Oral and Intravenous Fumonisin Exposure in Pigs-A Single-Dose Treatment Experiment Evaluating Toxicokinetics and Detoxification

Monitoring Mycotoxin Exposure in Food-Producing Animals (Cattle, Pig, Poultry, and Sheep)

Food-producing animals are exposed to mycotoxins through ingestion, inhalation, or dermal contact with contaminated materials. This exposure can lead to serious consequences for animal health, affects the cost and quality of livestock production, and can even impact human health through foods of animal origin. Therefore, controlling mycotoxin exposure in animals is of utmost importance. A systematic literature search was conducted in this study to retrieve the results of monitoring exposure to mycotoxins in food-producing animals over the last five years (2019-2023), considering both external exposure (analysis of feed) and internal exposure (analysis of biomarkers in biological matrices). The most commonly used analytical technique for both approaches is LC-MS/MS due to its capability for multidetection. Several mycotoxins, especially those that are regulated (ochratoxin A, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, aflatoxins, fumonisins, T-2, and HT-2), along with some emerging mycotoxins (sterigmatocystin, nivalenol, beauvericin, enniantins among others), were studied in 13,818 feed samples worldwide and were typically detected at low levels, although they occasionally exceeded regulatory levels. The occurrence of multiple exposure is widespread. Regarding animal biomonitoring, the primary objective of the studies retrieved was to study mycotoxin metabolism after toxin administration. Some compounds have been suggested as biomarkers of exposure in the plasma, urine, and feces of animal species such as pigs and poultry. However, further research is required, including many other mycotoxins and animal species, such as cattle and sheep.

Resveratrol alleviates fumonisin-induced intestinal cytotoxicity by modulating apoptosis, tight junction, and inflammation in IPEC-J2 porcine intestinal epithelial cells

Fumonisins are common contaminants in the global food and environment, pose a variety of health risks to humans and animals. However, the method of mitigating fumonisin toxicity is still unclear. Resveratrol is a natural compound with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. In this study, the protective effect of resveratrol against fumonisin-induced intestinal toxicity was investigated by the porcine intestinal epithelial cell line (IPEC-J2). The cells were treated with 0-40 μM fumonisin for 24 or 48 h with or without the 24 h resveratrol (15 μM) pretreatment. The data showed that resveratrol could alleviate the fumonisin B1 (FB1)-induced decrease in cell viability and amplify in membrane permeability. At the same time, it could reduce the accumulation of intracellular reactive oxygen species and increase the expression ranges of Nrf2 and downstream genes (SOD1 and NQO-1), thereby counteracting FB1-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, resveratrol was able to reduce the expression levels of inflammatory factors (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6), increase the expression levels of tight junction proteins (Claudin-1, Occludin, and ZO-1), and the integrity of the IPEC-J2 monolayer. Our data also showed that resveratrol could attenuate the toxicity of the co-occurrence of three fumonisins. It is implied that resveratrol represents a promising protective approach for fumonisin, even other mycotoxins in the future. This provided a new strategy for further blocking and controlling the toxicity of fumonisin, subsequently avoiding adverse effects on the human and animal health.

Subclinical doses of dietary fumonisins and deoxynivalenol cause cecal microbiota dysbiosis in broiler chickens challenged with Clostridium perfringens

Fusarium toxins are one of the most common contaminants in poultry diets. The co-occurrence of fumonisins (FUM) and deoxynivalenol (DON), even at a subclinical dose, negatively affects the growth performance, intestinal integrity and induce subclinical necrotic enteritis in broiler chickens. Loss of gut integrity can be expected to alter the intestinal microbiota’s composition. The objective of this study was to identify the effects of combined FUM and DON on the cecal microbiome profile and predicted metabolic functions and a short chain fatty acid profile in broilers challenged with Clostridium perfringens. A total of 240 1 day-old chicks were randomly assigned to two treatments: a control diet and the control diet with 3 mg/kg FUM + 4 mg/kg DON each with eight replications. All the birds were received cocci vaccine at d0. All birds in both treatment groups were challenged with C. perfringens 1 × 108 CFU via feed on d 19 and 20 to achieve 5% mortality. On d 35, the FUM and DON contaminated diet numerically (P = 0.06) decreased the body weight gain (BWG) by 84 g compared to the control group. The bacterial compositions of the cecal contents were analyzed by sequencing the V3–V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene. Overall, microbial richness and diversity increased (P < 0.02) during the studied period (d 21–35). Cecal contents of birds in the FUM + DON group had greater (P < 0.05) microbial evenness and diversity (Shannon index) compared to the control group. FUM + DON exposure decreased (P = 0.001) the relative abundance of Proteobacteria in the cecal content, compared to the control group. The combined FUM + DON significantly increased the relative abundance of the Defluviitaleaceae and Lachnospiraceae families (P < 0.05) but decreased the abundances of the Moraxellaceae and Streptococcaceae (P < 0.05) compared to the control group birds. At the genus level, FUM + DON exposure decreased (P < 0.05) Acinetobacter and Pseudomonas abundance and had a tendency (P = 0.08) to decrease Thermincola abundance compared to the control group. In the ileum, no NE-specific microscopic abnormalities were found; however, the tip of the ileal villi were compromised. The present findings showed that dietary FUM and DON contamination, even at subclinical levels, altered cecal microbial composition, dysregulated intestinal functions, and impaired the gut immune response, potentially predisposing the birds to necrotic enteritis.

Efficacy of Fumonisin Esterase in Piglets as Animal Model for Fumonisin Detoxification in Humans: Pilot Study Comparing Intraoral to Intragastric Administration

Fumonisins, a group of highly prevalent and toxic mycotoxins, are suspected to be causal agents of several diseases in animals and humans. In the animal feed industry, fumonisin esterase is used as feed additive to prevent mycotoxicosis caused by fumonisins. In humans, a popular dosage form for dietary supplements, with high patient acceptance for oral intake, is capsule ingestion. Thus, fumonisin esterase provided in a capsule could be an effective strategy against fumonisin intoxication in humans. To determine the efficacy of fumonisin esterase through capsule ingestion, two modes of application were compared using piglets in a small-scale preliminary study. The enzyme was administered intraorally (in-feed analogue) or intragastrically (capsule analogue), in combination with fumonisin B1 (FB1). Biomarkers for FB1 exposure; namely FB1, hydrolysed FB1 (HFB1) and partially hydrolysed forms (pHFB1a and pHFB1b), were measured both in serum and faeces using a validated liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method, and toxicokinetic parameters were calculated. Additionally, the serum sphinganine/sphingosine (Sa/So) ratio, a biomarker of effect, was determined using LC-MS/MS. A significantly higher Sa/So ratio was shown in the placebo group compared to both esterase treatments, demonstrating the efficacy of the esterase. Moreover, a significant decrease in serum FB1 area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) and an increase of faecal HFB1 AUC were observed after intraoral esterase administration. However, these effects were not observed with statistical significance after intragastric esterase administration with the current sample size.

An update on genotoxic and epigenetic studies of fumonisin B1

Fumonisins (FBs), a widespread group of mycotoxins produced by Fusarium spp., are natural contaminants in cereals and foodstuffs. Fumonisin B1 (FB1) is the most toxic and prevalent mycotoxin of this group, and it has been reported that FB1 accounts for 70-80% of FBs produced by the mycotoxigenic strains. The mode of action of FB1 depends on the structural similarity with sphinganine/sphingosine N-acyltransferase. This fact causes an accumulation of sphingoid bases and blocks the sphingolipid biosynthesis or the function of sphingolipids. Diverse toxic effects and diseases such as hepatocarcinogenicity, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, and cytotoxicity have been reported, and diseases like leukoencephalomalacia in horses and pulmonary oedema in horses and swine have been described. In humans, FBs have been associated with oesophageal cancer, liver cancer, neural tube defects, and infantile growth delay. However, despite the International Agency for Research on Cancer designated FB1 as a possibly carcinogenic to humans, its genotoxicity and epigenetic properties have not been clearly elucidated. This review aims to summarise the progress in research about the genotoxic and epigenetics effects of FB1.

Sphinganine-Analog Mycotoxins (SAMs): Chemical Structures, Bioactivities, and Genetic Controls

Sphinganine-analog mycotoxins (SAMs) including fumonisins and A. alternata f. sp. Lycopersici (AAL) toxins are a group of related mycotoxins produced by plant pathogenic fungi in the Fusarium genus and in Alternaria alternata f. sp. Lycopersici, respectively. SAMs have shown diverse cytotoxicity and phytotoxicity, causing adverse impacts on plants, animals, and humans, and are a destructive force to crop production worldwide. This review summarizes the structural diversity of SAMs and encapsulates the relationships between their structures and biological activities. The toxicity of SAMs on plants and animals is mainly attributed to their inhibitory activity against the ceramide biosynthesis enzyme, influencing the sphingolipid metabolism and causing programmed cell death. We also reviewed the detoxification methods against SAMs and how plants develop resistance to SAMs. Genetic and evolutionary analyses revealed that the FUM (fumonisins biosynthetic) gene cluster was responsible for fumonisin biosynthesis in Fusarium spp. Sequence comparisons among species within the genus Fusarium suggested that mutations and multiple horizontal gene transfers involving the FUM gene cluster were responsible for the interspecific difference in fumonisin synthesis. We finish by describing methods for monitoring and quantifying SAMs in food and agricultural products.

Efficacy of commercial products on nursery pig growth performance fed diets with fumonisin contaminated corn

Two experiments were conducted to determine the efficacy of various commercial products on growth performance of nursery pigs fed diets high in fumonisin. In experiment 1, 350 pigs (241 × 600; DNA, Columbus, NE; initially 9.9 kg) were used with five pigs per pen and 14 replicates per treatment. After weaning, pigs were fed common diets for 21 d before the experiment started. The five dietary treatments consisted of a positive control (low fumonisin), a negative control (60 mg/kg of fumonisin B1 + B2 in complete diet), and the negative control with one of three products (0.3% of Kallsil Dry, Kemin Industries Inc., Des Moines, IA; 0.3% of Feed Aid Wide Spectrum, NutriQuest, Mason City, IA; 0.17% of Biofix Select Pro, Biomin America Inc., Overland Park, KS). Diets were fed in mash form for 14 d and followed with a low fumonisin diet for 13 d. For the 14-d treatment period, pigs fed the positive control diet and Biofix Select Pro had greater (P < 0.05) average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), and gain:feed (G:F) compared to those fed the high fumonisin negative control, or high fumonisin diets with Kallsil Dry or Feed Aid Wide Spectrum. Serum sphinganine to sphingosine ratios (SA:SO) were greater (P < 0.05) in all pigs fed high fumonisin diets compared to the positive control. In experiment 2, 300 pigs (241 × 600; DNA; initially 10.4 kg) were used. Procedures were similar to experiment 1 except there were 12 replicate pens per treatment, high fumonisin diets contained 30 mg/kg fumonisin, and experimental diets were fed for 28 d. Similar to experiment 1, pigs fed the positive control diet and treatment with Biofix Select Pro had greater (P < 0.05) ADG and G:F, and lower (P < 0.05) serum SA:SO compared to pigs fed the high fumonisin negative control, or high fumonisin diets with Kallsil Dry or Feed Aid Wide Spectrum. In summary, pigs fed diets containing 60 mg/kg of fumonisin for 14 d or 30 mg/kg of fumonisin for 28 d had poorer ADG and G:F and greater serum SA:SO compared to pigs fed a diet with less than 5 mg/kg of fumonisin. Adding Biofix Select Pro to diets appeared to mitigate the negative effects of high fumonisin concentrations, while Kallsil Dry and Feed Aid Wide Spectrum did not.

Toxicokinetics of Hydrolyzed Fumonisin B1 after Single Oral or Intravenous Bolus to Broiler Chickens Fed a Control or a Fumonisins-Contaminated Diet

The toxicokinetics (TK) of hydrolyzed fumonisin B₁ (HFB₁) were evaluated in 16 broiler chickens after being fed either a control or a fumonisins-contaminated diet (10.8 mg fumonisin B₁, 3.3 mg B₂ and 1.5 mg B₃/kg feed) for two weeks, followed by a single oral (PO) or intravenous (IV) dose of 1.25 mg/kg bodyweight (BW) of HFB₁. Fumonisin B₁ (FB₁), its partially hydrolyzed metabolites pHFB_1a and pHFB_1b, and fully hydrolyzed metabolite HFB₁, were determined in chicken plasma using a validated ultra-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method. None of the broiler chicken showed clinical symptoms of fumonisins (FBs) or HFB₁ toxicity during the trial, nor was an aberration in body weight observed between the animals fed the FBs-contaminated diet and those fed the control diet. HFB₁ was shown to follow a two-compartmental pharmacokinetic model with first order elimination in broiler chickens after IV administration. Toxicokinetic parameters of HFB₁ demonstrated a total body clearance of 16.39 L/kg·h and an intercompartmental flow of 8.34 L/kg·h. Low levels of FB₁ and traces of pHFB_1b were found in plasma of chickens fed the FBs-contaminated diet. Due to plasma concentrations being under the limit of quantification (LOQ) after oral administration of HFB₁, no toxicokinetic modelling could be performed in broiler chickens after oral administration of HFB₁. Moreover, no phase II metabolites, nor N-acyl-metabolites of HFB₁ could be detected in this study.

Biomarker Evaluation and Toxic Effects of an Acute Oral and Systemic Fumonisin Exposure of Pigs with a Special Focus on Dietary Fumonisin Esterase Supplementation

The mycotoxin fumonisin B1 (FB1) is a frequent contaminant of feed. It causes a disruption of sphingolipid metabolism and pulmonary, hepatic, and immunological lesions in pigs depending on the exposure scenario. One sensitive biomarker for FB1 exposure is the sphinganine (Sa) to sphingosine (So) ratio in blood. The fumonisin esterase FumD, which can be used as a feed additive, converts FB1 into the much less toxic metabolite hydrolyzed FB1 (HFB1). We conducted a single-dose study with barrows allocated to one of five treatments: (1) control (feed, 0.9% NaCl intravenously iv), (2) 139 nmol FB1 or (3) HFB1/kg BW iv, (4) 3425 nmol FB1/kg BW orally (po), or (5) 3321 nmol FB1/kg BW and 240 U FumD/kg feed po. The Sa/So ratio of iv and po FB1 administered groups was significantly elevated in blood and Liquor cerebrospinalis, but no fumonisin-associated differences were reflected in other endpoints. Neither clinical lung affections nor histopathological pulmonary lesions were detected in either group, while some parameters of hematology and clinical biochemistry showed a treatment–time interaction. FumD application resulted in Sa/So ratios comparable to the control, indicating that the enzymatic treatment was effectively preventing the fumonisin-induced disruption of sphingolipid metabolism.

Fumonisin-Exposure Impairs Age-Related Ecological Succession of Bacterial Species in Weaned Pig Gut Microbiota

Pigs are highly affected by dietary mycotoxin contamination and particularly by fumonisin. The effects of fumonisin on pig intestinal health are well documented, but little is known regarding its impact on gut microbiota. We investigate the effects of the fumonisin (FB1, 12 mg/kg feed) on the fecal microbiota of piglets (n = 6) after 0, 8, 15, 22, and 29 days of exposure. A control group of six piglets received a diet free of FB1. Bacterial community diversity, structure and taxonomic composition were carried out by V3–V4 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Exposure to FB1 decreases the diversity index, and shifts and constrains the structure and the composition of the bacterial community. This takes place as early as after 15 days of exposure and is at a maximum after 22 days of exposure. Compared to control, FB1 alters the ecological succession of fecal microbiota species toward higher levels of Lactobacillus and lower levels of the Lachnospiraceae and Veillonellaceae families, and particularly OTUs (Operational Taxonomic Units) of the genera Mitsuokella, Faecalibacterium and Roseburia. In conclusion, FB1 shifts and constrains age-related evolution of microbiota. The direct or indirect contribution of FB1 microbiota alteration in the global host response to FB1 toxicity remains to be investigated.