Fumonisin B1 Induces Oxidative Stress and Breaks Barrier Functions in Pig Iliac Endothelium Cells

Role of ferroptosis in food-borne mycotoxin-induced toxicities

Contamination by toxic substances is a major global food safety issue, which poses a serious threat to human health. Mycotoxins are major class of food contaminants, mainly including aflatoxins (AFs), zearalenone (ZON), deoxynivalenol (DON), ochratoxin A (OTA), fumonisins (FBs) and patulin (PAT). Ferroptosis is a newly identified iron-dependent form of programmed or regulated cell death, which has been found to be involved in diverse pathological conditions. Recently, a growing body of evidence has shown that ferroptosis is implicated in the toxicities induced by certain types of food-borne mycotoxins, which provides novel mechanistic insights into mycotoxin-induced toxicities and paves the way for developing ferroptosis-based strategy to combat against toxicities of mycotoxins. In this review article, we summarize the key findings on the involvement of ferroptosis in mycotoxin-induced toxicities and propose issues that need to be addressed in future studies for better utilization of ferroptosis-based approach to manage the toxic effects of mycotoxin contamination.

Efficacy of Feed Additive Containing Bentonite and Enzymatically Hydrolyzed Yeast on Intestinal Health and Growth of Newly Weaned Pigs under Chronic Dietary Challenges of Fumonisin and Aflatoxin

This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of a feed additive containing bentonite and enzymatically hydrolyzed yeast on the intestinal health and growth of newly weaned pigs under chronic dietary exposure to fumonisin and aflatoxin. Newly weaned pigs were randomly allotted to one of four possible treatments: a control diet of conventional corn; a diet of corn contaminated with fumonisin and aflatoxin; a diet of mycotoxin-contaminated corn with 0.2% of feed additive; and a diet of mycotoxin contaminated corn with 0.4% of feed additive. We observed lower average weight gain and average daily feed intake in pigs that were fed only mycotoxin-contaminated corn compared to the control group. Feed additive supplementation linearly increased both average weight gain and feed intake, as well as tumor necrosis factor-alpha. In the jejunum, there was an observed decrease in immunoglobulin A and an increase in claudin-1. Additionally, feed additive supplementation increased the villus height to crypt depth ratio compared to the control. In conclusion, feed additives containing bentonite and enzymatically hydrolyzed yeast could mitigate the detrimental effects of mycotoxins on the growth performance of newly weaned pigs by improving intestinal integrity and positively modulating immune response.

The Molecular Mechanisms of Ferroptosis and Its Role in Blood-Brain Barrier Dysfunction

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a selective, semi-permeable layer of endothelial cells that protects the central nervous system from harmful substances circulating in blood. It is one of the important barriers of the nervous system. BBB dysfunction is an early pathophysiological change observed in nervous system diseases. There are few treatments for BBB dysfunction, so this motivates the review. Ferroptosis is a novel cell death mode caused by iron-mediated lipid peroxidation accumulation, which has recently attracted more attention due to its possible role in nervous system disorders. Studies have shown that lipid peroxidation and iron accumulation are related to the barrier dysfunction, especially the expression of tight junction proteins. Therefore, examination of the relationship between ferroptosis and BBB dysfunction may reveal new targets for the treatment of brain diseases.

Toxic Mechanism and Biological Detoxification of Fumonisins

Food safety is related to the national economy and people's livelihood. Fumonisins are widely found in animal feed, feed raw materials, and human food. This can not only cause economic losses in animal husbandry but can also have carcinogenicity or teratogenicity and can be left in animal meat, eggs, and milk which may enter the human body and pose a serious threat to human health. Although there are many strategies to prevent fumonisins from entering the food chain, the traditional physical and chemical methods of mycotoxin removal have some disadvantages, such as an unstable effect, large nutrient loss, impact on the palatability of feed, and difficulty in mass production. As a safe, efficient, and environmentally friendly detoxification technology, biological detoxification attracts more and more attention from researchers and is gradually becoming an accepted technique. This work summarizes the toxic mechanism of fumonisins and highlights the advances of fumonisins in the detoxification of biological antioxidants, antagonistic microorganisms, and degradation mechanisms. Finally, the future challenges and focus of the biological control and degradation of fumonisins are discussed.

Fumonisin B1 Inhibits Cell Proliferation and Decreases Barrier Function of Swine Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells

The fumonisins are a group of common mycotoxins found around the world that mainly contaminate maize. As environmental toxins, they pose a threat to human and animal health. Fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) is the most widely distributed and the most toxic. FB₁ can cause pulmonary edema in pigs. However, the current toxicity mechanism of fumonisins is still in the exploratory stage, which may be related to sphingolipid metabolism. Our study is designed to investigate the effect of FB₁ on the cell proliferation and barrier function of swine umbilical vein endothelial cells (SUVECs). We show that FB₁ can inhibit the cell viability of SUVECs. FB₁ prevents cells from entering the S phase from the G1 phase by regulating the expression of the cell cycle-related genes cyclin B1, cyclin D1, cyclin E1, Cdc25c, and the cyclin-dependent kinase-4 (CDK-4). This results in an inhibition of cell proliferation. In addition, FB₁ can also change the cell morphology, increase paracellular permeability, destroy tight junctions and the cytoskeleton, and reduce the expression of tight junction-related genes claudin 1, occludin, and ZO-1. This indicates that FB₁ can cause cell barrier dysfunction of SUVECs and promote the weakening or even destruction of the connections between endothelial cells. In turn, this leads to increased blood vessel permeability and promotes exudation. Our findings suggest that FB₁ induces toxicity in SUVECs by affecting cell proliferation and disrupting the barrier function.

Intestinal Barrier, Claudins and Mycotoxins

The intestinal barrier is the main barrier against all of the substances that enter the body. Proper functioning of this barrier guarantees maintained balance in the organism. Mycotoxins are toxic, secondary fungi metabolites, that have a negative impact both on human and animal health. It was postulated that various mycotoxins may affect homeostasis by disturbing the intestinal barrier. Claudins are proteins that are involved in creating tight junctions between epithelial cells. A growing body of evidence underlines their role in molecular response to mycotoxin-induced cytotoxicity. This review summarizes the information connected with claudins, their association with an intestinal barrier, physiological conditions in general, and with gastrointestinal cancers. Moreover, this review also includes information about the changes in claudin expression upon exposition to various mycotoxins.

Effects of Deoxynivalenol and Fumonisins on Broiler Gut Cytoprotective Capacity

Mycotoxins are a crucial problem for poultry production worldwide. Two of the most frequently found mycotoxins in feedstuffs are deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisins (FUM) which adversely affect gut health and poultry performance. The current knowledge on DON and FUM effects on broiler responses relevant for gut detoxification, antioxidant capacity, and health is still unclear. The aim of this study was to assess a range of selected molecular intestinal biomarkers for their responsiveness to the maximum allowable European Union dietary levels for DON (5 mg/kg) and FUM (20 mg/kg) in broilers. For the experimental purpose, a challenge diet was formulated, and biomarkers relevant for detoxification, antioxidant response, stress, inflammation, and integrity were profiled across the broiler intestine. The results reveal that DON significantly (p < 0.05) induced aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and cytochrome P450 enzyme (CYP) expression mainly at the duodenum. Moreover, DON and FUM had specific significant (p < 0.05) effects on the antioxidant response, stress, inflammation, and integrity depending on the intestinal segment. Consequently, broiler molecular responses to DON and FUM assessed via a powerful palette of biomarkers were shown to be mycotoxin and intestinal site specific. The study findings could be highly relevant for assessing various dietary bioactive components for protection against mycotoxins.

Fumonisin B1 exposure deteriorates oocyte quality by inducing organelle dysfunction and DNA damage in mice

Oocyte quality is critical for fertilization and early embryo development. Fumonisin B1 (FB1) is a Fusarium mycotoxin and it is commonly found in contaminated food and feedstuff, posing a potential health hazard to both animals and human. FB1 is reported to have hepatotoxicity, neurotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, immunotoxicity and embryotoxicity. However, the effects of FB1 on mouse oocyte quality are still unknown. Here, we explored the toxic effects and potential mechanisms of FB1 on oocyte maturation quality in mice. FB1 exposure inhibited the first polar body extrusion at concentrations of 30 μM and 50 μM, which further induced oocyte meiotic arrest. Besides, disrupted spindle structure was found in oocytes after FB1 exposure. Our results also showed that FB1 exposure impaired mitochondria dysfunction, which further induced oxidative stress and early apoptosis. In addition, we reported that FB1 exposure induced the accumulation of lysosome and occurrence of autophagy. Aberrant ER distribution and ER stress were also found in FB1-exposed oocytes. Moreover, DNA damage was also observed. These results together suggested that FB1 exposure affected oocyte quality by destroying spindle structure, leading to mitochondria, lysosome and ER dysfunction, which further induced oxidative stress, apoptosis, autophagy and DNA damage in mouse oocytes.

Research Progress on Fumonisin B1 Contamination and Toxicity: A Review

Fumonisin B1 (FB1), belonging to the member of fumonisins, is one of the most toxic mycotoxins produced mainly by Fusarium proliferatum and Fusarium verticillioide. FB1 has caused extensive contamination worldwide, mainly in corn, rice, wheat, and their products, while it also poses a health risk and is toxic to animals and human. It has been shown to cause oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress, cellular autophagy, and apoptosis. This review focuses on the current stage of FB1 contamination, its toxic effects of acute toxicity, immunotoxicity, organ toxicity, and reproductive toxicity on animals and humans. The potential toxic mechanisms of FB1 are discussed. One of the main aims of the work is to provide a reliable reference strategy for understanding the occurrence and toxicity of FB1.

A 65-Day Fumonisin B Exposure at High Dietary Levels Has Negligible Effects on the Testicular and Spermatological Parameters of Adult Rabbit Bucks

A 65-day study was undertaken to test the effects of two doses (10 and 20 mg/kg) of dietary fumonisin Bs (FB) on the rabbit male reproduction system. Body and testicular weight was not affected by the intoxication, neither the fatty acid composition of the testicular total phospholipids; the testis histological analysis failed to reveal any toxic effect. The FBs increased the testicular concentration and activity of reduced glutathione and glutathione peroxidase and decreased initial phase lipid peroxidation (conjugated dienes and trienes) in a dose dependent manner. Sperm morphology and chromatin condensation were monitored on Feulgen-stained smears. No significant differences were observed between the treatment groups and between sampling time points. The live cell ratio in the sperm (as assessed with flow cytometry) was not different among groups at any of the five sampling timepoints and was also identical within groups. Similarly, the spermatozoa membrane lipid profile was also identical in all three groups after the total intoxication period. In summary, it was demonstrated that FBs in an unrealistic and unjustified high dose still do not exert any drastic harmful effect on the leporine, male reproduction system, meanwhile slightly augmenting testicular antioxidant response.

Aptamer-based detection of fumonisin B1: A critical review

Mycotoxin contamination is a current issue affecting several crops and processed products worldwide. Among the diverse mycotoxin group, fumonisin B1 (FB1) has become a relevant compound because of its adverse effects in the food chain. Conventional analytical methods previously proposed to quantify FB1 comprise LC-MS, HPLC-FLD and ELISA, while novel approaches integrate different sensing platforms and fluorescently labelled agents in combination with antibodies. Nevertheless, such methods could be expensive, time-consuming and require experience. Aptamers (ssDNA) are promising alternatives to overcome some of the drawbacks of conventional analytical methods, their high affinity through specific aptamer-target binding has been exploited in various designs attaining favorable limits of detection (LOD). So far, two aptamers specific to FB1 have been reported, and their modified and shortened sequences have been explored for a successful target quantification. In this critical review spanning the last eight years, we have conducted a systematic comparison based on principal component analysis of the aptamer-based techniques for FB1, compared with chromatographic, immunological and other analytical methods. We have also conducted an in-silico prediction of the folded structure of both aptamers under their reported conditions. The potential of aptasensors for the future development of highly sensitive FB1 testing methods is emphasized.

Fumonisin B1 induces nephrotoxicity via autophagy mediated by mTORC1 instead of mTORC2 in human renal tubule epithelial cells

Fumonisin B1 (FB1), a worldwide contaminating mycotoxin, can cause global food issue. It has been reported that FB1 is related to chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology. However, the study of FB1-induced nephrotoxicity in vitro is very limited and the mechanism is unknown. Human renal tubule epithelial (HK-2) cells were used in this study. The results showed that FB1 exposure could decrease cell viability, induce cell apoptosis and up-regulate the expression of Kim-1, collagen I, α-SMA and TGF-β1. In addition, autophagy was activated after FB1 exposure, including the conversion of LC3 and up-regulation of ATGs. Furthermore, autophagy inhibitor 3-MA could block FB1-induced abnormalities. And antioxidant enzymes (Gpx1 and Gpx4) were obviously down-regulated and intracellular ROS levels displayed an ascent trend as FB1 exposure concentrations increased. Employing of antioxidant NAC could suppress FB1-induced nephrotoxicity and autophagy. FB1 inhibited the phosphorylation of p70 S6k, a downstream protein of mTORC1. Also, oxidative stress, autophagy and phosphorylation of p70 S6k induced by FB1 was inhibited by MHY1485, an activator of mTOR. But the phosphorylation of AKT, a downstream protein of mTORC2 showed no change with or without MHY1485. Taken together, FB1 induced nephrotoxicity via autophagy mediated by mTORC1 instead of mTORC2 in HK-2 cells.

Effect of fumonisin B1 on oxidative stress and gene expression alteration of nutrient transporters in porcine intestinal cells

Fumonisin B₁ (FB₁ ) is a common environmental mycotoxin produced by molds such as Fusarium verticillioides. The toxin poses health risks to domestic animals, including pigs, through FB₁ -contaminanted feed. However, the cytotoxicity of FB₁ to porcine intestines has not been fully analyzed. In the present study, the effects of FB₁ on oxidative stress and nutrient transporter-associated genes of the porcine intestinal IPEC-J2 cells were explored. FB₁ decreased IPEC-J2 proliferation but did not trigger reactive oxygen species (ROS) overproduction. Meanwhile, FB₁ reduced the expression levels of the transporters l-type amino acid transporter-1 (y⁺ LAT1), solute carrier family 7 member 1 (SLC7A1), solute carrier family 1 member 5 (ASCT2), and excitatory amino acid carrier 1 (EAAC1); in addition, FB₁ reduced the levels of the fatty acid transporters long-chain fatty acid transport protein 1 (FATP1) and long-chain fatty acid transport protein 4 (FATP4) as well as glucose transporters Na⁺ /glucose cotransporter 1 (SGLT1) and glucose transporter 2 (GLUT2). FB₁ stimulation increased the expression levels of peptide transporter peptide transporter 1 (PepT1) and metal ion transport-related gene zinc transporter 1 (ZNT1). Moreover, metal ion transporter divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1) expression was depressed by a higher dosage of FB₁ . The data indicate that FB₁ results in aberrant expression of nutrient transporters in IPEC-J2 cells, thereby exerting its toxicity even though it fails to exert ROS-dependent oxidative stress.

Aptamer-Target-Gold Nanoparticle Conjugates for the Quantification of Fumonisin B1

Fumonisin B1 (FB1), a mycotoxin classified as group 2B hazard, is of high importance due to its abundance and occurrence in varied crops. Conventional methods for detection are sensitive and selective; however, they also convey disadvantages such as long assay times, expensive equipment and instrumentation, complex procedures, sample pretreatment and unfeasibility for on-site analysis. Therefore, there is a need for quick, simple and affordable quantification methods. On that note, aptamers (ssDNA) are a good alternative for designing specific and sensitive biosensing techniques. In this work, the assessment of the performance of two aptamers (40 and 96 nt) on the colorimetric quantification of FB1 was determined by conducting an aptamer-target incubation step, followed by the addition of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and NaCl. Although MgCl₂ and Tris-HCl were, respectively, essential for aptamer 96 and 40 nt, the latter was not specific for FB1. Alternatively, the formation of Aptamer (96 nt)-FB1-AuNP conjugates in MgCl₂ exhibited stabilization to NaCl-induced aggregation at increasing FB1 concentrations. The application of asymmetric flow field-flow fractionation (AF4) allowed their size separation and characterization by a multidetection system (UV-VIS, MALS and DLS online), with a reduction in the limit of detection from 0.002 µg/mL to 56 fg/mL.

Efficacy of commercial products on nursery pig growth performance fed diets with fumonisin contaminated corn

Two experiments were conducted to determine the efficacy of various commercial products on growth performance of nursery pigs fed diets high in fumonisin. In experiment 1, 350 pigs (241 × 600; DNA, Columbus, NE; initially 9.9 kg) were used with five pigs per pen and 14 replicates per treatment. After weaning, pigs were fed common diets for 21 d before the experiment started. The five dietary treatments consisted of a positive control (low fumonisin), a negative control (60 mg/kg of fumonisin B1 + B2 in complete diet), and the negative control with one of three products (0.3% of Kallsil Dry, Kemin Industries Inc., Des Moines, IA; 0.3% of Feed Aid Wide Spectrum, NutriQuest, Mason City, IA; 0.17% of Biofix Select Pro, Biomin America Inc., Overland Park, KS). Diets were fed in mash form for 14 d and followed with a low fumonisin diet for 13 d. For the 14-d treatment period, pigs fed the positive control diet and Biofix Select Pro had greater (P < 0.05) average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), and gain:feed (G:F) compared to those fed the high fumonisin negative control, or high fumonisin diets with Kallsil Dry or Feed Aid Wide Spectrum. Serum sphinganine to sphingosine ratios (SA:SO) were greater (P < 0.05) in all pigs fed high fumonisin diets compared to the positive control. In experiment 2, 300 pigs (241 × 600; DNA; initially 10.4 kg) were used. Procedures were similar to experiment 1 except there were 12 replicate pens per treatment, high fumonisin diets contained 30 mg/kg fumonisin, and experimental diets were fed for 28 d. Similar to experiment 1, pigs fed the positive control diet and treatment with Biofix Select Pro had greater (P < 0.05) ADG and G:F, and lower (P < 0.05) serum SA:SO compared to pigs fed the high fumonisin negative control, or high fumonisin diets with Kallsil Dry or Feed Aid Wide Spectrum. In summary, pigs fed diets containing 60 mg/kg of fumonisin for 14 d or 30 mg/kg of fumonisin for 28 d had poorer ADG and G:F and greater serum SA:SO compared to pigs fed a diet with less than 5 mg/kg of fumonisin. Adding Biofix Select Pro to diets appeared to mitigate the negative effects of high fumonisin concentrations, while Kallsil Dry and Feed Aid Wide Spectrum did not.

Evaluation of the Individual and Combined Toxicity of Fumonisin Mycotoxins in Human Gastric Epithelial Cells

Fumonisin contaminates food and feed extensively throughout the world, causing chronic and acute toxicity in human and animals. Currently, studies on the toxicology of fumonisins mainly focus on fumonisin B1 (FB1). Considering that FB1, fumonisin B2 (FB2) and fumonisin B3 (FB3) could coexist in food and feed, a study regarding a single toxin, FB1, may not completely reflect the toxicity of fumonisin. The gastrointestinal tract is usually exposed to these dietary toxins. In our study, the human gastric epithelial cell line (GES-1) was used as in vitro model to evaluate the toxicity of fumonisin. Firstly, we found that they could cause a decrease in cell viability, and increase in membrane leakage, cell death and the induction of expression of markers for endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Their toxicity potency rank is FB1 > FB2 >> FB3. The results also showed that the synergistic effect appeared in the combinations of FB1 + FB2 and FB1 + FB3. Nevertheless, the combinations of FB2 + FB3 and FB1 + FB2 + FB3 showed a synergistic effect at low concentration and an antagonistic effect at high concentration. We also found that myriocin (ISP-1) could alleviate the cytotoxicity induced by fumonisin in GES-1 cells. Finally, this study may help to determine or optimize the legal limits and risk assessment method of mycotoxins in food and feed and provide a potential method to block the fumonisin toxicity.

Fumonisin B1 induces toxicity in human leukocytes at low concentrations: Are computational studies effective to determine biosafety?

Fumonisin B₁ is a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium verticillioides and Fusarium proliferatum found in various crops, particularly maize. Besides carcinogenicity, other manifestations have been registered in different animals and in humans. In the case of humans, epidemiological studies have reported high prevalence of esophageal cancer in populations exposed to fumonisins. This study aimed to evaluate the minimum concentration of FB₁ capable of inducing cytotoxicity (cell viability test), genotoxicity (comet assay) and mutagenicity (micronucleus) in cultured human leukocytes and to evaluate the effectiveness of in silico tests to predict FB₁ toxicity. All concentrations analyzed (200; 100; 50; 5; 0.5; 0.05; 0.005 μg/mL and 300; 30; 3; 1; 0.1; 0.01 fg/mL) except the lowest demonstrated dose-dependent toxicity in all parameters analyzed (p < 0.05 to p < 0.0001). As for predictions, only the Lazar software showed carcinogenicity of FB₁ for rats. Thus, it is evident that FB₁ is able to induce dose-dependent damage at low concentrations, and that computational tests, although desirable for prediction, are not effective as biological tests to determine toxicity, at least of FB ₁ and within the experimental conditions tested.

Stress Response Simulated by Continuous Injection of ACTH Attenuates Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammation in Porcine Adrenal Gland

On modern farms, animals are at high risk of bacterial invasion due to environmental stress factors. The adrenal gland is the terminal organ of the stress response. The crosstalk between adrenal endocrine stress and innate immune response is critical for the maintenance of immune homeostasis during inflammation. Thus, it's important to explore whether stresses play a pivotal role in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory response in the porcine adrenal gland. Thirty-days-old Duroc × Landrace × Large White crossbred piglets (12 ± 0.5 kg) were randomly allocated into four groups in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments, including ACTH pretreatment (with or without ACTH injection) and LPS challenge (with or without LPS injection). Each group consisted of six male piglets. The results showed that our LPS preparation alone induced mRNA expressions of IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-10, COX-2, TLR2, TLR4, and GR (P < 0.05). ACTH pretreatment downregulated the TLR2 mRNA and IL-6 protein level induced by our LPS preparation significantly (P < 0.05) by one-way ANOVA analysis. Treatment with LPS alone extremely significantly decreased ssc-miR-338 levels (P < 0.01). Interaction of ACTH × LPS was significant for cNOS level (P = 0.011) and ssc-miR-338 expression (P = 0.04) by two-way ANOVA analysis. The LPS treatment significantly downregulated cNOS levels (P < 0.01), which was significantly attenuated by ACTH pretreatment (P < 0.05). Lipopolysaccharide alone did not affect ssc-miR-146b expression levels compared to that in the vehicle group. However, ACTH pretreatment in combination with LPS significantly increased this micro-RNA expression (P < 0.05). TLRs 1–10 were all expressed in adrenal tissue. The LPS challenge alone induced remarkable compensatory mitochondrial damages at the ultrastructural level, which was alleviated by ACTH pretreatment. Accordingly, ACTH pretreatment was able to block LPS-induced secretion of local adrenal cortisol (P < 0.05). Taken together, our results demonstrate that ACTH pretreatment seems to attenuate LPS-induced mitochondria damage and inflammation that decreased cNOS activity in the adrenal gland and ultimately returned local adrenal cortisol to basal levels at 6 h post LPS injection.

Pathogenetic effects of feed intake containing of fumonisin (Fusarium verticillioides) in early broiler chicks and consequences on weight gain

Fusarium verticillioides is often responsible for contamination of poultry feed with the mycotoxin fumonisin. The objective of the study was to determine whether fumonisin-contaminated feed in the early phase of broiler chicks causes oxidative imbalances and interferes with weight gain. One-day-old male Cobb 500 broiler chicks (n = 80) were divided into four treatments of 20 birds each, all of which were fed basal feed until the 11th day of age. From day 12, some birds were challenged with fumonisin in the feed: Control (T0) continued receiving the basal ration; treatments T1, T2, and T3 were given feed experimentally contaminated with fumonisin at concentrations of 2.5 ppm, 5 ppm and 10 ppm, respectively. After the 5th (day 17) and 10th (day 21) days, ten birds from each treatment were euthanized for blood and tissue collection to measure histopathological, biochemical and oxidative stress markers. All animals were weighed individually at the beginning of the experiment (day 12), and at 17 and 21 days of age. Birds that ingested 10 ppm of fumonisin (T3) had lower (P < 0.05) weight gain compared to those in T0. At 21 days, the body weights of the T1, T2 and T3 chicks were 1.3%, 8.97% and 18.7% lower, respectively, than those of T0. No histological lesions in the livers were observed for any treatment; however, higher levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS: day 21) and lipoperoxidation (LPO: days 17 and 21) were observed, associated with lower liver activity of the enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD: day 21), glutathione peroxidase (GPx: day 17 and 21) and glutathione S-transferase (GST: day 21) when birds consumed 5 or 10 ppm of fumonisin. In serum, LPO levels and SOD and GPx activities were lower for groups consuming high doses of fumonisin in the diet (T2 and T3); ROS levels and GST activity were higher in these birds. Birds that consumed fumonisin-containing diets had lower levels of alanine aminotransferase, total protein and albumin (T3); as well as lower serum glucose levels (days 17 and 21), uric acid and triglycerides (day 21) in T3 than in T0. At 21 days, there were smaller crypt sizes and intestinal villi in birds that consumed high levels of fumonisin. These results suggest that fumonisin (10 ppm) in chick diet causes hepatic oxidative stress and impairs intestinal health, consequently negatively affecting weight gain.

Sorafenib Treatment and Modulation of the Sphingolipid Pathway Affect Proliferation and Viability of Hepatocellular Carcinoma In Vitro

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) shows a remarkable heterogeneity and is recognized as a chemoresistant tumor with dismal prognosis. In previous studies, we observed significant alterations in the serum sphingolipids of patients with HCC. This study aimed to investigate the in vitro effects of sorafenib, which is the most widely used systemic HCC medication, on the sphingolipid pathway as well as the effects of inhibiting the sphingolipid pathway in HCC. Huh7.5 and HepG2 cells were stimulated with sorafenib, and inhibitors of the sphingolipid pathway and cell proliferation, viability, and concentrations of bioactive metabolites were assessed. We observed a significant downregulation of cell proliferation and viability and a simultaneous upregulation of dihydroceramides upon sorafenib stimulation. Interestingly, fumonisin B1 (FB1) and the general sphingosine kinase inhibitor SKI II were able to inhibit cell proliferation more prominently in HepG2 and Huh7.5 cells, whereas there were no consistent effects on the formation of dihydroceramides, thus implying an involvement of distinct metabolic pathways. In conclusion, our study demonstrates a significant downregulation of HCC proliferation upon sorafenib, FB1, and SKI II treatment, whereas it seems they exert antiproliferative effects independently from sphingolipids. Certainly, further data would be required to elucidate the potential of FB1 and SKI II as putative novel therapeutic targets in HCC.