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Cao Y, Qiu J, Li A, Zhang L, Yan G, Ji Y, Zhang J, Zhao P, Wu X. Occurrence and spatial distribution of paralytic shellfish toxins in seawater and marine organisms in the coastal waters of Qinhuangdao, China. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 315:137746. [PMID: 36608885 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.137746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Revised: 12/31/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) have been prevalent in the coastal waters of Qinhuangdao, the west coast of the Bohai Sea, China. The content of PSTs in shellfish often exceeded the regulatory limit of 800 μg STX equivalent (eq.) kg-1, which poses a serious threat to human health. In this study, two surveys were conducted in May 2021 and May 2022 to investigate the distribution of PSTs in the coastal waters of Qinhuangdao. Seawater, surface sediment, phytoplankton, zooplankton, and other marine organism samples were collected, and the composition and concentration of PSTs were analyzed by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Results showed that multiple PST components were detected in all seawater samples collected at different depths, mainly including GTX1/4, GTX2/3, dcGTX2, STX and C1/2, and the highest concentration of PSTs reached 244 ng STX eq. L-1. The sediment samples also contained low levels of C1/2 and GTX2/3. Trace amounts of C1/2 and GTX1-4 were detected in phytoplankton and zooplankton. Moreover, all bivalve shellfish samples were found to contain PSTs, and the scallop Azumapecten farreri and the ark clam Anadara kagoshimensis showed relatively high concentrations of 607 and 497 μg STX eq. kg-1, respectively. In addition, low levels of PSTs were also found in some non-traditional PST vectors, including whelk Rapana venosa, octopus Amphioctopus ovulum, goby Ctenotrypauchen chinensis, and greenling Hexagrammos agrammus. Results of this study improve the understanding of the distribution of PSTs in seawater and marine organisms and the potential risk of persistent PSTs in seawater to marine ecosystems and human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yadong Cao
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China
| | - Jiangbing Qiu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao, 266100, China
| | - Aifeng Li
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao, 266100, China.
| | - Lei Zhang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China
| | - Guowang Yan
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China
| | - Ying Ji
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China
| | - Jingrui Zhang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China
| | - Peng Zhao
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China
| | - Xizhen Wu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China
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Qiu J, Zhang L, Cao Y, Zhao P, Zhang J, Li A. Bioaccessibility of paralytic shellfish toxins in different cooked shellfish using the simulated digestive model. Food Chem 2022; 390:133094. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.133094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Revised: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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Dean KJ, Alexander RP, Hatfield RG, Lewis AM, Coates LN, Collin T, Teixeira Alves M, Lee V, Daumich C, Hicks R, White P, Thomas KM, Ellis JR, Turner AD. The Common Sunstar Crossaster papposus-A Neurotoxic Starfish. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:695. [PMID: 34940694 PMCID: PMC8704474 DOI: 10.3390/md19120695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Saxitoxins (STXs) are a family of potent neurotoxins produced naturally by certain species of phytoplankton and cyanobacteria which are extremely toxic to mammalian nervous systems. The accumulation of STXs in bivalve molluscs can significantly impact animal and human health. Recent work conducted in the North Sea highlighted the widespread presence of various saxitoxins in a range of benthic organisms, with the common sunstar (Crossaster papposus) demonstrating high concentrations of saxitoxins. In this study, an extensive sampling program was undertaken across multiple seas surrounding the UK, with 146 starfish and 5 brittlestars of multiple species analysed for STXs. All the common sunstars analysed (n > 70) contained quantifiable levels of STXs, with the total concentrations ranging from 99 to 11,245 µg STX eq/kg. The common sunstars were statistically different in terms of toxin loading to all the other starfish species tested. Two distinct toxic profiles were observed in sunstars, a decarbomylsaxitoxin (dcSTX)-dominant profile which encompassed samples from most of the UK coast and an STX and gonyautoxin2 (GTX2) profile from the North Yorkshire coast of England. Compartmentalisation studies demonstrated that the female gonads exhibited the highest toxin concentrations of all the individual organs tested, with concentrations >40,000 µg STX eq/kg in one sample. All the sunstars, male or female, exhibited the presence of STXs in the skin, digestive glands and gonads. This study highlights that the common sunstar ubiquitously contains STXs, independent of the geographical location around the UK and often at concentrations many times higher than the current regulatory limits for STXs in molluscs; therefore, the common sunstar should be considered toxic hereafter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl J. Dean
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Ryan P. Alexander
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Robert G. Hatfield
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Adam M. Lewis
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Lewis N. Coates
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Tom Collin
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
- Department of Chemistry, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK
| | - Mickael Teixeira Alves
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Vanessa Lee
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
- Department of Chemistry, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK
| | - Caroline Daumich
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Ruth Hicks
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Peter White
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Krista M. Thomas
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, Halifax, NS B3Z 3H1, Canada;
| | - Jim R. Ellis
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Pakefield Road, Lowestoft NR33 0HT, UK;
| | - Andrew D. Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
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Changing Trends in Paralytic Shellfish Poisonings Reflect Increasing Sea Surface Temperatures and Practices of Indigenous and Recreational Harvesters in British Columbia, Canada. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:md19100568. [PMID: 34677468 PMCID: PMC8538720 DOI: 10.3390/md19100568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Revised: 10/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) occurs when shellfish contaminated with saxitoxin or equivalent paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) are ingested. In British Columbia, Canada, documented poisonings are increasing in frequency based on 62 investigations identified from 1941–2020. Two PSP investigations were reported between 1941 and 1960 compared to 31 since 2001 (p < 0.0001) coincident with rising global temperatures (r2 = 0.76, p < 0.006). The majority of PSP investigations (71%) and cases (69%) were linked to self-harvested shellfish. Far more investigations involved harvests by indigenous communities (24%) than by commercial and recreational groups. Single-case-exposure investigations increased by more than 3.5 times in the decade 2011–2020 compared to previous periods. Clams (47%); mussels (26%); oysters (14%); scallops (6%); and, in more recent years, crabs (4%) were linked to illnesses. To guide understanding of self-harvesting consumption risks, we recommend collecting data to determine when PST-producing algae are present in high concentrations, improving the quality of data in online shellfish harvest maps to include dates of last testing; biotoxin testing results; and a description of bivalve species tested. Over reliance on toxin results in biomonitored species may not address actual consumption risks for unmonitored species harvested from the same area. We further recommend introducing phytoplankton monitoring in remote indigenous communities where self-harvesting is common and toxin testing is unavailable, as well as continuing participatory education about biotoxin risks in seafoods.
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Turnbull A, Malhi N, Seger A, Jolley J, Hallegraeff G, Fitzgibbon Q. Accumulation of paralytic shellfish toxins by Southern Rock lobster Jasus edwardsii causes minimal impact on lobster health. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2021; 230:105704. [PMID: 33316749 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2020.105704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Recurrent dinoflagellate blooms of Alexandrium catenella expose the economically and ecologically important Southern Rock Lobster in Tasmania to paralytic shellfish toxins (PST), and it is unknown if PST accumulation adversely affects lobster performance, health and catchability. In a controlled aquaculture setting, lobsters were fed highly contaminated mussels to accumulate toxin levels in the hepatopancreas (mean of 6.65 mg STX.2HCl equiv. kg-1), comparable to those observed in nature. Physiological impact of PST accumulation was comprehensively assessed by a range of behavioural (vitality score, righting ability and reflex impairment score), health (haemocyte count, bacteriology, gill necrosis and parasite load), nutritional (hepatopancreas index and haemolymph refractive index) and haemolymph biochemical (21 parameters including electrolytes, metabolites, and enzymes) parameters during a 63 day period of uptake and depuration of toxins. Exposure to PST did not result in mortality nor significant changes in the behavioural, health, or nutritional measures suggesting limited gross impact on lobster performance. Furthermore, most haemolymph biochemical parameters measured exhibited no significant difference between control and exposed animals. However, the concentration of potassium in the haemolymph increased with PST, whilst the concentration of lactate and the sodium:potassium ratio decreased with PST. In addition, exposed lobsters showed a hyperglycaemic response to PST exposure, indicative of stress. These findings suggest that PST accumulation results in some measurable indicators of stress for lobsters. However, these changes are likely within the adaptive range for Jasus edwardsii and do not result in a significant impairment of gross performance. Our findings support previous conclusions that crustaceans are relatively tolerant to PST and the implications for the lobster fishery are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison Turnbull
- South Australian Research and Development Institute, GPO Box 397, Adelaide, SA, 5001, Australia; Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 129, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia.
| | - Navreet Malhi
- South Australian Research and Development Institute, GPO Box 397, Adelaide, SA, 5001, Australia
| | - Andreas Seger
- South Australian Research and Development Institute, GPO Box 397, Adelaide, SA, 5001, Australia
| | - Jessica Jolley
- South Australian Research and Development Institute, GPO Box 397, Adelaide, SA, 5001, Australia
| | - Gustaaf Hallegraeff
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 129, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Quinn Fitzgibbon
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 129, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
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Silva M, Rodríguez I, Barreiro A, Kaufmann M, Neto AI, Hassouani M, Sabour B, Alfonso A, Botana LM, Vasconcelos V. Lipophilic toxins occurrence in non-traditional invertebrate vectors from North Atlantic Waters (Azores, Madeira, and Morocco): Update on geographical tendencies and new challenges for monitoring routines. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2020; 161:111725. [PMID: 33080436 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Revised: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 09/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In the last decades, due to monitoring programs and strict legislation poisoning incidents occurrence provoked by ingestion of naturally contaminated marine organisms has decreased. However, climate change and anthropogenic interference contributed to the expansion and establishment of toxic alien species to more temperate ecosystems. In this work, the coasts of Madeira, São Miguel islands and the northwestern Moroccan coast were surveyed for four groups of lipophilic toxins (yessotoxins, azaspiracids, pectenotoxins, and spirolides), searching for new vectors and geographical tendencies. Twenty-four species benthic organisms were screened using UHPLC-MS/MS technique. We report 19 new vectors for these toxins, six of them with commercial interest (P. aspera, P. ordinaria, C. lampas, P. pollicipes, H. tuberculata and P. lividus). Regarding toxin uptake a south-north gradient was detected. This study contributes to the update of monitoring routines and legislation policies, comprising a wider range of vectors, to better serve consumers and ecosystems preservation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marisa Silva
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, Porto 4619-007, Portugal; Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research-CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Novo Edifício do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-208 S/N Matosinhos, Portugal.
| | - Inés Rodríguez
- Laboratorio CIFGA S.A., Avda. Benigno Rivera no. 56, 27003 Lugo, Spain; Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Santiago of Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Aldo Barreiro
- Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research-CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Novo Edifício do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-208 S/N Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Manfred Kaufmann
- Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research-CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Novo Edifício do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-208 S/N Matosinhos, Portugal; University of Madeira, Faculty of Life Sciences, Marine Biology Station of Funchal, 9000-107 Funchal, Portugal; Center of Interdisciplinary Marine and Environmental Research of Madeira-CIIMAR-Madeira, Edif. Madeira Tecnopolo, Caminho da Penteada, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal.
| | - Ana Isabel Neto
- Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research-CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Novo Edifício do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-208 S/N Matosinhos, Portugal; cE3c/GBA-Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes/Azorean Biodiversity Group, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Azores, 9501-801 Ponta Delgada, São Miguel, Azores, Portugal.
| | - Meryem Hassouani
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, Porto 4619-007, Portugal; Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research-CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Novo Edifício do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-208 S/N Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Brahim Sabour
- Phycology Research Unit-Biotechnology, Ecosystems Ecology and Valorization Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences El Jadida, University Chouaib Doukkali, BP20 El Jadida, Morocco.
| | - Amparo Alfonso
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Santiago of Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Luis M Botana
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Santiago of Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Vitor Vasconcelos
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, Porto 4619-007, Portugal; Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research-CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Novo Edifício do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-208 S/N Matosinhos, Portugal.
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Ben-Gigirey B, Rossignoli AE, Riobó P, Rodríguez F. First Report of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Marine Invertebrates and Fish in Spain. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12110723. [PMID: 33227958 PMCID: PMC7699195 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12110723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Revised: 11/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) episode developed in summer 2018 in the Rías Baixas (Galicia, NW Spain). The outbreak was associated with an unprecedentedly intense and long-lasting harmful algal bloom (HAB) (~one month) caused by the dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum. Paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) were analyzed in extracts of 45 A. minutum strains isolated from the bloom by high-performance liquid chromatography with post-column oxidation and fluorescence detection (HPLC-PCOX-FLD). PSTs were also evaluated in tissues from marine fauna (invertebrates and fish) collected during the episode and in dolphin samples. The analysis of 45 A. minutum strains revealed a toxic profile including GTX1, GTX2, GTX3 and GTX4 toxins. With regard to the marine fauna samples, the highest PSTs levels were quantified in bivalve mollusks, but the toxins were also found in mullets, mackerels, starfish, squids and ascidians. This study reveals the potential accumulation of PSTs in marine invertebrates other than shellfish that could act as vectors in the trophic chain or pose a risk for human consumption. To our knowledge, this is the first time that PSTs are reported in ascidians and starfish from Spain. Moreover, it is the first time that evidence of PSTs in squids is described in Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Begoña Ben-Gigirey
- Centro Oceanográfico de Vigo, Instituto Español de Oceanografía (IEO), 36390 Vigo, Spain; (A.E.R.); (F.R.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-986462284
| | - Araceli E. Rossignoli
- Centro Oceanográfico de Vigo, Instituto Español de Oceanografía (IEO), 36390 Vigo, Spain; (A.E.R.); (F.R.)
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
| | - Pilar Riobó
- Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IIM-CSIC), 36208 Vigo, Spain;
| | - Francisco Rodríguez
- Centro Oceanográfico de Vigo, Instituto Español de Oceanografía (IEO), 36390 Vigo, Spain; (A.E.R.); (F.R.)
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Dean KJ, Hatfield RG, Lee V, Alexander RP, Lewis AM, Maskrey BH, Teixeira Alves M, Hatton B, Coates LN, Capuzzo E, Ellis JR, Turner AD. Multiple New Paralytic Shellfish Toxin Vectors in Offshore North Sea Benthos, a Deep Secret Exposed. Mar Drugs 2020; 18:E400. [PMID: 32751216 PMCID: PMC7460140 DOI: 10.3390/md18080400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Revised: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In early 2018, a large easterly storm hit the East Anglian coast of the UK, colloquially known as the 'Beast from the East', which also resulted in mass strandings of benthic organisms. There were subsequent instances of dogs consuming such organisms, leading to illness and, in some cases, fatalities. Epidemiological investigations identified paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) as the cause, with toxins present in a range of species and concentrations exceeding 14,000 µg STX eq./kg in the sunstar Crossaster papposus. This study sought to better elucidate the geographic spread of any toxicity and identify any key organisms of concern. During the summers of 2018 and 2019, various species of benthic invertebrates were collected from demersal trawl surveys conducted across a variety of locations in the North Sea. An analysis of the benthic epifauna using two independent PST testing methods identified a 'hot spot' of toxic organisms in the Southern Bight, with a mean toxicity of 449 µg STX eq./kg. PSTs were quantified in sea chervil (Alcyonidium diaphanum), the first known detection in the phylum bryozoan, as well as eleven other new vectors (>50 µg STX eq./kg), namely the opisthobranch Scaphander lignarius, the starfish Anseropoda placenta, Asterias rubens, Luidia ciliaris, Astropecten irregularis and Stichastrella rosea, the brittlestar Ophiura ophiura, the crustaceans Atelecyclus rotundatus and Munida rugosa, the sea mouse Aphrodita aculeata, and the sea urchin Psammechinus miliaris. The two species that showed consistently high PST concentrations were C. papposus and A. diaphanum. Two toxic profiles were identified, with one dominated by dcSTX (decarbamoylsaxitoxin) associated with the majority of samples across the whole sampling region. The second profile occurred only in North-Eastern England and consisted of mostly STX (Saxitoxin) and GTX2 (gonyautoxin 2). Consequently, this study highlights widespread and variable levels of PSTs in the marine benthos, together with the first evidence for toxicity in a large number of new species. These findings highlight impacts to 'One Health', with the unexpected sources of toxins potentially creating risks to animal, human and environmental health, with further work required to assess the severity and geographical/temporal extent of these impacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl J. Dean
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Robert G. Hatfield
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Vanessa Lee
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
- Department of Chemistry, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7XH, UK
| | - Ryan P. Alexander
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Adam M. Lewis
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Benjamin H. Maskrey
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Mickael Teixeira Alves
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Benjamin Hatton
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Pakefield Road, Lowestoft, Suffolk NR33 0HT, UK; (B.H.); (J.R.E.)
| | - Lewis N. Coates
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Elisa Capuzzo
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Jim R. Ellis
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Pakefield Road, Lowestoft, Suffolk NR33 0HT, UK; (B.H.); (J.R.E.)
| | - Andrew D. Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
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Domoic acid in the tropical South Atlantic Ocean – An environment case study. Toxicon 2019; 167:101-105. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Revised: 05/17/2019] [Accepted: 05/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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