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Tamo AK. Nanocellulose-based hydrogels as versatile materials with interesting functional properties for tissue engineering applications. J Mater Chem B 2024; 12:7692-7759. [PMID: 38805188 DOI: 10.1039/d4tb00397g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
Tissue engineering has emerged as a remarkable field aiming to restore or replace damaged tissues through the use of biomimetic constructs. Among the diverse materials investigated for this purpose, nanocellulose-based hydrogels have garnered attention due to their intriguing biocompatibility, tunable mechanical properties, and sustainability. Over the past few years, numerous research works have been published focusing on the successful use of nanocellulose-based hydrogels as artificial extracellular matrices for regenerating various types of tissues. The review emphasizes the importance of tissue engineering, highlighting hydrogels as biomimetic scaffolds, and specifically focuses on the role of nanocellulose in composites that mimic the structures, properties, and functions of the native extracellular matrix for regenerating damaged tissues. It also summarizes the types of nanocellulose, as well as their structural, mechanical, and biological properties, and their contributions to enhancing the properties and characteristics of functional hydrogels for tissue engineering of skin, bone, cartilage, heart, nerves and blood vessels. Additionally, recent advancements in the application of nanocellulose-based hydrogels for tissue engineering have been evaluated and documented. The review also addresses the challenges encountered in their fabrication while exploring the potential future prospects of these hydrogel matrices for biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnaud Kamdem Tamo
- Institute of Microsystems Engineering IMTEK, University of Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany.
- Freiburg Center for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies FIT, University of Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
- Freiburg Materials Research Center FMF, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
- Ingénierie des Matériaux Polymères (IMP), Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, INSA de Lyon, Université Jean Monnet, CNRS, UMR 5223, 69622 Villeurbanne CEDEX, France
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Sun A, Bian S, Li L, Guo Z, Li W, Li J, Xu S, Liu PD. Preparation of highly adsorptive biochar by sequential iron impregnation under refluxing and pyrolysis at low temperature for removal of tetracycline. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 348:123886. [PMID: 38556153 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.123886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2024] [Revised: 03/17/2024] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
Iron-doping modification is a prevailing approach for improving adsorption capability of biochar with environmental friendliness, but usually requires high temperature and suffers from iron aggregation. Herein, a highly adsorptive biochar was manufactured via sequential disperse impregnation of iron by refluxing and pyrolysis at low temperature for eliminating tetracycline (TC) from aqueous solution. Iron oxides and hydroxides were impregnated and stably dispersed on the carbon matrix as pyrolyzed at 200 °C, meanwhile abundant oxygen and nitrogen functional groups were generated on surface. The iron-doped biochar exhibited up to 891.37 mg/g adsorption capacity at pH 5, and could be recycled with high adsorption capability. The adsorption of TC should be mostly contributed to the hydrogen bonding of N/O functional groups and the hydrogen bonding/coordination of iron oxides/hydroxides. This would provide a valuable guide for dispersedly doping iron and conserving functional groups on biochar, and a super iron-doped biochar was prepared with superior recyclability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahui Sun
- Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Advanced Materials in Tropical Island Resources, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan University, Haikou, 570228, China
| | - Siyao Bian
- Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Advanced Materials in Tropical Island Resources, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan University, Haikou, 570228, China
| | - Linzhou Li
- Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Advanced Materials in Tropical Island Resources, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan University, Haikou, 570228, China
| | - Zijing Guo
- Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Advanced Materials in Tropical Island Resources, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan University, Haikou, 570228, China
| | - Wanjie Li
- Danzhou Environmental Monitoring Station, Port Service Center, Danzhou, 578001, China
| | - Jihui Li
- Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Advanced Materials in Tropical Island Resources, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan University, Haikou, 570228, China.
| | - Shuying Xu
- Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Advanced Materials in Tropical Island Resources, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan University, Haikou, 570228, China
| | - Pan-Dao Liu
- Tropical Crops Genetic Resources Institute, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou, 571101, China
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3
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Jang NS, Noh CH, Kim YH, Yang HJ, Lee HG, Oh H. Evaluation of a Hydrophobic Coating Agent Based on Cellulose Nanofiber and Alkyl Ketone Dimer. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:4216. [PMID: 37374400 DOI: 10.3390/ma16124216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Revised: 05/21/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we report on the development and testing of hydrophobic coatings using cellulose fibers. The developed hydrophobic coating agent secured hydrophobic performance over 120°. In addition, a pencil hardness test, rapid chloride ion penetration test, and carbonation test were conducted, and it was confirmed that concrete durability could be improved. We believe that this study will promote the research and development of hydrophobic coatings in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nag-Seop Jang
- Department of Civil Engineering, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52725, Republic of Korea
| | - Chi-Hoon Noh
- Department of Civil Engineering, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52725, Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Hwan Kim
- Bricon Lab Inc., Advanced Construction Materials Testing Center, Daegu 42601, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee-Jun Yang
- Bricon Lab Inc., Advanced Construction Materials Testing Center, Daegu 42601, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyeon-Gi Lee
- Bricon Lab Inc., Advanced Construction Materials Testing Center, Daegu 42601, Republic of Korea
| | - HongSeob Oh
- Department of Civil Engineering, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52725, Republic of Korea
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Li J, Alamdari NE, Aksoy B, Parit M, Jiang Z. Integrated enzyme hydrolysis assisted cellulose nanofibril (CNF) fabrication: A sustainable approach to paper mill sludge (PMS) management. CHEMOSPHERE 2023:138966. [PMID: 37220796 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Revised: 05/15/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The landfilling of paper mill sludge (PMS) has been restricted or even banned in many countries due to the raised concern about greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and contamination of the soil and water, calling for a sustainable PMS management approach. The potential valorization of PMS to nanomaterials combined with traditional biorefinery was examined in this work. Three types of PMS-derived cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) were prepared and evaluated: enzymatically assisted CNF (AU: with in-house produced enzyme and CT: with commercial enzyme), mechanically pretreated CNF (BT), and chemically pretreated CNF by TEMPO oxidation (TEMPO). It was found that enzyme-assisted mechanical fibrillation-derived CNFs had a comparable average diameter (27.9 nm for AU and 22.7 nm for CT) with that produced from mechanical pretreatment (26.5 nm for BT) and TEMPO oxidation pretreatment (20.0 nm for TEMPO), and they showed the best drainage properties among the three types of CNF. The CNFs resulting from enzymatic pretreatment reduced 15% of energy consumption compared to the mechanical method and had better thermostability than TEMPO oxidation method. In addition, the on-site produced enzyme showed similar performance to the commercial enzymes towards the CNF properties. These findings provide new insights into a promising integrated strategy in engineering CNF from PMS with on-site enzyme production as a novel and sustainable approach for PMS management and valorization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Li
- School of Ecology and Environment, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing, 100048, China; State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Food Chain Pollution Control, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing, 100048, China; Alabama Center for Paper and Bioresource Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, United States
| | - Navid E Alamdari
- Alabama Center for Paper and Bioresource Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, United States
| | - Burak Aksoy
- Alabama Center for Paper and Bioresource Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, United States
| | - Mahesh Parit
- Alabama Center for Paper and Bioresource Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, United States
| | - Zhihua Jiang
- Alabama Center for Paper and Bioresource Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, United States.
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Calvo V, Álvarez Sánchez MÁ, Güemes L, Martínez-Barón C, Baúlde S, Criado A, González-Domínguez JM, Maser WK, Benito AM. Preparation of Cellulose Nanocrystals: Controlling the Crystalline Type by One-Pot Acid Hydrolysis. ACS Macro Lett 2023; 12:152-158. [PMID: 36638204 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.2c00705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) have aroused increasing interest owing to their renewable origin and excellent properties derived from their size and morphology. Based on their chain orientation, CNCs can be prepared as two main allomorphs (I or II). However, achieving pure CNC allomorphs still requires enhanced control on the CNCs synthesis process and improved understanding of the involved reaction parameters. In this work, we study in detail a set of parameters for CNC synthesis using one-pot acid hydrolysis and evaluate their influence on the outcome with respect to yield, purity, and repeatability. We also demonstrate that a fast, nondestructive, and accurate methodology based on dynamic light scattering is an efficient alternative to the usual structural analysis of the synthesis outcome. Finally, we provide an improved protocol to reliably obtain each allomorph with mass yields of 25% for type I and 40% for type II. Emphasis is put on the reduction of the environmental impact and the overall preparation time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Víctor Calvo
- Instituto de Carboquímica (ICB-CSIC), C/Miguel Luesma Castán 4, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain
| | | | - Lucas Güemes
- Instituto de Carboquímica (ICB-CSIC), C/Miguel Luesma Castán 4, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Carlos Martínez-Barón
- Instituto de Carboquímica (ICB-CSIC), C/Miguel Luesma Castán 4, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Sandra Baúlde
- Centro de Investigacións Científicas Avanzadas (CICA), As Carballeiras s/n, Campus de Elviña, 15071 A Coruña, Spain
| | - Alejandro Criado
- Centro de Investigacións Científicas Avanzadas (CICA), As Carballeiras s/n, Campus de Elviña, 15071 A Coruña, Spain
| | | | - Wolfgang K Maser
- Instituto de Carboquímica (ICB-CSIC), C/Miguel Luesma Castán 4, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Ana M Benito
- Instituto de Carboquímica (ICB-CSIC), C/Miguel Luesma Castán 4, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain
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Zhuang J, Rong N, Wang X, Chen C, Xu Z. Adsorption of small size microplastics based on cellulose nanofiber aerogel modified by quaternary ammonium salt in water. Sep Purif Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2022.121133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Rai R, Dhar P. Biomedical engineering aspects of nanocellulose: a review. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2022; 33:362001. [PMID: 35576914 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ac6fef] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Cellulose is one of the most abundant renewable biopolymer in nature and is present as major constituent in both plant cell walls as well as synthesized by some microorganisms as extracellular products. In both the systems, cellulose self-assembles into a hierarchical ordered architecture to form micro to nano-fibrillated structures, on basis of which it is classified into various forms. Nanocellulose (NCs) exist as rod-shaped highly crystalline cellulose nanocrystals to high aspect ratio cellulose nanofibers, micro-fibrillated cellulose and bacterial cellulose (BC), depending upon the origin, structural and morphological properties. Moreover, NCs have been processed into diversified products ranging from composite films, coatings, hydrogels, aerogels, xerogels, organogels, rheological modifiers, optically active birefringent colored films using traditional-to-advanced manufacturing techniques. With such versatility in structure-property, NCs have profound application in areas of healthcare, packaging, cosmetics, energy, food, electronics, bioremediation, and biomedicine with promising commercial potential. Herein this review, we highlight the recent advancements in synthesis, fabrication, processing of NCs, with strategic chemical modification routes to tailor its properties for targeted biomedical applications. We also study the basic mechanism and models for biosynthesis of cellulose in both plant and microbial systems and understand the structural insights of NC polymorphism. The kinetics study for both enzymatic/chemical modifications of NCs and microbial growth behavior of BC under various reactor configurations are studied. The challenges associated with the commercial aspects as well as industrial scale production of pristine and functionalized NCs to meet the growing demands of market are discussed and prospective strategies to mitigate them are described. Finally, post chemical modification evaluation of biological and inherent properties of NC are important to determine their efficacy for development of various products and technologies directed for biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohit Rai
- School of Biochemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (BHU), Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh-221005, India
| | - Prodyut Dhar
- School of Biochemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (BHU), Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh-221005, India
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Comparative FT-IR Prospecting for Cellulose in Stems of Some Fiber Plants: Flax, Velvet Leaf, Hemp and Jute. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/app11188570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Plant fibers are sustainable sources of materials for many industries, and can be obtained from a variety of plants. Cellulose is the main constituent of plant-based fibers, and its properties give the characteristics of the fibers obtained. Detailed characterization of cellulosic fibers is often performed after lengthy extraction procedures, while fast screening might bring the benefit of quick qualitative assessment of unprocessed stems. The aim of this research was to define some marker spectral regions that could serve for fast, preliminary qualitative characterization of unprocessed stems from some textile plants through a practical and minimally invasive method without lengthy extraction procedures. This could serve as a screening method for sorting raw materials by providing an accurate overall fingerprint of chemical composition. For this purpose, we conducted comparative Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) prospecting for quality markers in stems of flax (Linum usitatissimum L.), velvet leaf (Abutilon theophrasti Medik.), hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) and jute (Corchorus olitorius L.). Analysis confirmed the presence of major components in the stems of the studied plants. Fingerprint regions for cellulose signals were attributed to bands at 1420–1428 cm−1 assigned to the crystalline region and 896–898 cm−1 assigned to the amorphous region of cellulose. The optimization of characterization methods for raw materials is important and can find immediate practical applications.
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Gao C, Yang J, Zhang H, Xiao W, Han L. Quantitative and qualitative characterization of dual scale mechanical enhancement on cellulosic and crystalline-structural variation of NaOH treated wheat straw. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2020; 312:123535. [PMID: 32454440 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2020.123535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2020] [Revised: 05/09/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In order to explore the effects of different mechanical fragmentation on cellulose separation and cellulose polymorphic transformation of wheat straw during alkali treatment, one coarse milled (CM) and two ball milled wheat straw samples (BM30 and BM120) were treated with different NaOH concentrations (1%-10%), and the lignocellulosic compositions and crystalline-structural various were quantitative and qualitative characterized. The quantitative equations between cellulose content and NaOH concentration of different mechanical treated samples were YCM = 69.8-35.1exp(-0.64X)), YBM30 = 71.3-35.1exp(-0.86X)) and YBM120 = 73.5-35.1exp(-1.82X)). The enhancement effect of cellulose separation with the increasing mechanical fragmentation intensity is mainly due to the increasing hemicellulose solubilization. X-ray diffraction results reveals that the NaOH concentration required for cellulose crystalline transformation of CM, BM30 and BM120 is 10%, 8% and 2%, respectively. In conclusion, mechanical fragmentation contributes to cellulose separation and cellulose crystalline transformation under lower NaOH concentration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chongfeng Gao
- College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Box 191, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Jie Yang
- College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Box 191, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Hehu Zhang
- College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Box 191, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Weihua Xiao
- College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Box 191, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Lujia Han
- College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Box 191, Beijing 100083, China.
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Preparation of cyanobacteria-enhanced poly(vinyl)alcohol-based films with resistance to blue-violet light / red light and water. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0228814. [PMID: 32053641 PMCID: PMC7018049 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0228814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2019] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
The harmful cyanobacteria blooms which usually form in spring and summer, cause global eutrophication of freshwater and coastal marine ecosystems. This study tried to utilize cyanobacteria as a raw material to produce biological poly(vinyl)alcohol-based films. Cyanobacteria was firstly modified with poly(ethylene glycol), guanidine hydrochloride, carboxymethyl cellulose and 3-glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane as plasticizer, modifier, toughening agent and coupling agent, respectively. And then the modified cyanobacteria was introduced to poly(vinyl)alcohol and cellulose nanofibers/poly(vinyl)alcohol matrix to improve the barrier properties of poly(vinyl)alcohol to light and water. Compared with poly(vinyl)alcohol and cellulose nanofibers/poly(vinyl)alcohol films, the obtained cyanobacteria/poly(vinyl)alcohol and the cyanobacteria/cellulose nanofibers/poly(vinyl)alcohol composites exhibit better resistance to light and water. More interestingly, we found that after adding cyanobacteria, the poly(vinyl)alcohol-based films present better barrier properties to blue-violet light and red light. In adddition, introducing cyanobacteria into poly(vinyl)alcohol or cellulose nanofibers/poly(vinyl)alcohol matrix increases the surface roughness and contact angle to water of the composites.
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Barnes E, Jefcoat JA, Alberts EM, McKechnie MA, Peel HR, Buchanan JP, Weiss CA, Klaus KL, Mimun LC, Warner CM. Effect of Cellulose Nanofibrils and TEMPO-mediated Oxidized Cellulose Nanofibrils on the Physical and Mechanical Properties of Poly(vinylidene fluoride)/Cellulose Nanofibril Composites. Polymers (Basel) 2019; 11:polym11071091. [PMID: 31252644 PMCID: PMC6680576 DOI: 10.3390/polym11071091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2019] [Revised: 06/24/2019] [Accepted: 06/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) are high aspect ratio, natural nanomaterials with high mechanical strength-to-weight ratio and promising reinforcing dopants in polymer nanocomposites. In this study, we used CNFs and oxidized CNFs (TOCNFs), prepared by a 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl radical (TEMPO)-mediated oxidation process, as reinforcing agents in poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF). Using high-shear mixing and doctor blade casting, we prepared free-standing composite films loaded with up to 5 wt % cellulose nanofibrils. For our processing conditions, all CNF/PVDF and TOCNF/PVDF films remain in the same crystalline phase as neat PVDF. In the as-prepared composites, the addition of CNFs on average increases crystallinity, whereas TOCNFs reduces it. Further, addition of CNFs and TOCNFs influences properties such as surface wettability, as well as thermal and mechanical behaviors of the composites. When compared to neat PVDF, the thermal stability of the composites is reduced. With regards to bulk mechanical properties, addition of CNFs or TOCNFs, generally reduces the tensile properties of the composites. However, a small increase (~18%) in the tensile modulus was observed for the 1 wt % TOCNF/PVDF composite. Surface mechanical properties, obtained from nanoindentation, show that the composites have enhanced performance. For the 5 wt % CNF/PVDF composite, the reduced modulus and hardness increased by ~52% and ~22%, whereas for the 3 wt % TOCNF/PVDF sample, the increase was ~23% and ~25% respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eftihia Barnes
- Geotechnical and Structures Laboratory, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS, USA.
| | - Jennifer A Jefcoat
- Geotechnical and Structures Laboratory, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS, USA
| | | | - Mason A McKechnie
- Geotechnical and Structures Laboratory, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS, USA
| | - Hannah R Peel
- Environmental Laboratory, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS, USA
| | - J Paige Buchanan
- Geotechnical and Structures Laboratory, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS, USA
| | - Charles A Weiss
- Geotechnical and Structures Laboratory, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS, USA
| | - Kyle L Klaus
- Geotechnical and Structures Laboratory, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS, USA
| | - L Christopher Mimun
- Environmental Laboratory, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS, USA
| | - Christopher M Warner
- Environmental Laboratory, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS, USA
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