA of PD patients to explore the role of transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1), a key signalling factor in this process. TGF-β1 treatment elicited a range of responses from the myofibroblasts: (i) they secreted extracellular vesicles (EVs) that were more numerous and differed in size and shape from those secreted by fibroblasts, (ii) these EVs prevented TGF-β1-induced transformation of fibroblasts in a manner that was dependent on vesicle uptake and (iii) they prevented phosphorylation of Erk1/2, a critical component in modulating fibrogenic phenotypic responses, but did not affect TGF-β1-induced Smad-signalling. We posit that this effect could be linked to enrichment of TSG-6 in myofibroblast-derived EVs. The ability of myofibroblast-derived vesicles to prevent further myofibroblast transformation may establish them as part of an anti-fibrotic negative feedback loop, with potential to be exploited for future therapeutic approaches.

Understanding exosomes: Part 2-Emerging leaders in regenerative medicine

Exosomes are the smallest subset of extracellular signaling vesicles secreted by most cells with the ability to communicate with other tissues and cell types over long distances. Their use in regenerative medicine has gained tremendous momentum recently due to their ability to be utilized as therapeutic options for a wide array of diseases/conditions. Over 5000 publications are currently being published yearly on this topic, and this number is only expected to dramatically increase as novel therapeutic strategies continue to be developed. Today exosomes have been applied in numerous contexts including neurodegenerative disorders (Alzheimer's disease, central nervous system, depression, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, post-traumatic stress disorders, traumatic brain injury, peripheral nerve injury), damaged organs (heart, kidney, liver, stroke, myocardial infarctions, myocardial infarctions, ovaries), degenerative processes (atherosclerosis, diabetes, hematology disorders, musculoskeletal degeneration, osteoradionecrosis, respiratory disease), infectious diseases (COVID-19, hepatitis), regenerative procedures (antiaging, bone regeneration, cartilage/joint regeneration, osteoarthritis, cutaneous wounds, dental regeneration, dermatology/skin regeneration, erectile dysfunction, hair regrowth, intervertebral disc repair, spinal cord injury, vascular regeneration), and cancer therapy (breast, colorectal, gastric cancer and osteosarcomas), immune function (allergy, autoimmune disorders, immune regulation, inflammatory diseases, lupus, rheumatoid arthritis). This scoping review is a first of its kind aimed at summarizing the extensive regenerative potential of exosomes over a broad range of diseases and disorders.

Extracellular vesicle biopotentiated hydrogels for diabetic wound healing: The art of living nanomaterials combined with soft scaffolds

Diabetic wounds (DWs) pose a major challenge for the public health system owing to their high incidence, complex pathogenesis, and long recovery time; thus, there is an urgent need to develop innovative therapies to accelerate the healing process of diabetic wounds. As natural nanovesicles, extracellular vesicles (EVs) are rich in sources with low immunogenicity and abundant nutritive molecules and exert potent therapeutic effects on diabetic wound healing. To avoid the rapid removal of EVs, a suitable delivery system is required for their controlled release. Owing to the advantages of high porosity, good biocompatibility, and adjustable physical and chemical properties of hydrogels, EV biopotentiated hydrogels can aid in achieving precise and favorable therapy against diabetic wounds. This review highlights the different design strategies, therapeutic effects, and mechanisms of EV biopotentiated hydrogels. We also discussed the future challenges and opportunities of using EV biopotentiated hydrogels for diabetic wound healing.

Thermostable Basic Fibroblast Growth Factor Enhances the Production and Activity of Human Wharton's Jelly Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles

Wharton's jelly-derived mesenchymal stem cell (WJ-MSC)-derived exosomes contain a diverse cargo and exhibit remarkable biological activity, rendering them suitable for regenerative and immune-modulating functions. However, the quantity of secretion is insufficient. A large body of prior work has investigated the use of various growth factors to enhance MSC-derived exosome production. In this study, we evaluated the utilization of thermostable basic fibroblast growth factor (TS-bFGF) with MSC culture and exosome production. MSCs cultured with TS-bFGF displayed superior proliferation, as evidenced by cell cycle analysis, compared with wild-type bFGF (WT-bFGF). Stemness was assessed through mRNA expression level and colony-forming unit (CFU) assays. Furthermore, nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) measurements revealed that MSCs cultured with TS-bFGF produced a greater quantity of exosomes, particularly under three-dimensional culture conditions. These produced exosomes demonstrated substantial anti-inflammatory and wound-healing effects, as confirmed by nitric oxide (NO) assays and scratch assays. Taken together, we demonstrate that utilization of TS-bFGF for WJ-MSC-derived exosome production not only increases exosome yield but also enhances the potential for various applications in inflammation regulation and wound healing.

Advances in the Applications of Extracellular Vesicle for the Treatment of Skin Photoaging: A Comprehensive Review

Skin photoaging is a complex biological process characterized by the accumulation of oxidative damage and structural changes in the skin, resulting from chronic exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Despite the growing demand for effective treatments, current therapeutic options for skin photoaging remain limited. However, emerging research has highlighted the potential of extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, micro-vesicles, apoptotic bodies and liposomes, as promising therapeutic agents in skin rejuvenation. EVs are involved in intercellular communication and can deliver bioactive molecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids, to recipient cells, thereby influencing various cellular processes. This comprehensive review aims to summarize the current research progress in the application of EVs for the treatment of skin photoaging, including their isolation and characterization methods, roles in skin homeostasis, therapeutic potential and clinical applications for skin photoaging. Additionally, challenges and future directions in EVs-based therapies for skin rejuvenation are discussed.

A comprehensive review on the composition, biogenesis, purification, and multifunctional role of exosome as delivery vehicles for cancer therapy

All forms of life produce nanosized extracellular vesicles called exosomes, which are enclosed in lipid bilayer membranes. Exosomes engage in cell-to-cell communication and participate in a variety of physiological and pathological processes. Exosomes function via their bioactive components, which are delivered to target cells in the form of proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. Exosomes function as drug delivery vehicles due to their unique properties of innate stability, low immunogenicity, biocompatibility, biodistribution, accumulation in desired tissues, low toxicity in normal tissues, and the stimulation of anti-cancer immune responses, and penetration capacity into distance organs. Exosomes mediate cellular communications by delivering various bioactive molecules including oncogenes, oncomiRs, proteins, specific DNA, messenger RNA (mRNA), microRNA (miRNA), small interfering RNA (siRNA), and circular RNA (circRNA). These bioactive substances can be transferred to change the transcriptome of target cells and influence tumor-related signaling pathways. After considering all of the available literature, in this review we discuss the biogenesis, composition, production, and purification of exosomes. We briefly review exosome isolation and purification techniques. We explore great-length exosomes as a mechanism for delivering a variety of substances, including proteins, nucleic acids, small chemicals, and chemotherapeutic drugs. We also talk about the benefits and drawbacks of exosomes. This review concludes with a discussion future perspective and challenges. We hope that this review will provide us a better understanding of the current state of nanomedicine and exosome applications in biomedicine.

Extracellular vesicles as personalized medicine

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are released from all cells in the body, forming an important intercellular communication network that contributes to health and disease. The contents of EVs are cell source-specific, inducing distinct signaling responses in recipient cells. The specificity of EVs and their accumulation in fluid spaces that are accessible for liquid biopsies make them highly attractive as potential biomarkers and therapies for disease. The duality of EVs as favorable (therapeutic) or unfavorable (pathological) messengers is context dependent and remains to be fully determined in homeostasis and various disease states. This review describes the use of EVs as biomarkers, drug delivery vehicles, and regenerative therapeutics, highlighting examples involving viral infections, cancer, and neurological diseases. There is growing interest to provide personalized therapy based on individual patient and disease characteristics. Increasing evidence suggests that EV biomarkers and therapeutic approaches are ideal for personalized medicine due to the diversity and multifunctionality of EVs.

Extracellular vesicle-mediated delivery of anti-miR-106b inhibits morphine-induced primary ciliogenesis in the brain

Repeated use of opioids such as morphine causes changes in the shape and signal transduction pathways of various brain cells, including astrocytes and neurons, resulting in alterations in brain functioning and ultimately leading to opioid use disorder. We previously demonstrated that extracellular vesicle (EV)-induced primary ciliogenesis contributes to the development of morphine tolerance. Herein, we aimed to investigate the underlying mechanisms and potential EV-mediated therapeutic approach to inhibit morphine-mediated primary ciliogenesis. We demonstrated that miRNA cargo in morphine-stimulated-astrocyte-derived EVs (morphine-ADEVs) mediated morphine-induced primary ciliogenesis in astrocytes. CEP97 is a target of miR-106b and is a negative regulator of primary ciliogenesis. Intranasal delivery of ADEVs loaded with anti-miR-106b decreased the expression of miR-106b in astrocytes, inhibited primary ciliogenesis, and prevented the development of tolerance in morphine-administered mice. Furthermore, we confirmed primary ciliogenesis in the astrocytes of opioid abusers. miR-106b-5p in morphine-ADEVs induces primary ciliogenesis via targeting CEP97. Intranasal delivery of ADEVs loaded with anti-miR-106b ameliorates morphine-mediated primary ciliogenesis and prevents morphine tolerance. Our findings bring new insights into the mechanisms underlying primary cilium-mediated morphine tolerance and pave the way for developing ADEV-mediated small RNA delivery strategies for preventing substance use disorders.

Versatility of mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles in tissue repair and regenerative applications

Mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) are multipotent somatic cells that have been widely explored in the field of regenerative medicine. MSCs possess the ability to secrete soluble factors as well as lipid bound extracellular vesicles (EVs). MSCs have gained increased interest and attention as a result of their therapeutic properties, which are thought to be attributed to their secretome. However, while the use of MSCs as whole cells pose heterogeneity concerns and survival issues post-transplantation, such limitations are absent in cell-free EV-based treatments. EVs derived from MSCs are promising therapeutic agents for a range of clinical conditions and disorders owing to their immunomodulatory, pro-regenerative, anti-inflammatory, and antifibrotic activity. Recent successes with preclinical studies using EVs for repair and regeneration of damaged tissues such as cardiac tissue, lung, liver, pancreas, bone, skin, cornea, and blood diseases are discussed in this review. We also discuss delivery strategies of EVs using biomaterials as delivery vehicles through systemic or local administration. Despite its effectiveness in preclinical investigations, the application of MSC-EV in clinical settings will necessitate careful consideration surrounding issues such as: i) scalability and isolation, ii) biodistribution, iii) targeting specific tissues, iv) quantification and characterization, and v) safety and efficacy of dosage. The future of EVs in regenerative medicine is promising yet still needs further investigation on enhancing the efficacy, scalability, and potency for clinical applications.

Toward transplantation tolerance with adipose tissue-derived therapeutics

Solid organ and composite tissue allotransplanation have been widely applied to treat end-stage organ failure and massive tissue defects, respectively. Currently there are a lot of research endeavors focusing on induction of transplantation tolerance, to relieve the burden derived from long-term immunosuppressant uptake. The mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) have been demonstrated with potent immunomodulatory capacities and applied as promising cellular therapeutics to promote allograft survival and induce tolerance. As a rich source of adult MSCs, adipose tissue provides additional advantages of easy accessibility and good safety profile. In recent years, the stromal vascular fraction (SVF) isolated from adipose tissues following enzymatic or mechanical processing without in vitro culture and expansion has demonstrated immunomodulatory and proangiogenic properties. Furthermore, the secretome of AD-MSCs has been utilized in transplantation field as a potential "cell-free" therapeutics. This article reviews recent studies that employ these adipose-derived therapeutics, including AD-MSCs, SVF, and secretome, in various aspects of organ and tissue allotransplantation. Most reports validate their efficacies in prolonging allograft survival. Specifically, the SVF and secretome have performed well for graft preservation and pretreatment, potentially through their proangiogenic and antioxidative capacities. In contrast, AD-MSCs were suitable for peri-transplantation immunosuppression. The proper combination of AD-MSCs, lymphodepletion and conventional immunosuppressants could consistently induce donor-specific tolerance to vascularized composite allotransplants (VCA). For each type of transplantation, optimizing the choice of therapeutics, timing, dose, and frequency of administration may be required. Future progress in the application of adipose-derived therapeutics to induce transplantation tolerance will be further benefited by continued research into their mechanisms of action and the development of standardized protocols for isolation methodologies, cell culture, and efficacy evaluation.

Mesenchymal stem cell therapy for non-healing diabetic foot ulcer infection: New insight

Diabetic foot ulcer (DFU) is considered the most catastrophic complication of diabetes mellitus (DM), leading to repeated hospitalizations, infection, gangrene, and finally amputation of the limb. In patients suffering from diabetes mellitus, the wound-healing process is impaired due to various factors such as endothelial dysfunction and synthesis of advanced glycation end-products, hence, conventional therapeutic interventions might not be effective. With increasing therapeutic applications of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in recent years, their potential as a method for improving the wound-healing process has gained remarkable attention. In this field, mesenchymal stem cells exert their beneficial effects through immunomodulation, differentiation into the essential cells at the site of ulcers, and promoting angiogenesis, among others. In this article, we review cellular and molecular pathways through which mesenchymal stem cell therapy reinforces the healing process in non-healing Diabetic foot ulcers.

Apoptotic bodies for advanced drug delivery and therapy

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as promising candidates for multiple biomedical applications. Major types of EVs include exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic bodies (ABs). ABs are conferred most properties from parent cells in the final stages of apoptosis. A wide variety of sources and stable morphological features are endowed to ABs by the rigorous apoptotic program. ABs accommodate more functional biomolecules by relying on the larger volume and maintaining their naturalness in circulation. The predominant body surface ratio of ABs facilitates their recognition by recipient cells and is advantageous for interactions with microenvironments. ABs can modulate and alleviate symptoms of numerous diseases for their origins, circulation, and high biocompatibility. In addition, ABs have been emerging in disease diagnosis, immunotherapy, regenerative therapy, and drug delivery. Here, we aim to present a thorough discussion on current knowledge about ABs. Of particular interest, we will summarize the application of AB-based strategies for diagnosis and disease therapy. Perspectives for the development of ABs in biomedical applications are highlighted.

Investigation of the Properties of Linen Fibers and Dressings

In antiquity, flax was used as a dressing for healing wounds. Currently, work is underway on the genetic modification of flax fibers to improve their properties. Genetic modifications have resulted in an increased content of antioxidants and more favorable mechanical properties. The works published so far have presented independent tests of fibers and dressings after appropriate technological treatments in cell cultures. This study aimed to compare the properties of the fibers and the dressing produced in cell cultures—hamster fibroblasts—V79. The research material was traditional NIKE fibers; genetically modified M, B, and MB fibers; and linen dressings obtained from these fibers. The extract from 48-h incubation of 40 mg of fiber in the culture medium, which was desolved into 10, 20, and 30 mg, was administered to the cell culture. On the other hand, a linen dressing was placed on cells with an area of 0.5 cm², 1 cm², 1.5 cm², and 2 cm². Cells with fiber or dressing were incubated for 48 h, and then, biological tests were performed, including cell viability (in propidium iodide staining), cell proliferation (in the SRB assay), evaluation of the intracellular free radical level (in the DCF-DA assay), genotoxicity (in the comet assay), assessment of the apoptotic and necrotic cells (in staining anexin-V and iodide propidium), the course of the cell cycle, and the scratch test. The correlation between apoptosis and genotoxicity and the levels of free radicals and genotoxicity were determined for the tested linen fibers and fabrics. The tests presented that the fibers are characterized by the ability to eliminate damaged cells in the elimination phase. However, the obtained fabrics gain different properties during the technological processing of the fibers into linen dressings. Linen fabrics have better regenerative properties for cells than fibers. The linseed dressing made of MB fiber has the most favorable regenerative properties.

Exosomes Derived from Human Umbilical Cord Mesenchymal Stem Cells Accelerate Diabetic Wound Healing via Promoting M2 Macrophage Polarization, Angiogenesis, and Collagen Deposition

Some scholars have suggested that the clinical application of exosomes derived from human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (hucMSCs-exo) might represent a novel strategy to improve diabetic wound healing. However, the mechanisms underlying the effects of hucMSCs-exo on wound healing remain poorly understood. This study aimed to identify the mechanism of hucMSCs-exo in treating diabetic wounds. HucMSCs-exo were isolated from human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (hucMSCs) and subcutaneously injected into full-thickness wounds in diabetic rats. Wound healing closure rates and histological analysis were performed. The levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), macrophage mannose receptor (MMR/CD206), platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 (PECAM-1/CD31), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) were detected by immunohistochemistry. The degree of collagen deposition was examined using Masson’s trichrome staining. Gross evaluation of wound healing was carried out from day 0 to 14 post-surgery, and the wound site was harvested for histology on days 3, 7, and 14 post-wounding. HucMSCs-exo transplantation increased diabetic wound healing. In vitro, hucMSCs-exo promoted the proliferation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and NIH-3T3 cells. In vivo, hucMSCs-exo reduced wound area and inflammatory infiltration and increased collagen fibers. In addition, wound tissues in the hucMSCs-exo group had higher CD206, CD31, and VEGF expressions and lower TNF-α levels than those in the control group on day 14. Our results demonstrated that hucMSCs-exo facilitated diabetic wound repair by inducing anti-inflammatory macrophages and promoting angiogenesis and collagen deposition.

Microfluidic Approaches for Affinity-Based Exosome Separation

As a subspecies of extracellular vesicles (EVs), exosomes have provided promising results in diagnostic and theranostic applications in recent years. The nanometer-sized exosomes can be extracted by liquid biopsy from almost all body fluids, making them especially suitable for mainly non-invasive point-of-care (POC) applications. To achieve this, exosomes must first be separated from the respective biofluid. Impurities with similar properties, heterogeneity of exosome characteristics, and time-related biofouling complicate the separation. This practical review presents the state-of-the-art methods available for the separation of exosomes. Furthermore, it is shown how new separation methods can be developed. A particular focus lies on the fabrication and design of microfluidic devices using highly selective affinity separation. Due to their compactness, quick analysis time and portable form factor, these microfluidic devices are particularly suitable to deliver fast and reliable results for POC applications. For these devices, new manufacturing methods (e.g., laminating, replica molding and 3D printing) that use low-cost materials and do not require clean rooms are presented. Additionally, special flow routes and patterns that increase contact surfaces, as well as residence time, and thus improve affinity purification are displayed. Finally, various analyses are shown that can be used to evaluate the separation results of a newly developed device. Overall, this review paper provides a toolbox for developing new microfluidic affinity devices for exosome separation.

The Therapeutic Role of ADSC-EVs in Skin Regeneration

Large skin defects caused by burns, unhealing chronic wounds, and trauma, are still an intractable problem for clinicians and researchers. Ideal skin regeneration includes several intricate and dynamic stages of wound repair and regeneration of skin physiological function. Adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs), a type of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) with abundant resources and micro-invasive extraction protocols, have been reported to participate in each stage of promoting skin regeneration via paracrine effects. As essential products secreted by ADSCs, extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from ADSCs (ADSC-EVs) inherit such therapeutic potential. However, ADSC-EVs showed much more clinical superiorities than parental cells. ADSC-EVs carry various mRNAs, non-coding RNAs, proteins, and lipids to regulate the activities of recipient cells and eventually accelerate skin regeneration. The beneficial role of ADSCs in wound repair has been widely accepted, while a deep comprehension of the mechanisms of ADSC-EVs in skin regeneration remains unclear. In this review, we provided a basic profile of ADSC-EVs. Moreover, we summarized the latest mechanisms of ADSC-EVs on skin regeneration from the aspects of inflammation, angiogenesis, cell proliferation, extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling, autophagy, and oxidative stress. Hair follicle regeneration and skin barrier repair stimulated by ADSC-EVs were also reviewed. The challenges and prospects of ADSC-EVs-based therapies were discussed at the end of this review.

Preparation of Recombinant Human Collagen III Protein Hydrogels with Sustained Release of Extracellular Vesicles for Skin Wound Healing

Existing treatment methods encounter difficulties in effectively promoting skin wound healing, making this a serious challenge for clinical treatment. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) secreted by stem cells have been proven to contribute to the regeneration and repair of wound tissue, but they cannot be targeted and sustained, which seriously limits their current therapeutic potential. The recombinant human collagen III protein (rhCol III) has the advantages of good water solubility, an absence of hidden viral dangers, a low rejection rate and a stable production process. In order to achieve a site-specific sustained release of EVs, we prepared a rhCol III hydrogel by cross-linking with transglutaminase (TGase) from Streptomyces mobaraensis, which has a uniform pore size and good biocompatibility. The release profile of the rhCol III-EVs hydrogel confirmed that the rhCol III hydrogel could slowly release EVs into the external environment. Herein, the rhCol III-EVs hydrogel effectively promoted macrophage changing from type M1 to type M2, the migration ability of L929 cells and the angiogenesis of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). Furthermore, the rhCol III-EVs hydrogel is shown to promote wound healing by inhibiting the inflammatory response and promoting cell proliferation and angiogenesis in a diabetic rat skin injury model. The reported results indicate that the rhCol III-EVs hydrogel could be used as a new biological material for EV delivery, and has a significant application value in skin wound healing.

Extracellular Vesicles in Corneal Fibrosis/Scarring

Communication between cells and the microenvironment is a complex, yet crucial, element in the development and progression of varied physiological and pathological processes. Accumulating evidence in different disease models highlights roles of extracellular vesicles (EVs), either in modulating cell signaling paracrine mechanism(s) or harnessing their therapeutic moiety. Of interest, the human cornea functions as a refractive and transparent barrier that protects the intraocular elements from the external environment. Corneal trauma at the ocular surface may lead to diminished corneal clarity and detrimental effects on visual acuity. The aberrant activation of corneal stromal cells, which leads to myofibroblast differentiation and a disorganized extracellular matrix is a central biological process that may result in corneal fibrosis/scarring. In recent years, understanding the pathological and therapeutic EV mechanism(s) of action in the context of corneal biology has been a topic of increasing interest. In this review, we describe the clinical relevance of corneal fibrosis/scarring and how corneal stromal cells contribute to wound repair and their generation of the stromal haze. Furthermore, we will delve into EV characterization, their subtypes, and the pathological and therapeutic roles they play in corneal scarring/fibrosis.

Exosomal Proteins and Lipids as Potential Biomarkers for Lung Cancer Diagnosis, Prognosis, and Treatment

Simple Summary

Exosomes (or extracellular vesicles) are known to mediate intercellular communication and to transmit molecular signals between cells. Molecules carried by exosomes have their own molecular roles in affecting surrounding and distant environment, as well as recipient cells. Molecular components of exosomes can be used as cancer biomarkers for diagnosis and prognosis, being promising therapeutic targets for the interruption of cellular signals. Therefore, the understanding of the molecular compositions and their functional indications of exosomes has the potential to help doctors to diagnose and monitor diseases and to allow researchers to design and develop potential targeted therapies. This review aims to provide a comprehensive protein and lipid characterization of lung cancer exosomes and to explore their molecular functions and mechanisms regulating physiological and pathological processes. This organization offers informative insight for lung cancer diagnosis and treatment.

Abstract

Exosomes participate in cell–cell communication by transferring molecular components between cells. Previous studies have shown that exosomal molecules derived from cancer cells and liquid biopsies can serve as biomarkers for cancer diagnosis and prognosis. The exploration of the molecules transferred by lung cancer-derived exosomes can advance the understanding of exosome-mediated signaling pathways and mechanisms. However, the molecular characterization and functional indications of exosomal proteins and lipids have not been comprehensively organized. This review thoroughly collected data concerning exosomal proteins and lipids from various lung cancer samples, including cancer cell lines and cancer patients. As potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers, exosomal proteins and lipids are available for clinical use in lung cancer. Potential therapeutic targets are mentioned for the future development of lung cancer therapy. Molecular functions implying their possible roles in exosome-mediated signaling are also discussed. Finally, we emphasized the importance and value of lung cancer stem cell-derived exosomes in lung cancer therapy. In summary, this review presents a comprehensive description of the protein and lipid composition and function of lung cancer-derived exosomes for lung cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment.

Exosome-based drug delivery systems and their therapeutic applications

In the past few decades, scientists have actively worked on developing effective drug delivery systems (DDSs) as means to control life-threatening diseases and challenging illnesses.