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Qian MR, Wu HZ, Cai ZX, Xu MJ, Han JL, Xu XM. Determination of tetrodotoxin in bivalve mollusks by hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry with internal standard calibration and its contamination in Zhejiang province, China. Food Chem 2024; 434:137493. [PMID: 37741232 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.137493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2023] [Revised: 09/06/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 09/25/2023]
Abstract
A method was established for determining tetrodotoxin (TTX) in bivalve mollusks by hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (HILIC-MS/MS) using kasugamycin as the internal standard for quantification. Samples were subjected to ultrasonic extraction with methanol-water (1:1, v/v) containing 0.5% acetic acid, protein precipitation with acetonitrile, clean-up using a cation exchange solid phase extraction cartridge, elution with acetonitrile:water (1:1, v/v) containing 0.3% hydrochloric acid, neutralization with ammonia before HILIC-MS/MS analysis. The average recovery of the samples spiked at 3 levels ranged in 84.6%-98.1% with the relative standard deviation less than 7.2%. Using this method, the contamination of TTX in 429 bivalve mollusk samples collected in the local markets during 2018 and 2020 was investigated. The detection rates were 12.0-18.8%, following the order of oyster > mussel > clam > scallop. High contaminated oysters and mussels with TTX were found in July to August. Moreover, TTX analogs found in bivalve mollusks included 4-epiTTX, 5,6,11-trideoxyTTX, 4,9-anhydroTTX, and 5-deoxyTTX/11-deoxyTTX.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Rong Qian
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Exposure and Health Intervention of Zhejiang Province, Interdisciplinary Research Academy, Zhejiang Shuren University, Hangzhou, PR China
| | - Hui-Zhen Wu
- College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang Shuren University, Hangzhou, PR China
| | - Zeng-Xuan Cai
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou 310051, China
| | - Mei-Jia Xu
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou 310051, China
| | - Jian-Long Han
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou 310051, China
| | - Xiao-Min Xu
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou 310051, China.
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2
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Antonelli P, Peruzzo A, Mancin M, Boscolo Anzoletti A, Dall'Ara S, Orsini M, Bordin P, Arcangeli G, Zanolin B, Barco L, Losasso C. Tetrodotoxin in bivalve mollusks: An integrated study towards the comprehension of the influencing factors of a newly native phenomenon. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 339:139682. [PMID: 37527741 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Revised: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/28/2023] [Indexed: 08/03/2023]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxins (TTXs) are potent neurotoxins named after the Tetraodontidae fish family. The ingestion of TTX-contaminated flesh can cause neurotoxic symptoms and can lead to death. In 2017 symptoms the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) recognized the threat to food safety resulting from TTX exposure via food consumption and, thus, proposed a safety limit of 44 μg/kg of TTX in marine gastropods and bivalves. To date, however, TTXs have not yet been included in the list of biotoxins to be monitored within the European Union, even though, in a few cases, levels of TTX found were higher than the EFSA limit. The origin of TTX production is debated and the roles of both biotic and abiotic factors on TTX-mediated toxic events remain unclear. In order to meet these knowledge requests the present study was aimed to investigate the role of seawater temperature, pH, water conductivity, and oxygen saturation, along with the marine phytoplankton community and the bacterial community of mussels and oysters on the accumulation of TTX and analogues in the bivalves. Abiotic parameters were measured by means of a multi-parametric probe, phytoplankton community was analyzed by optic microscopy while microbial community was described by amplicon metataxonomic sequencing, TTXs concentration in the collected matrices were measured by HILIC-MS/MS. A possible role of seawater pH and temperature, among the investigated abiotic factors, in regulating the occurrence of TTXs was found. Regarding biotic variables, a possible influence of Vibrio, Shewanella and Flavobacteriaceae in the occurrence of TTXs was found. Concurrently, Prorocentrum cordatum cell numbers were correlated to the incidence of TTX in mussels. The results herein collected suggest that environmental variables play a consistent part in the occurrence of TTX in the edible bivalve habitats, and there are also indications of a potential role played by specific bacteria taxa in association with phytoplankton.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pietro Antonelli
- Microbial Ecology and Microorganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Delle Venezie, PD, Viale Dell'Università 10, 35020, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Arianna Peruzzo
- Microbial Ecology and Microorganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Delle Venezie, PD, Viale Dell'Università 10, 35020, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Marzia Mancin
- Microbial Ecology and Microorganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Delle Venezie, PD, Viale Dell'Università 10, 35020, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Aurora Boscolo Anzoletti
- Microbial Ecology and Microorganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Delle Venezie, PD, Viale Dell'Università 10, 35020, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Sonia Dall'Ara
- National Reference Laboratory for Marine Biotoxins, Fondazione Centro Ricerche Marine, Viale A. Vespucci 2, 47042, Cesenatico, FC, Italy
| | - Massimiliano Orsini
- Microbial Ecology and Microorganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Delle Venezie, PD, Viale Dell'Università 10, 35020, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Paola Bordin
- Microbial Ecology and Microorganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Delle Venezie, PD, Viale Dell'Università 10, 35020, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Arcangeli
- Specialistic Aquatic Animal Health Centre, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Delle Venezie, PD, Viale Dell'Università 10, 35020, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Bruno Zanolin
- Regional Environmental Protection Agency of Friuli Venezia Giulia, ARPA FVG, Via Cairoli 14, 33057, Palmanova, UD, Italy
| | - Lisa Barco
- Microbial Ecology and Microorganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Delle Venezie, PD, Viale Dell'Università 10, 35020, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Carmen Losasso
- Microbial Ecology and Microorganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Delle Venezie, PD, Viale Dell'Università 10, 35020, Legnaro, Italy.
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3
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Amzil Z, Derrien A, Terre Terrillon A, Savar V, Bertin T, Peyrat M, Duval A, Lhaute K, Arnich N, Hort V, Nicolas M. Five Years Monitoring the Emergence of Unregulated Toxins in Shellfish in France (EMERGTOX 2018-2022). Mar Drugs 2023; 21:435. [PMID: 37623716 PMCID: PMC10456248 DOI: 10.3390/md21080435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2023] [Revised: 07/22/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Shellfish accumulate microalgal toxins, which can make them unsafe for human consumption. In France, in accordance with EU regulations, three groups of marine toxins are currently under official monitoring: lipophilic toxins, saxitoxins, and domoic acid. Other unregulated toxin groups are also present in European shellfish, including emerging lipophilic and hydrophilic marine toxins (e.g., pinnatoxins, brevetoxins) and the neurotoxin β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA). To acquire data on emerging toxins in France, the monitoring program EMERGTOX was set up along the French coasts in 2018. Three new broad-spectrum LC-MS/MS methods were developed to quantify regulated and unregulated lipophilic and hydrophilic toxins and the BMAA group in shellfish (bivalve mollusks and gastropods). A single-laboratory validation of each of these methods was performed. Additionally, these specific, reliable, and sensitive operating procedures allowed the detection of groups of EU unregulated toxins in shellfish samples from French coasts: spirolides (SPX-13-DesMeC, SPX-DesMeD), pinnatoxins (PnTX-G, PnTX-A), gymnodimines (GYM-A), brevetoxins (BTX-2, BTX-3), microcystins (dmMC-RR, MC-RR), anatoxin, cylindrospermopsin and BMAA/DAB. Here, we present essentially the results of the unregulated toxins obtained from the French EMERGTOX monitoring plan during the past five years (2018-2022). Based on our findings, we outline future needs for monitoring to protect consumers from emerging unregulated toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zouher Amzil
- IFREMER (French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea)/PHYTOX/METALG, F-44311 Nantes, France; (V.S.); (K.L.)
| | - Amélie Derrien
- IFREMER/LITTORAL/LER-BO, F-29900 Concarneau, France; (A.D.); (A.T.T.); (A.D.)
| | | | - Véronique Savar
- IFREMER (French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea)/PHYTOX/METALG, F-44311 Nantes, France; (V.S.); (K.L.)
| | - Thomas Bertin
- Laboratory for Food Safety, Pesticides and Marine Biotoxins Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France; (T.B.); (M.P.); (V.H.); (M.N.)
| | - Marion Peyrat
- Laboratory for Food Safety, Pesticides and Marine Biotoxins Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France; (T.B.); (M.P.); (V.H.); (M.N.)
| | - Audrey Duval
- IFREMER/LITTORAL/LER-BO, F-29900 Concarneau, France; (A.D.); (A.T.T.); (A.D.)
| | - Korian Lhaute
- IFREMER (French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea)/PHYTOX/METALG, F-44311 Nantes, France; (V.S.); (K.L.)
| | - Nathalie Arnich
- Risk Assessment Department, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France;
| | - Vincent Hort
- Laboratory for Food Safety, Pesticides and Marine Biotoxins Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France; (T.B.); (M.P.); (V.H.); (M.N.)
| | - Marina Nicolas
- Laboratory for Food Safety, Pesticides and Marine Biotoxins Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France; (T.B.); (M.P.); (V.H.); (M.N.)
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4
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Cheung KS, Chan CK. A 12-year retrospective review of tetrodotoxin poisoning in Hong Kong. HONG KONG J EMERG ME 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/10249079221106841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Tetrodotoxin poisoning is typically caused by puffer fish consumption. This study is to review its demographics, clinical presentations and management in Hong Kong. Method: Reported cases of tetrodotoxin poisoning to Hong Kong Poison Information Centre from October 2008 to March 2021 were included in the study. Information from electronic database was analysed. Results: Forty-two cases were included in this case series. The number of incidents of tetrodotoxin poisoning ranged from 0 to 5 per year, mostly in the winter months. Median ingestion-to-symptom and ingestion-to-door time was 2 and 6.5 h, respectively. 48% of puffer fish meal sharer was symptomatic and attended emergency department. 100% and 48% of all cases had neurological and cardiovascular/gastrointestinal symptoms, respectively. Fukuda and Tani clinical Grade 1 and 2 were the most common presentation. 17% required intensive care while most patients were managed safely in emergency department and/or emergency medicine ward. Conclusion: There are recurrent incidents of tetrodotoxin poisoning in Hong Kong. Public education is the key to prevent future outbreaks. Targeted history and enhanced availability of tetrodotoxin test would assist in its diagnoses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kent Shek Cheung
- Department of Accident & Emergency, Queen Mary Hospital, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Chi Keung Chan
- Hong Kong Poison Information Centre, Department of Clinical Toxicology, United Christian Hospital, Kwun Tong, Hong Kong
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Abstract
Covering: 2020This review covers the literature published in 2020 for marine natural products (MNPs), with 757 citations (747 for the period January to December 2020) referring to compounds isolated from marine microorganisms and phytoplankton, green, brown and red algae, sponges, cnidarians, bryozoans, molluscs, tunicates, echinoderms, mangroves and other intertidal plants and microorganisms. The emphasis is on new compounds (1407 in 420 papers for 2020), together with the relevant biological activities, source organisms and country of origin. Pertinent reviews, biosynthetic studies, first syntheses, and syntheses that led to the revision of structures or stereochemistries, have been included. A meta analysis of bioactivity data relating to new MNPs reported over the last five years is also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony R Carroll
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia. .,Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Brent R Copp
- School of Chemical Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Rohan A Davis
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia.,School of Enivironment and Science, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Robert A Keyzers
- Centre for Biodiscovery, School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
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Katikou P, Gokbulut C, Kosker AR, Campàs M, Ozogul F. An Updated Review of Tetrodotoxin and Its Peculiarities. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20010047. [PMID: 35049902 PMCID: PMC8780202 DOI: 10.3390/md20010047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Revised: 12/28/2021] [Accepted: 12/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a crystalline, weakly basic, colorless organic substance and is one of the most potent marine toxins known. Although TTX was first isolated from pufferfish, it has been found in numerous other marine organisms and a few terrestrial species. Moreover, tetrodotoxication is still an important health problem today, as TTX has no known antidote. TTX poisonings were most commonly reported from Japan, Thailand, and China, but today the risk of TTX poisoning is spreading around the world. Recent studies have shown that TTX-containing fish are being found in other regions of the Pacific and in the Indian Ocean, as well as the Mediterranean Sea. This review aims to summarize pertinent information available to date on the structure, origin, distribution, mechanism of action of TTX and analytical methods used for the detection of TTX, as well as on TTX-containing organisms, symptoms of TTX poisoning, and incidence worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panagiota Katikou
- Ministry of Rural Development and Food, Directorate of Research, Innovation and Education, Hapsa & Karatasou 1, 54626 Thessaloniki, Greece
- Correspondence: (P.K.); (F.O.)
| | - Cengiz Gokbulut
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Balikesir University, Balikesir 10145, Turkey;
| | - Ali Rıza Kosker
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, Adana 01330, Turkey;
| | - Mònica Campàs
- IRTA, Ctra Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Spain;
| | - Fatih Ozogul
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, Adana 01330, Turkey;
- Correspondence: (P.K.); (F.O.)
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7
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Antonelli P, Salerno B, Bordin P, Peruzzo A, Orsini M, Arcangeli G, Barco L, Losasso C. Tetrodotoxin in live bivalve mollusks from Europe: Is it to be considered an emerging concern for food safety? Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2021; 21:719-737. [PMID: 34954887 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxins (TTXs) are a group of potent neurotoxins named after the Tetraodontidae fish family (pufferfish). TTXs have been reported in several animal taxa, both terrestrial and marine. The ingestion of TTX-contaminated flesh can cause serious neurotoxic symptomatology and can eventually lead to death. Traditionally, TTXs have been associated with Asian countries, in particular with pufferfish consumption. However, they have also been reported in bivalve mollusks farmed in the Pacific area and, recently, in European seas. In Europe, different countries have reported TTXs, especially those bordering the Mediterranean Sea. As a consequence, in 2017 the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) released an opinion with reference to TTX present in marine gastropods and bivalves, proposing a safety limit of 44 µg/kg TTXs in shellfish meat, below which no adverse effects should be observed in humans. Nevertheless, this limit has been exceeded on many occasions in European shellfish and, while for bivalves there have been no registered human intoxications, that is not the case for marine gastropods. However, TTXs have not yet been included in the list of marine biotoxins officially monitored in live bivalve mollusks within the European Union (EU). Thus, the aims of this manuscript are to discuss the increasing occurrence of TTXs in live bivalve mollusks from European sea waters, to acknowledge the still ongoing knowledge gaps that should be covered and to stimulate constructive debate on the eventuality of adopting a shared regulatory context, at least in the EU, for monitoring and managing this potential threat to food safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pietro Antonelli
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Barbara Salerno
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Paola Bordin
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Arianna Peruzzo
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Massimiliano Orsini
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Arcangeli
- Specialistic Aquatic Animal Health Centre, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Lisa Barco
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Carmen Losasso
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
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Réveillon D, Savar V, Schaefer E, Chevé J, Halm-Lemeille MP, Hervio-Heath D, Travers MA, Abadie E, Rolland JL, Hess P. Tetrodotoxins in French Bivalve Mollusks-Analytical Methodology, Environmental Dynamics and Screening of Bacterial Strain Collections. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:740. [PMID: 34822524 PMCID: PMC8618394 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13110740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxins (TTXs) are potentially lethal paralytic toxins that have been identified in European shellfish over recent years. Risk assessment has suggested comparatively low levels (44 µg TTX-equivalent/kg) but stresses the lack of data on occurrence. Both bacteria and dinoflagellates were suggested as possible biogenic sources, either from an endogenous or exogenous origin. We thus investigated TTXs in (i) 98 shellfish samples and (ii) 122 bacterial strains, isolated from French environments. We optimized a method based on mass spectrometry, using a single extraction step followed by ultrafiltration without Solid Phase Extraction and matrix-matched calibration for both shellfish and bacterial matrix. Limits of detection and quantification were 6.3 and 12.5 µg/kg for shellfish and 5.0 and 10 µg/kg for bacterial matrix, respectively. Even though bacterial matrix resulted in signal enhancement, no TTX analog was detected in any strain. Bivalves (either Crassostrea gigas or Ruditapes philippinarum) were surveyed in six French production areas over 2.5-3 month periods (2018-2019). Concentrations of TTX ranged from 'not detected' to a maximum of 32 µg/kg (Bay of Brest, 17 June 2019), with events lasting 2 weeks at maximum. While these results are in line with previous studies, they provide new data of TTX occurrence and confirm that the link between bacteria, bivalves and TTX is complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damien Réveillon
- Ifremer, DYNECO, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, F-44000 Nantes, France; (V.S.); (E.S.)
| | - Véronique Savar
- Ifremer, DYNECO, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, F-44000 Nantes, France; (V.S.); (E.S.)
| | - Estelle Schaefer
- Ifremer, DYNECO, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, F-44000 Nantes, France; (V.S.); (E.S.)
| | | | | | - Dominique Hervio-Heath
- LEMAR, Université de Brest, Ifremer, CNRS, IRD, F-29280 Plouzané, France;
- Ifremer, SG2M, Laboratoire LSEM, F-29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Marie-Agnès Travers
- Ifremer, SG2M, Laboratoire LGPMM, F-17390 La Tremblade, France;
- IHPE, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, Ifremer, Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, F-34000 Montpellier, France;
| | - Eric Abadie
- Ifremer, Biodivenv, F-97231 Le Robert, France;
- MARBEC, Université de Montpellier, IRD, Ifremer, CNRS, F-34000 Montpellier, France
| | - Jean-Luc Rolland
- IHPE, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, Ifremer, Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, F-34000 Montpellier, France;
- MARBEC, Université de Montpellier, IRD, Ifremer, CNRS, F-34000 Montpellier, France
| | - Philipp Hess
- Ifremer, DYNECO, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, F-44000 Nantes, France; (V.S.); (E.S.)
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9
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Simultaneous determination of ten paralytic shellfish toxins and tetrodotoxin in scallop and short-necked clam by ion-pair solid-phase extraction and hydrophilic interaction chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2021; 1651:462328. [PMID: 34153733 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2021.462328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2021] [Revised: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 06/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish toxins and tetrodotoxin (puffer-fish toxin), the latter of which was recently found in bivalves from Europe, Japan, and New Zealand, are potent neurotoxins. A simple and effective clean-up procedure was developed for the simultaneous determination of ten paralytic shellfish toxins (gonyautoxins 1-6, decarbamoylgonyautoxins 2 and 3, and N-sulfocarbamoylgonyautoxins 2 and 3) and tetrodotoxin in the scallop, Mizuhopecten (Patinopecten) yessoensis, and the short-necked clam, Ruditapes philippinarum. To reduce matrix effects, 1% aqueous acetic acid extracts of the bivalves were cleaned up by ion-pair solid-phase extraction using a graphite carbon cartridge with tridecafluoroheptanoic acid as the volatile ion-pair reagent, followed by fourfold dilution. The ten paralytic shellfish toxins and tetrodotoxin were then separated on a hydrophilic interaction chromatography column and quantified by tandem mass spectrometry. The limits of detection and the limits of quantification for the ten PSTs ranged from 0.09 to 13.0 µg saxitoxin equivalents/kg and from 0.26 to 39.4 µg saxitoxin equivalents/kg, respectively. The limit of detection and the limit of quantification for tetrodotoxin ranged from 27.4 to 27.9 µg/kg and from 83.1 to 84.4 µg/kg, respectively. The proposed method yielded minimal matrix effects for the 11 analytes, thus allowing their quantification by simple external calibration. The proposed method also gave good mean recoveries of the 11 analytes ranging from 75.7 to 96.2% with relative standard deviations less than 16% at three fortification levels for the ten paralytic shellfish toxins (total concentrations of 277, 554, and 1107 µg saxitoxin equivalents/kg) and tetrodotoxin (100, 200, and 400 µg/kg) in the two bivalve samples. Finally, the proposed method was applied for the determination of the ten paralytic shellfish toxins and tetrodotoxin in scallop and short-necked clam samples.
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10
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Dhanji-Rapkova M, Turner AD, Baker-Austin C, Huggett JF, Ritchie JM. Distribution of Tetrodotoxin in Pacific Oysters ( Crassostrea gigas). Mar Drugs 2021; 19:md19020084. [PMID: 33540777 PMCID: PMC7913107 DOI: 10.3390/md19020084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
A potent and heat-stable tetrodotoxin (TTX) has been found to accumulate in various marine bivalve species, including Pacific oysters (Crassostrea gigas), raising a food safety concern. While several studies on geographical occurrence of TTX have been conducted, there is a lack of knowledge about the distribution of the toxin within and between bivalves. We, therefore, measured TTX in the whole flesh, mantle, gills, labial palps, digestive gland, adductor muscle and intravalvular fluid of C. gigas using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Weekly monitoring during summer months revealed the highest TTX concentrations in the digestive gland (up to 242 µg/kg), significantly higher than in other oyster tissues. Intra-population variability of TTX, measured in the whole flesh of each of twenty animals, reached 46% and 32% in the two separate batches, respectively. In addition, an inter-population study was conducted to compare TTX levels at four locations within the oyster production area. TTX concentrations in the whole flesh varied significantly between some of these locations, which was unexplained by the differences in weight of flesh. This is the first study examining TTX distribution in C. gigas and the first confirmation of the preferential accumulation of TTX in oyster digestive gland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Dhanji-Rapkova
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (A.D.T.); (C.B.-A.)
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK;
- Correspondence: (M.D.-R.); (J.M.R.)
| | - Andrew D. Turner
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (A.D.T.); (C.B.-A.)
| | - Craig Baker-Austin
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (A.D.T.); (C.B.-A.)
| | - Jim F. Huggett
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK;
- National Measurement Laboratory, LGC, Queens Rd, Teddington TW11 0LY, UK
| | - Jennifer M. Ritchie
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK;
- Correspondence: (M.D.-R.); (J.M.R.)
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A Microencapsulation Method for Delivering Tetrodotoxin to Bivalves to Investigate Uptake and Accumulation. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:md19010033. [PMID: 33450969 PMCID: PMC7828407 DOI: 10.3390/md19010033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Most marine biotoxins are produced by microalgae. The neurotoxin tetrodotoxin (TTX) has been reported in many seafood species worldwide but its source is unknown, making accumulation and depuration studies in shellfish difficult. Tetrodotoxin is a water-soluble toxin and cannot be directly ingested by shellfish. In the present study, a method was developed which involved binding TTX to solid particles of humic acid and encapsulating them in agar-gelatin capsules. A controlled quantity of TTX-containing microcapsules (size range 20–280 μm) was fed to Paphies australis, a bivalve known to accumulate TTX in the wild. The TTX-containing microcapsules were fed to P. australis every second day for 13 days. Ten P. australis (including five controls fed non-toxic microalgae) were harvested after 7 days and ten after 13 days. Paphies australis accumulated TTX, reaching concentrations of up to 103 µg kg−1 by day 13, exceeding the European Food Safety Authority recommended concentration of 44 μg kg−1 in shellfish. This novel method will allow future studies to explore the effects, accumulation and depuration rates of TTX in different animals and document how it is transferred through food webs.
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