Pathways of Mycotoxin Occurrence in Meat Products: A Review

Exposure to Aflatoxins and Ochratoxin A From the Consumption of Selected Staples and Fresh Cow Milk in the Wet and Dry Seasons in Ghana

Across sub-Saharan Africa, the heavy reliance on mycotoxin-susceptible staple foods means that populations in the region are particularly vulnerable to chronic mycotoxin exposure. This study assessed the exposure risk to ochratoxin A (OTA) and aflatoxins (AFs) from 18 samples of selected staple foods (maize, millet, groundnut) and 56 fresh cow milk samples collected from across Ghana. The foods were sampled simultaneously to maximise comparability, and at two timepoints in March/April (during the dry season) and July/August (during the rainy season) to assess the effects of duration of storage and seasonal conditions on the mycotoxin levels as measured by high-performance liquid chromatography. The margin of exposure (MOE) approach was used to assess the exposure risk from consumption of the sampled foods. Each of the sampled staples was contaminated with OTA (0.19-3.11 ng/g) and at least one AF (0.75-13.05 ng/g B1, ND-12.12 ng/g B2, 0.1-9.95 ng/g G1, ND-16.78 ng/g G2). Up to 67% had contamination above European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) maximum limits, and 50% were above Ghana Standards Authority (GSA) limits. The fresh cow milk samples were contaminated with AFM1 in the range of 0.05-1.49 ng/g, with 95% above EFSA limits and 36% above GSA limits. Aflatoxin contamination in the staples was high, particularly in July/August when the wet conditions may have adversely impacted the handling and storage of farm produce. Variation in AFM1 between the two sampling periods mirrored total aflatoxin in the staples, suggesting that even if dairy cattle were grazing in open pasture and not being rationed on stored feed, then there was a high environmental presence of aflatoxigenic fungi. The MOE estimates were ≤ 533.09, far below the safe cut-off of 10,000 for suspected carcinogenic compounds. The high mycotoxin levels indicate a priority risk to child nutrition which relies heavily on cereal mixes based on one or all the three sampled staples. The data from this study underscore the urgent need for interventions to better appreciate and address mycotoxin exposure for enhanced food security and public health in Ghana and across sub-Saharan Africa.

Cultivated meat microbiological safety considerations and practices

Cultivated meat, produced using cell culture technology, is an alternative to conventional meat production that avoids the risks from enteric pathogens associated with animal slaughter and processing. Cultivated meat therefore has significant theoretical microbiological safety advantages, though limited information is available to validate this. This review discusses sources and vectors of microbial contamination throughout cultivated meat production, introduces industry survey data to evaluate current industry practices for monitoring and mitigating these hazards, and highlights future research needs. Industry survey respondents reported an average microbiological contamination batch failure rate of 11.2%. The most common vectors were related to personnel, equipment, and the production environment, while the most commonly reported type of microbiological contaminant was bacteria. These will likely remain prominent vectors and source organisms in commercial-scale production but can be addressed by a modified combination of existing commercial food and biopharmaceutical production safety systems such as Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP), Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), and Good Cell Culture Practice (GCCP). As the sector matures and embeds these and other safety management systems, microbiological contamination issues should be surmountable. Data are also included to investigate whether the limited microbiome of cultivated products poses a novel food safety risk. However, further studies are needed to assess the growth potential of microorganisms in different cultivated meat products, taking into account factors such as their composition, pH, water activity, and background microflora.

Indole-3-acetic acid enhances ruminal microbiota for aflatoxin B1 removal in vitro fermentation

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) has been recognized as a serious health risk for ruminant animals. From a molecular perspective, indole-3-acid (IAA) possesses the potential to enhance the removal of AFB1 by rumen microbiota. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the impact of different concentrations of IAA on the removal of AFB1 by rumen microbiota using an in vitro technique. Experiment 1: interaction between AFB1 and rumen fermentation. Experiment 2: The study used a randomized design with five IAA levels (0, 15, 150, 1,500, and 7,500 mg/kg) to examine the effect of IAA on AFB1 removal and its impact on rumen fermentation. The results showed: (1) the content of AFB1 gradually decreased, removal rate of up to 75.73% after 24 h. AFB1 exposure altered the rumen fermentation pattern, with significantly decreased in the acetic acid/propionic acid ratio (p < 0.05). It significantly reduced the relative proportions of R. amylophilus, P. ruminicola, and F. succinogenes (p < 0.05). (2) As the content of IAA increased, AFB1 exposure decreased. A total of 15 and 150 mg/kg IAA significantly mitigated the negative impact of AFB1 on key rumen bacteria (R. amylophilus, P. ruminicola and F. succinogenes), increased acetate levels and acetate/propionate ratio (p < 0.05). However, 1,500 mg/kg IAA lowered levels of propionate and isovalerate, adversely affected enzyme activities (pectinase, xylan and Carboxymethyl-cellulase) and relative proportions of microbiota (R. flavefaciens, P. ruminicola and F. succinogenes). In conclusion, IAA significantly removed AFB1, and in the range of 150 mg/kg of IAA reduced the negative effects of AFB1 on in vitro fermentation characteristics and fermentation end-products.

Investigation of ochratoxin A in air-dry-cured hams

The European Union legislation regarding ochratoxin A (OTA) in various foodstuffs has changed relatively recently. Nevertheless, the legislation does not regulate OTA in any meat and meat-derived products. In this legislation update, the European Commission requested new studies, including, besides others, the presence of OTA in hams, which raises the concern that its consumption may pose a potential risk of exposure to OTA. This study aims to investigate OTA in a total of 195 samples of air-dry-cured hams acquired at the Czech market from January to June 2023. The analytical technique of high-performance liquid chromatography in combination with a fluorescence detector with pre-treatment employing immunoaffinity columns was used to determine OTA. OTA was found in 93 (48%) samples of air-dry-cured ham, with the OTA concentration reaching up to 14.58 ng/g. Due to the current absence of regulation limits, the results of this study were compared with the Italian maximum limit of 1 ng/g regulating OTA in porcine meat and byproducts. The Italian OTA maximum limit was exceeded in 22 (11%) samples. This study shows that the population of the Czech Republic is exposed to OTA from this pork byproduct. It is essential to set an OTA regulatory limit for meat and food produced from it to protect human health.

A review on microorganisms and mycotoxin contamination of selected 'swallow meals' - Potential health risks to consumers

Swallow is a local parlance used by Nigerians to describe ready-to-eat pasty foods rich in carbohydrates which include fufu, pounded yam, amala, eba, lafun, tuwo, among others; molded in small size balls using the palm and dipped inside a bowl of nutritious and delicious soup (okro, edikaikong, egusi, bitter leaf soups etc.) before swallowing it. Swallow meals are often prepared in households and eateries, without strict implementation of food hygiene, which predisposes the meal to contamination by microorganisms. The use of palm, often not properly washed, to eat swallow meal is a common practice that is capable of contaminating the food. Since swallow meals are regarded as street foods, microbial contamination, and subsequent release of mycotoxins above permissible limits into the food is a threat to public health. Therefore, we reviewed scientific papers published from 2000 to 2023 that reported various microorganisms and mycotoxins associated with swallow meals, starting from the preparation stages to the plate-ready meal. The dominant bacteria reported were Bacillus spp. and Staphylococcus spp., while the fungi are Aspergillus spp. Mycotoxins, which include aflatoxin, fumonisins, among others, were detected in some swallow meals, soup ingredients, and raw foodstuffs. Although only two incidences of foodborne outbreaks linked to contaminated swallow meals were reported, there is a need to regularly monitor the microbiological quality of the meals to avoid future outbreaks.

Fermented Fish Products: Balancing Tradition and Innovation for Improved Quality

The flavor profile of fermented fish products is influenced by the complex interplay of microbial and enzymatic actions on the raw materials. This review summarizes the various factors contributing to the unique taste and aroma of these traditional foods. Key ingredients include locally sourced fish species and a variety of spices and seasonings that enhance flavor while serving as cultural markers. Starter cultures also play a critical role in standardizing quality and accelerating fermentation. Flavor compounds in fermented fish are primarily derived from the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, producing a diverse array of free amino acids, peptides, and volatile compounds such as aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, and esters. The fermentation process can be shortened by certain methods to reduce production time and costs, allowing for faster product turnover and increased profitability in the fermented fish market. Fermented fish products also show potent beneficial effects. This review highlights the importance of integrating traditional practices with modern scientific approaches. Future research directions to enhance the quality of fermented fish products are suggested.

The one-humped camel: The animal of future, potential alternative red meat, technological suitability and future perspectives

The 2020 world population data sheet indicates that world population is projected to increase from 7.8 billion in 2020 to 9.9 billion by 2050 (Increase of more than 25%). Due to the expected growth in human population, the demand for meats that could improve health status and provide therapeutic benefits is also projected to rise. The dromedary also known as the Arabian camel, or one-humped camel ( Camelus dromedarius), a pseudo ruminant adapted to arid climates, has physiological, biological and metabolic characteristics which give it a legendary reputation for surviving in the extreme conditions of desert environments considered restrictive for other ruminants. Camel meat is an ethnic food consumed across the arid regions of Middle East, North-East Africa, Australia and China. For these medicinal and nutritional benefits, camel meat can be a great option for sustainable meat worldwide supply. A considerable amount of literature has been published on technological aspects and quality properties of beef, lamb and pork but the information available on the technological aspects of the meat of the one humped camel is very limited. Camels are usually raised in less developed countries and their meat is as nutritionally good as any other traditional meat source. Its quality also depends on the breed, sex, age, breeding conditions and type of muscle consumed. A compilation of existing literature related to new technological advances in packaging, shelf-life and quality of camel meat has not been reviewed to the best of our knowledge. Therefore, this review attempts to explore the nutritional composition, health benefits of camel meat, as well as various technological and processing interventions to improve its quality and consumer acceptance. This review will be helpful for camel sector and highlight the potential for global marketability of camel meat and to generate value added products.

Climate Change and Mycotoxins Trends in Serbia and Croatia: A 15-Year Review

This review examines the 15-year presence of mycotoxins in food from Serbia and Croatia to provide a comprehensive overview of trends. Encompassing the timeframe from 2009 to 2023, this study integrates data from both countries and investigates climate change patterns. The results from Serbia focus primarily on maize and milk and show a strong dependence of contamination on weather conditions. However, there is limited data on mycotoxins in cereals other than maize, as well as in other food categories. Conversely, Croatia has a broader spectrum of studies, with significant attention given to milk and maize, along with more research on other cereals, meat, and meat products compared to Serbia. Over the investigated 15-year period, both Serbia and Croatia have experienced notable shifts in climate, including fluctuations in temperature, precipitation, and humidity levels. These changes have significantly influenced agriculture, consequently affecting the occurrence of mycotoxins in various food products. The results summarized in this 15-year review indicate the urgent need for further research and action to address mycotoxins contamination in Serbian and Croatian food supply chains. This urgency is further emphasized by the changing climatic conditions and their potential to exacerbate public health and food safety risks associated with mycotoxins.

Meat Starter Culture Reduces Aspergillus parasiticus Production of Aflatoxins on Meat-Based and Salami Model Media

There is great concern about the risk posed by the consumption of food contaminated with aflatoxins (AF), produced mostly by Aspergillus strains, that can also be found in dry-fermented meat products (DFMPs). The aim of this study was to investigate the inhibitory effect of meat starter culture (SC), frequently used for fermentation in the meat industry, on A. parasiticus growth and the production of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), aflatoxin B2 (AFB2), aflatoxin G1 (AFG1), aflatoxin G2 (AFG2), and sterigmatocystin (STE) on different meat-based (CMA) and salami model (SM-G) media. Incubation was carried out under optimal conditions for fungal growth and under typical conditions for ripening of DFMPs for 21 days. Reversed-phase UPLC-MS/MS analysis was performed to determine mycotoxin production. SC reduced A. parasiticus growth more on CMA than on SM-G media. AFB1 formation was inhibited on both types of SC-containing media, although SC generally had a stronger inhibitory effect on AFB1 production on CMA than on SM-G. AFB1 and AFB2 were produced on CMA, while AFB1 dominated in SM-G, AFG1, and AFG2 were not detected in any media. The results show that SC inhibited AFB1 formation of A. parasiticus on SM-G media after 21 days of incubation under typical conditions for the production of DFMPs. These results indicate the necessity to investigate AF on natural matrices in an environment that is as similar as possible to real conditions in the production of DFMPs.

An overview of fermentation in the food industry - looking back from a new perspective

Fermentation is thought to be born in the Fertile Crescent, and since then, almost every culture has integrated fermented foods into their dietary habits. Originally used to preserve foods, fermentation is now applied to improve their physicochemical, sensory, nutritional, and safety attributes. Fermented dairy, alcoholic beverages like wine and beer, fermented vegetables, fruits, and meats are all highly valuable due to their increased storage stability, reduced risk of food poisoning, and enhanced flavor. Over the years, scientific research has associated the consumption of fermented products with improved health status. The fermentation process helps to break down compounds into more easily digestible forms. It also helps to reduce the amount of toxins and pathogens in food. Additionally, fermented foods contain probiotics, which are beneficial bacteria that help the body to digest food and absorb nutrients. In today's world, non-communicable diseases such as cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, cancer, and allergies have increased. In this regard, scientific investigations have demonstrated that shifting to a diet that contains fermented foods can reduce the risk of non-communicable diseases. Moreover, in the last decade, there has been a growing interest in fermentation technology to valorize food waste into valuable by-products. Fermentation of various food wastes has resulted in the successful production of valuable by-products, including enzymes, pigments, and biofuels.

Traditional Meat Products-A Mycotoxicological Review

Traditional meat products are commonly produced in small family businesses. However, big industries are also involved in the production of this kind of product, especially since a growing number of consumers crave the traditional taste and aromas. The popularization of original and organic products has resulted in a return to traditional production methods. Traditional meat products are produced worldwide. However, in such (domesticated) conditions there is a potential danger for mycotoxin contamination. This review aims to present the sources of mycotoxins in traditional meat products, the most common mycotoxins related to such meat products, and future prospects regarding the suppression of their occurrence. Special attention should be paid to reducing the transfer of mycotoxins via the food chain from animal feed to animals to humans (stable-to-table principle), which is also described in this review. Other sources of mycotoxins (spices, environment, etc.) should also be monitored for mycotoxins in traditional production. The importance of monitoring and regulating mycotoxins in meat products, especially in traditional meat products, is slowly being recognized by the institutions and hopefully, in the future, can deliver legally regulated limits for such products. This is especially important since meat products are available to the general population and can seriously affect human health.

Mycotoxins and Essential Oils-From a Meat Industry Hazard to a Possible Solution: A Brief Review

The preservation of food supplies has been humankind's priority since ancient times, and it is arguably more relevant today than ever before. Food sustainability and safety have been heavily prioritized by consumers, producers, and government entities alike. In this regard, filamentous fungi have always been a health hazard due to their contamination of the food substrate with mycotoxins. Additionally, mycotoxins are proven resilient to technological processing. This study aims to identify the main mycotoxins that may occur in the meat and meat products "Farm to Fork" chain, along with their effect on the consumers' health, and also to identify effective methods of prevention through the use of essential oils (EO). At the same time, the antifungal and antimycotoxigenic potential of essential oils was considered in order to provide an overview of the subject. Targeting the main ways of meat products' contamination, the use of essential oils with proven in vitro or in situ efficacy against certain fungal species can be an effective alternative if all the associated challenges are addressed (e.g., application methods, suitability for certain products, toxicity).

The Occurrence of Five Unregulated Mycotoxins Most Important for Traditional Dry-Cured Meat Products

This study investigated the occurrence of 5 unregulated mycotoxins in a total of 250 traditional dry-cured meat products sampled in 2020 and 2021 in five Croatian regions (eastern, northern, central, western, and southern). Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), ochratoxin A (OTA), sterigmatocystin (STC), citrinin (CIT), and cyclopiazonic acid (CPA) concentrations were related to the geographical region of the product’s origin and to local weather. The results revealed the contamination of 27% of samples, namely, STC in 4% of samples in concentrations of up to 3.93 µg/kg, OTA in 10% of samples in concentrations of up to 4.81 µg/kg, and CPA in 13% of samples in concentrations of up to 335.5 µg/kg. No AFB₁ or CIT contamination was seen. Although no statistically significant differences in concentrations of individual mycotoxins across the production regions were found, differences in mycotoxin occurrence were revealed. The eastern and western regions, with moderate climate, delivered the largest number of contaminated samples, while the southern region, often compared with subtropics, delivered the smallest, so that the determined mycotoxins were probably mainly produced by the Penicillium rather than the Aspergillus species. Due to the interaction of various factors that may affect mycotoxin biosynthesis during production, the detected concentrations cannot be related solely to the weather.

Investigation of ochratoxin a in blood sausages in the Czech Republic: Comparison with data over Europe

Blood sausages consisting of groats, pork, porcine offal, fat, blood, and spices are very popular in the Czech Republic. All these ingredients are potential sources of dietary exposure to ochratoxin A (OTA). OTA has a strong affinity to serum proteins in porcine blood. Thus, the contamination of blood sausages with OTA can be expected. This study aims to evaluate OTA in 200 samples of porcine blood sausages purchased at the Czech market during 2020-2021. The analytical method high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with fluorescence detection with pre-treatment using immunoaffinity columns was employed to determine OTA. The limit of detection was 0.03 ng/g and the limit of quantification 0.10 ng/g. Recovery was 71.6 %. All samples were positive at contents ranging from 0.15 to 5.68 ng/g with a mean of 1.47 ng/g, and a median of 1.26 ng/g. A total of 66% of these samples contained OTA content exceeding the maximum limit of 1 ng/g set in Italy. This study demonstrates that the Czech population is exposed to OTA from blood sausages. The proposed preliminary action limit for OTA in blood sausages should be set at 1 ng/g. No regulatory limits for OTA in blood sausages have been established yet in the European Union legislation. To protect human health, further monitoring of OTA in these products is necessary.

Carry-Over of Zearalenone and Its Metabolites to Intestinal Tissues and the Expression of CYP1A1 and GSTπ1 in the Colon of Gilts before Puberty

The objective of this study was to evaluate whether low doses of zearalenone (ZEN) affect the carry-over of ZEN and its metabolites to intestinal tissues and the expression of CYP1A1 and GSTπ1 in the large intestine. Prepubertal gilts (with a BW of up to 14.5 kg) were exposed in group ZEN to daily ZEN5 doses of 5 μg/kg BW (n = 15); in group ZEN10, 10 μg/kg BW (n = 15); in group ZEN15, 15 μg/kg BW (n = 15); or were administered a placebo (group C, n = 15) throughout the experiment. After euthanasia, tissues were sampled on exposure days 7, 21, and 42 (D1, D2, and D3, respectively). The results confirmed that the administered ZEN doses (LOAEL, NOAEL, and MABEL) were appropriate to reliably assess the carry-over of ZEN. Based on the observations made during 42 days of exposure to pure ZEN, it can be hypothesized that all mycotoxins (ZEN, α-zearalenol, and β-zearalenol) contribute to a balance between intestinal cells and the expression of selected genes encoding enzymes that participate in biotransformation processes in the large intestine; modulate feminization processes in prepubertal gilts; and elicit flexible, adaptive responses of the macroorganism to mycotoxin exposure at the analyzed doses.