Mitigation of Patulin in Fresh and Processed Foods and Beverages

Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus encapsulated cross-linked Keratin-Chitosan hydrogel for removal of patulin from apple juice

In this study, we developed a hydrogel from cross-linked keratin and chitosan (KC) to remove patulin (PAT) from apple juice. We explored the potential of incorporating Lactobacillus rhamnoses into the KC hydrogel (KC-LR) and tested its effectiveness in removing PAT from simulated juice solutions and real apple juice. The KC hydrogel was developed through a dynamic disulfide cross-linking reaction. This cross-linked hydrogel network provided excellent stability for the probiotic cells, achieving 99.9 % immobilization efficiency. In simulated juice with 25 mg/L PAT, the KC and KC-LR hydrogels showed removal efficiencies of 85.2 % and 97.68 %, respectively, using 15 mg mL-1 of the prepared hydrogel at a temperature of 25 °C for 6 h. The KC and KC-LR hydrogels achieved 76.3 % and 83.6 % removal efficiencies in real apple juice systems, respectively. Notably, the encapsulated probiotics did not negatively impact the juice quality and demonstrated reusability for up to five cycles of the PAT removal process.

Food contaminants: Impact of food processing, challenges and mitigation strategies for food security

Food preparation involves the blending of various food ingredients to make more convenient processed food products. It is a long chain process, where each stage posing a risk of accumulating hazardous contaminants in these food systems. Protecting the public health from contaminated foods has become a demanding task in ensuring food safety. This review focused on the causes, types, and health risks of contaminants or hazardous chemicals during food processing. The impact of cooking such as frying, grilling, roasting, and baking, which may lead to the formation of hazardous by-products, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), heterocyclic amines (HCAs), acrylamide, advanced glycation end products (AGEs), furan, acrolein, nitrosamines, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) and trans-fatty acids (TFAs). Potential health risks such as carcinogenicity, genotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and cardiovascular effects are emerging as a major problem in the modern lifestyle era due to the increased uptakes of contaminants. Effects of curing, smoking, and fermentation of the meat products led to affect the sensory and nutritional characteristics of meat products. Selecting appropriate cooking methods include temperature, time and the consumption of the food are major key factors that should be considered to avoid the excess level intake of hazardous contaminants. Overall, this study underscores the importance of understanding the risks associated with food preparation methods, strategies for minimizing the formation of harmful compounds during food processing and highlights the need for healthy dietary choices to mitigate potential health hazards.

Patulin alters alpha-adrenergic receptor signalling and induces epigenetic modifications in the kidneys of C57BL/6 mice

Patulin (PAT) is a food-borne mycotoxin produced by Penicillium and Byssochlamys species. It is widely known for its mutagenic, carcinogenic, and genotoxic effects and has been associated with kidney injury; however, the mechanism of toxicity remains unclear. To address this gap, we conducted a study to explore the changes in α-adrenergic receptor signalling pathways and epigenetic modifications induced by PAT in the kidneys of C57BL/6 mice during acute (1 day) and prolonged (10 days) exposure. The mice (20-22 g) were orally administered PAT (2.5 mg/kg; at 1 and 10 days), and post-treatment, the kidneys were harvested, homogenised and extracted for RNA, DNA, and protein. The relative gene expression of the α-adrenergic receptors (ADRA1, ADRA2A, ADRA2B) and associated signalling pathways (MAPK, MAPK14, ERK, PI3K, and AKT) was assessed by qPCR. The protein expression of ERK1/2 and MAPK was determined by western blot. The impact of PAT on DNA methylation was evaluated by quantifying global DNA methylation; qPCR was used to determine gene expression levels of DNA methyltransferases (DNMT1, DNMT3A, and DNMT3B) and demethylase (MBD2). PAT downregulated the expression of ADRA1, ADRA2A, ADRA2B, PI3K, and AKT and upregulated ERK1/2 and MAPK protein expression. Furthermore, PAT induced alterations in DNA methylation patterns by upregulating DNMT1 and MBD2 expressions and downregulating DNMT3A and DNMT3B expressions, resulting in global DNA hypomethylation. In conclusion, PAT disrupts α-1 and α-2 adrenergic receptor signalling pathways and induces epigenetic modifications, that can lead to kidney injury.

Patulin contamination of hard apple cider by Paecilomyces niveus and other postharvest apple pathogens: Assessing risk factors

Hard apple cider is considered to be a low-risk product for food spoilage and mycotoxin contamination due to its alcoholic nature and associated food sanitation measures. However, the thermotolerant mycotoxin-producing fungus Paecilomyces niveus may pose a significant threat to hard cider producers. P. niveus is known to infect apples (Malus xdomestica), and previous research indicates that it can survive thermal processing and contaminate finished apple juice with the mycotoxin patulin. To determine if hard apple cider is susceptible to a similar spoilage phenomenon, cider apples were infected with P. niveus or one of three patulin-producing Penicillium species and the infected fruits underwent benchtop fermentation. Cider was made with lab inoculated Dabinett and Medaille d'Or apple cultivars, and patulin was quantified before and after fermentation. Results show that all four fungi can infect cider apples and produce patulin, some of which is lost during fermentation. Only P. niveus was able to actively grow throughout the fermentation process. To determine if apple cider can be treated to hinder P. niveus growth, selected industry-grade sanitation measures were tested, including chemical preservatives and pasteurization. High concentrations of preservatives inhibited P. niveus growth, but apple cider flash pasteurization was not found to significantly impact spore germination. This study confirms that hard apple cider is susceptible to fungal-mediated spoilage and patulin contamination. P. niveus is an important concern for hard apple cider producers due to its demonstrated thermotolerance, survival in fermentative environments, and resistance to sanitation measures.

The histone demethylase KdmB is part of a trimeric protein complex and mediates virulence and mycotoxin production in Penicillium expansum

Epigenetic modification of chromosome structure has increasingly been associated with alterations in secondary metabolism and sporulation defects in filamentous fungal pathogens. Recently, the epigenetic reader protein SntB was shown to govern virulence, spore production and mycotoxin synthesis in the fruit pathogen Penicillium expansum. Through immunoprecipitation-coupled mass spectrometry, we found that SntB is a member of a protein complex with KdmB, a histone demethylase and the essential protein RpdA, a histone deacetylase. Deletion of kdmB phenocopied some but not all characteristics of the ΔsntB mutant. KdmB deletion strains exhibited reduced lesion development on Golden Delicious apples and this was accompanied by decreased production of patulin and citrinin in host tissue. In addition, ΔkdmB mutants were sensitive to several cell wall stressors which possibly contributed to the decreased virulence observed on apples. Slight differences in spore production and germination rates of ΔkdmB mutants in vitro did not impact overall diameter growth in culture.

The fate of mycotoxins in oranges during storage and processing

To evaluate the safety of orange consumption induced by mycotoxins, 'Newhall' navel oranges were artificially inoculated with P. expansum and A. tenuissima, followed by an evaluation of the distribution and migration patterns of corresponding mycotoxins (patulin [PAT], tentoxin [Ten], altenuene [ALT], alternariol monomethyl ether [AME], alternariol [AOH] and tenuazonic acid [TeA]) during orange storage and processing. The concentration of mycotoxins decreased as the increase of distance from the lesion, and mycotoxins could be detected throughout the orange when the lesion extended to 8 mm in diameter. AOH and AME pose the primary source of dietary risk with high concentrations and low thresholds of toxicological concern. Orange juice and pectin processing could remove 43.4-98.7% of mycotoxins, while tangerine peelprocessing might lead to significant enrichment of mycotoxins with the processing factors (PFs) of 2.8-3.5. The findings may offer scientific insights into mitigating the dietary risk of mycotoxin exposure from oranges and their derivatives.

Isolation and Identification of Pathogens Causing Blue Mold of Lanzhou Lily during Postharvest Storage and Control of Disease and Mycotoxin Accumulation by Ozone Treatment

Blue mold (penicilliosis) is a common disease of Lanzhou lily (Lilium davidii var. willmottiae) during postharvest storage, which not only seriously affects the appearance and reduces the quality of lily bulbs, but also leads to the accumulation of mycotoxins in rotten lily tissues, seriously endangering human health. Therefore, it is of great significance to clarify the main isolates causing postharvest blue mold of fresh Lanzhou lily and put forward effective measures to control the disease caused by these pathogens. In this study, pathogens were isolated and purified from the naturally diseased blue-mold tissue of Lanzhou lily, and then morphological and molecular biology techniques were applied to identify the isolates, verify the pathogenicity, determine the disease index and disease incidence, and finally, to analyze the control effect of ozone treatment on the blue mold of lily scale and mycotoxin accumulation. The results indicated that the main isolates causing postharvest blue mold of lily were Talaromyces adpressus, Penicillium gladioli, T. calidominioluteus, and P. polonicum. The pathogenicity test showed that P. gladioli and P. polonicum had a higher disease index than T. calidominioluteus and T. adpressus. Ozone treatment significantly reduced the incidence of disease caused by P. gladioli and P. polonicum, and effectively controlled the accumulation of patulin. This study characterized the main pathogens causing blue mold of postharvest Lanzhou lily during storage, and confirmed ozone application has a significant inhibitory effect on blue mold development and patulin accumulation in Lanzhou lily, which could be helpful in commercially controlling blue mold of postharvest Lanzhou lily during storage.

Mining the Penicillium expansum Genome for Virulence Genes: A Functional-Based Approach to Discover Novel Loci Mediating Blue Mold Decay of Apple Fruit

Blue mold, a postharvest disease of pome fruits, is caused by the filamentous fungus Penicillium expansum. In addition to the economic losses caused by P. expansum, food safety can be compromised, as this pathogen is mycotoxigenic. In this study, forward and reverse genetic approaches were used to identify genes involved in blue mold infection in apple fruits. For this, we generated a random T-DNA insertional mutant library. A total of 448 transformants were generated and screened for the reduced decay phenotype on apples. Of these mutants, six (T-193, T-275, T-434, T-588, T-625, and T-711) were selected for continued studies and five unique genes were identified of interest. In addition, two deletion mutants (Δt-625 and Δt-588) and a knockdown strain (t-434KD) were generated for three loci. Data show that the ∆t-588 mutant phenocopied the T-DNA insertion mutant and had virulence penalties during apple fruit decay. We hypothesize that this locus encodes a glyoxalase due to bioinformatic predictions, thus contributing to reduced colony diameter when grown in methylglyoxal (MG). This work presents novel members of signaling networks and additional genetic factors that regulate fungal virulence in the blue mold fungus during apple fruit decay.

An Overview of Biosensors for the Detection of Patulin Focusing on Aptamer-Based Strategies

Patulin is a low molecular weight mycotoxin and poses a global problem, especially threatening food safety. It is also resistant to processing temperatures and is commonly found in fruits and vegetables. Studies have shown that it has toxic effects on animals and humans and the severity of patulin toxicity depends on the amount ingested. Therefore, the consumption of contaminated products, especially in infants and children, is important. The maximum daily intake of PAT that can be tolerated is found to be 0.4 µg/kg body weight to prevent chronic effects and the maximum residue limits in food samples were given as 50 ng/g (∼320 nM). Conventional methods for the detection of PAT have many disadvantages such as the use of expensive equipment, the need for trained personnel, and complicated sample preparation steps. To this extent, various numbers of research have been conducted on selective and sensitive detection of patulin using biosensor platforms in various media. This review presents an overview of the current literature dealing with the studies to develop patulin-specific aptamer-based biosensors and adapts various immobilization methods to increase the sensor response using different nanomaterials. Furthermore, a comparison of biosensors with conventional methods is presented using analytical performance parameters and their practicality for the detection of patulin.

Genetic Regulation of Mycotoxin Biosynthesis

Mycotoxin contamination in food poses health hazards to humans. Current methods of controlling mycotoxins still have limitations and more effective approaches are needed. During the past decades of years, variable environmental factors have been tested for their influence on mycotoxin production leading to elucidation of a complex regulatory network involved in mycotoxin biosynthesis. These regulators are putative targets for screening molecules that could inhibit mycotoxin synthesis. Here, we summarize the regulatory mechanisms of hierarchical regulators, including pathway-specific regulators, global regulators and epigenetic regulators, on the production of the most critical mycotoxins (aflatoxins, patulin, citrinin, trichothecenes and fumonisins). Future studies on regulation of mycotoxins will provide valuable knowledge for exploring novel methods to inhibit mycotoxin biosynthesis in a more efficient way.

Mycotoxins and Essential Oils-From a Meat Industry Hazard to a Possible Solution: A Brief Review

The preservation of food supplies has been humankind's priority since ancient times, and it is arguably more relevant today than ever before. Food sustainability and safety have been heavily prioritized by consumers, producers, and government entities alike. In this regard, filamentous fungi have always been a health hazard due to their contamination of the food substrate with mycotoxins. Additionally, mycotoxins are proven resilient to technological processing. This study aims to identify the main mycotoxins that may occur in the meat and meat products "Farm to Fork" chain, along with their effect on the consumers' health, and also to identify effective methods of prevention through the use of essential oils (EO). At the same time, the antifungal and antimycotoxigenic potential of essential oils was considered in order to provide an overview of the subject. Targeting the main ways of meat products' contamination, the use of essential oils with proven in vitro or in situ efficacy against certain fungal species can be an effective alternative if all the associated challenges are addressed (e.g., application methods, suitability for certain products, toxicity).

Degradation of Patulin in Pear Juice and Apple Juice by Ascorbic Acid and the Combination of Ascorbic Acid and Ferrous Iron

Patulin (PAT) is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by certain species of Penicillium sp. and Aspergillus sp. on apples and pears. In this study, we investigated the effects of ascorbic acid and the combination of ascorbic acid and ferrous iron on degradation of PAT in 100% pure pear juice and apple juice using high-performance liquid chromatography UV detector (HPLC-UVD). The addition of 2 different levels of ascorbic acid (143 or 286 μg/mL) into pear juice or apple juice containing 0.08 or 0.4 μg/mL of PAT showed 87.7-100% and 67.3-68.7% of PAT degradation rates, respectively, after 24 h incubation at 25 °C. Moreover, the addition of both ascorbic acid (143 or 286 μg/mL) and ferrous iron (0.033 or 0.11 μmol/mL) into pear juice or apple juice containing the same level of PAT exhibited higher PAT degradation rates (100 and 75-94%, respectively) than the addition of only ascorbic acid after 24 h incubation at 25 °C. Our data demonstrated that ascorbic acid plus ferrous iron as well as ascorbic acid were highly effective on degradation of PAT in pear juice and apple juice and that addition of both ascorbic acid and ferrous iron produced higher PAT degradation rates than addition of only ascorbic acid.

Insights into the Metabolic Response of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum CCFM1287 upon Patulin Exposure

Patulin (PAT) is a common mycotoxin in the food industry, and is found in apple products in particular. Consumption of food or feed contaminated with PAT can cause acute or chronic toxicity in humans and animals. Lactiplantibacillus plantarum CCFM1287 is a probiotic strain that effectively degrades PAT in PBS and food systems. In this study, it was found that the concentration of PAT (50 mg/L) in MRS medium decreased by 85.09% during the first stages of CCFM1287 growth, and this change was consistent with the first-order degradation kinetic model. Meanwhile, the regulation of oxidative stress by L. plantarum CCFM1287 in response to PAT exposure and metabolic changes that occur during PAT degradation were investigated. The degree of intracellular damage was attenuated after 16 h of exposure compared to 8 h. Meanwhile, metabolomic data showed that 30 and 29 significantly different metabolites were screened intracellularly in the strain after 8 h and 16 h of PAT stress at 50 mg/L, respectively. The results of pathway enrichment analysis suggested that the purine metabolic pathway was significantly enriched at both 8 h and 16 h. However, as is consistent with the performance of the antioxidant system, the changes in Lactiplantibacillus diminished with increasing time of PAT exposure. Therefore, this study helps to further explain the mechanism of PAT degradation by L. plantarum CCFM1287.

Structure-based rational design of a short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase for improving activity toward mycotoxin patulin

Patulin is a fatal mycotoxin that is widely detected in drinking water and fruit-derived products contaminated by diverse filamentous fungi. CgSDR from Candida guilliermondii represents the first NADPH-dependent short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase that catalyzes the reduction of patulin to the nontoxic E-ascladiol. To elucidate the catalytic mechanism of CgSDR, we solved its crystal structure in complex with cofactor and substrate. Structural analyses indicate that patulin is situated in a hydrophobic pocket adjacent to the cofactor, with the hemiacetal ring orienting toward the nicotinamide moiety of NADPH. In addition, we conducted structure-guided engineering to modify substrate-binding residue V187 and obtained variant V187F, V187K and V187W, whose catalytic activity was elevated by 3.9-, 2.2- and 1.7-fold, respectively. The crystal structures of CgSDR variants suggest that introducing additional aromatic stacking or hydrogen-bonding interactions to bind the lactone ring of patulin might account for the observed enhanced activity. These results illustrate the catalytic mechanism of SDR-mediated patulin detoxification for the first time and provide the upgraded variants that exhibit tremendous potentials in industrial applications.

Patulin Detoxification by Recombinant Manganese Peroxidase from Moniliophthora roreri Expressed by Pichia pastoris

The fungal secondary metabolite patulin is a mycotoxin widespread in foods and beverages which poses a serious threat to human health. However, no enzyme was known to be able to degrade this mycotoxin. For the first time, we discovered that a manganese peroxidase (MrMnP) from Moniliophthora roreri can efficiently degrade patulin. The MrMnP gene was cloned into pPICZα(A) and then the recombinant plasmid was transformed into Pichia pastoris X-33. The recombinant strain produced extracellular manganese peroxidase with an activity of up to 3659.5 U/L. The manganese peroxidase MrMnP was able to rapidly degrade patulin, with hydroascladiol appearing as a main degradation product. Five mg/L of pure patulin were completely degraded within 5 h. Moreover, up to 95% of the toxin was eliminated in a simulated patulin-contaminated apple juice after 24 h. Using Escherichia coli as a model, it was demonstrated that the deconstruction of patulin led to detoxification. Collectively, these traits make MrMnP an intriguing candidate useful in enzymatic detoxification of patulin in foods and beverages.

Characterization of Two Dehydrogenases from Gluconobacter oxydans Involved in the Transformation of Patulin to Ascladiol

Patulin is a mycotoxin that primarily contaminate apples and apple products. Whole cell or cell-free extracts of Gluconobacter oxydans ATCC 621 were able to transform patulin to E-ascladiol. Proteins from cell-free extracts were separated by anion exchange chromatography and fractions with patulin transformation activity were subjected to peptide mass fingerprinting, enabling the identification of two NADPH dependent short chain dehydrogenases, GOX0525 and GOX1899, with the requisite activity. The genes encoding these enzymes were expressed in E. coli and purified. Kinetic parameters for patulin reduction, as well as pH profiles and thermostability were established to provide further insight on the potential application of these enzymes for patulin detoxification.

Chemical strategies for triggering the immune response to the mycotoxin patulin

Mycotoxins represent a major concern for human and animal health because of their harmful effects and high occurrence in food and feed. Rapid immunoanalytical methods greatly contribute to strengthening the safety of our food supply by efficiently monitoring chemical contaminants, so high-affinity and specific antibodies have been generated for almost all internationally regulated mycotoxins. The only exception is patulin, a mycotoxin mainly produced by Penicillium expansum for which such a target has not yet been achieved. Accordingly, no point-of-need tests commonly used in food immunodiagnostics are commercially available for patulin. In the present study, three functionalized derivatives conforming to generally accepted rules in hapten design were firstly tested to generate suitable antibodies for the sensitive immunodetection of patulin. However, these conventional bioconjugates were unable to elicit the desired immune response, so an alternative strategy that takes advantage of the high electrophilic reactivity of patulin was explored. Patulin was reacted with 4-bromothiophenol, and the obtained adduct was used to produce antibodies with nanomolar affinity values. These results demonstrated for the first time that targeting the adduct resulting from the reaction of patulin with a thiol-containing compound is a promising approach for developing user-friendly immunoanalytical techniques for this elusive mycotoxin.

Efficacy of Bottle Gourd Seeds' Extracts in Chemical Hazard Reduction Secreted as Toxigenic Fungi Metabolites

Bottle gourd seeds are surrounded by innumerable bioactive components of phytochemicals. This work aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of bottle gourd extracts as antimicrobial and an-ti-mycotoxigenic against toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins. Polar and nonpolar extracts were made from the seeds. The polar eco-friendly extract was prepared by an ultrasonication-assisted technique utilizing aqueous isopropanol (80%), whereas the non-polar extract was obtained using petroleum ether (40–60). The antioxidant efficacy, total phenolic content, and flavonoid content of the extracts were all measured. The fatty acid profile was measured using GC equipment, and the influence on toxigenic fungus and mycotoxin release was also investigated. The antioxidant efficacy of the polar extract is reflected. The total phenolic values of the oil and polar extract were 15.5 and 267 mg of GAE/g, respectively. The total flavonoid content of the oil was 2.95 mg catechol/g, whereas the isopropyl extract of seeds contained 14.86 mg catechol/g. The polar extract inhibited the DPPH more effectively than oil. When compared to other seed oils, the fatty acid composition differed. The pathogens were distinguished by the MIC and MFC for the polar extract. Three sterols were found in the oil, with a high concentration of B-sitosterols. The oil’s valuable -carotene content and tocopherol content were recorded. When compared to traditional antibiotics, the polar extract has shown promising antimicrobial activity against infections and toxigenic fungi. Bottle gourd extracts, as a non-traditional bioactive source, are viewed as a potentially promising alternative that might contribute to increased food safety, shelf-life, and security.

Fungal growth, patulin accumulation and volatile profile in 'Fuji Mishima' apples under controlled atmosphere and dynamic controlled atmosphere

The objective of this study was to evaluate fungal and patulin contamination, together with its correlation with the volatile compounds (VCs), in 'Fuji Mishima' apples (up to 25% decayed) under controlled atmosphere (CA) and dynamic controlled atmosphere with respiratory quotient (DCA-RQ) of 1.3 combined with different partial pressures of carbon dioxide (0.8, 1.2, 1.6 and 2.0 pCO₂). Fruits were stored under the above conditions for 8 months at 0.5 °C plus 7 days shelf life at 20 °C. Toxigenic fungi and patulin accumulation were found in apples from all treatments. Penicillium expansum was the most prevalent species. For all storage conditions, patulin concentrations were above the maximum level allowed in Brazil (50  μg  kg^-1) with an exception of DCA-RQ1.3 + 0.8 kPa CO₂. This condition, with lower pCO₂, showed the lowest patulin accumulation, below the legal limit. The CA provided the highest patulin concentration (166 μg  kg^-1). It was observed that fungal growth could also contribute to changes in the volatile composition. Styrene and 3-methyl-1-butanol are considered P. expansum markers in some apple cultivars and were detected in the samples. However, it was not possible to identify volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that are biomarkers from P. expansum, because there were other fungi species present in all samples. In this study, styrene, n-decanoic acid, toluene, phenol and alpha-farnesene were the compounds that showed the most positive correlation with patulin accumulation. On the other hand, a negative correlation of patulin with acids has been shown, indicating that in treatments with a higher patulin concentration there were less acidic compounds.

Influence of processing steps on the fate of ochratoxin A, patulin, and alternariol during production of cloudy and clear apple juices

Mycotoxins are frequently found in fruits and fruit juices. However, data about occurrence and fate of mycotoxins along the fruit juice processing chain are currently insufficient. Herein, a liquid chromatographic/tandem mass spectrometric (LC–MS/MS) multi-mycotoxin method was developed and applied to investigate the effect of technological unit operations on the fate of three of the most relevant mycotoxins along the processing chain for cloudy and clear apple juice, namely patulin (PAT), ochratoxin A (OTA), and alternariol (AOH). Raw juice obtained directly after dejuicing was spiked with the aforementioned mycotoxins at pilot-plant scale prior to subjecting it to different technological unit operations. Regarding clear apple juice production treatment with a pectinolytic enzyme preparation, and pasteurization were insignificant for mycotoxin reduction, but fining with subsequent filtration was effective, although the mycotoxins showed different affinity towards the tested agents. The most effective fining agent was activated charcoal/bentonite in combination with ultrafiltration, which removed OTA (54 µg/L) and AOH (79 µg/L) to not quantifiable amounts (limit of quantification (LOQ) 1.4 and 4.6 µg/L, respectively), while PAT was reduced only by 20% (from 396 to 318 µg/L). Regarding cloudy apple juice production, all studied processing steps such as centrifugation and pasteurization were ineffective in reducing mycotoxin levels. In brief, none of the common steps of clear and cloudy apple juice production represented a fully effective safety step for minimizing or even eliminating common mycotoxins. Thus, ensuring the sole use of sound apples should be of utmost importance for processors, particularly for those manufacturing cloudy juices.

Thermal Stability and Degradation Kinetics of Patulin in Highly Acidic Conditions: Impact of Cysteine

The thermal stability and degradation kinetics of patulin (PAT, 10 μmol/L) in pH 3.5 of phosphoric-citric acid buffer solutions in the absence and presence of cysteine (CYS, 30 μmol/L) were investigated at temperatures ranging from 90 to 150 °C. The zero-, first-, and second-order models and the Weibull model were used to fit the degradation process of patulin. Both the first-order kinetic model and Weibull model better described the degradation of patulin in the presence of cysteine while it was complexed to simulate them in the absence of cysteine with various models at different temperatures based on the correlation coefficients (R² > 0.90). At the same reaction time, cysteine and temperature significantly affected the degradation efficiency of patulin in highly acidic conditions (p < 0.01). The rate constants (k_T) for patulin degradation with cysteine (0.0036-0.3200 μg/L·min) were far more than those of treatments without cysteine (0.0012-0.1614 μg/L·min), and the activation energy (E_a = 43.89 kJ/mol) was far less than that of treatment without cysteine (61.74 kJ/mol). Increasing temperature could obviously improve the degradation efficiency of patulin, regardless of the presence of cysteine. Thus, both cysteine and high temperature decreased the stability of patulin in highly acidic conditions and improved its degradation efficiency, which could be applied to guide the detoxification of patulin by cysteine in the juice processing industry.

Food Safety in Local Farming of Fruits and Vegetables

The world’s population will be around 9 billion people by 2050. Humans need to feed in order to survive and thus the high demographic growth may impact the sustainability of our food systems. Sustainable food production practices such as local farming have been explored. Consumption of vegetables and fruits has been increasing due to their health benefits, but this increase is also related to a significant number of foodborne outbreaks. Foodborne outbreaks pose a threat to public health and the economy on a local and national scale. Food safety begins on the farm and proceeds over the supply chain. Thus, to provide safe products, food producers must follow specific procedures to avoid food hazards along the supply chain. This work aimed to present the importance of food safety in vegetables and fruits in local farming, as this form of production and consumption has increased in several countries of the northern hemisphere and as these are considered a form of providing more sustainable food products.

Determination of patulin in products containing dried fruits by Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay technique Patulin in dried fruits

The era of globalization causes that the export and import of food from different continents of the world are becoming more and more common, which may directly contribute to the increase in pollution in them. The presence of mycotoxin in food is an ubiquitous problem. There is very limited information on the possible influence of the composition of herbal mixtures on the presence of mycotoxins in them, which is an area where research can be expanded. The aim of this study was to determine patulin (PAT) in commercial products containing dried elderberry, rose, blueberry, rowan, hawthorn, and chokeberry fruits by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay technique. Research using this technique allowed for considering the possible influence of the composition of herbal mixtures on the concentration of patulin in them. Patulin was detected in all analyzed samples with wide range of Collapse

Key Words

• ELISA
• dried fruits
• herbal blends
• patulin
• rowan fruit
• tea

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Affiliation(s)

Anna Przybylska Department of Toxicology and BromatologyFaculty of PharmacyL. Rydygier Collegium Medicum in BydgoszczNicolaus Copernicus University in TorunBydgoszczPoland
Agnieszka Chrustek Department of Pathobiochemistry and Clinical ChemistryFaculty of PharmacyL. Rydygier Collegium Medicum in BydgoszczNicolaus Copernicus University in TorunBydgoszczPoland
Dorota Olszewska‐Słonina Department of Pathobiochemistry and Clinical ChemistryFaculty of PharmacyL. Rydygier Collegium Medicum in BydgoszczNicolaus Copernicus University in TorunBydgoszczPoland
Marcin Koba Department of Toxicology and BromatologyFaculty of PharmacyL. Rydygier Collegium Medicum in BydgoszczNicolaus Copernicus University in TorunBydgoszczPoland
Stefan Kruszewski Medical Physics DivisionBiophysics DepartmentFaculty of PharmacyL. Rydygier Collegium Medicum in BydgoszczNicolaus Copernicus University in TorunBydgoszczPoland

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Adsorption Mechanism of Patulin from Apple Juice by Inactivated Lactic Acid Bacteria Isolated from Kefir Grains

In the food industry, microbiological safety is a major concern. Mycotoxin patulin represents a potential health hazard, as it is heat-resistant and may develop at any stage during the food chain, especially in apple-based products, leading to severe effects on human health, poor quality products, and profit reductions. The target of the study was to identify and characterize an excellent adsorbent to remove patulin from apple juice efficiently and to assess its adsorption mechanism. To prevent juice fermentation and/or contamination, autoclaving was involved to inactivate bacteria before the adsorption process. The HPLC (high-performance liquid chromatography) outcome proved that all isolated strains from kefir grains could reduce patulin from apple juice. A high removal of 93% was found for juice having a 4.6 pH, 15° Brix, and patulin concentration of 100 μg/L by Lactobacillus kefiranofacien, named JKSP109, which was morphologically the smoothest and biggest of all isolates in terms of cell wall volume and surface area characterized by SEM (Scanning electron microscopy) and TEM (transmission electron microscopy). C=O, OH, C–H, and N–O were the main functional groups engaged in patulin adsorption indicated by FTIR (Fourier transform–infrared). E-nose (electronic nose) was performed to evaluate the aroma quality of the juices. PCA (Principal component analysis) results showed that no significant changes occurred between control and treated juice.

Eco-friendly management of postharvest fungal decays in kiwifruit

Kiwifruit is purchased by consumers worldwide and is increasing in demand. Unfortunately, kiwifruit is susceptible to postharvest decay caused by a variety of fungal pathogens, including Botrytis cinerea, Penicillium expansum, Alternaria alternata, Botryosphaeria dothidea, and Diaporthe spp. Among these pathogens, B. cinerea is the most prevalent and devastating. Infections by these fungal pathogens result in a deterioration in fruit quality and a reduction in marketable yield. Eco-friendly methods to control kiwifruit postharvest decay have been explored as alternatives to the use of synthetic fungicides. In this review, we provide an overview and discuss the virulence and pathogenesis of fungi that are causal agents of kiwifruit decay, especially B. cinerea, including recent molecular and genomic studies. Advances in pre- and postharvest measures for postharvest decay management, including biological control, physical applications, the use of natural compounds and plant hormones, and the use of combined methods, are also reviewed. Eco-friendly control measures are a critical component of an integrated management approach for sustainable production of kiwifruit. The need for further research on the use of microbial consortia for the management of postharvest diseases of kiwifruit is also discussed.

Critical Assessment of Mycotoxins in Beverages and Their Control Measures

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi that contaminate food products such as fruits, vegetables, cereals, beverages, and other agricultural commodities. Their occurrence in the food chain, especially in beverages, can pose a serious risk to human health, due to their toxicity, even at low concentrations. Mycotoxins, such as aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), patulin (PAT), fumonisins (FBs), trichothecenes (TCs), zearalenone (ZEN), and the alternaria toxins including alternariol, altenuene, and alternariol methyl ether have largely been identified in fruits and their derived products, such as beverages and drinks. The presence of mycotoxins in beverages is of high concern in some cases due to their levels being higher than the limits set by regulations. This review aims to summarize the toxicity of the major mycotoxins that occur in beverages, the methods available for their detection and quantification, and the strategies for their control. In addition, some novel techniques for controlling mycotoxins in the postharvest stage are highlighted.

Patulin in food: A mycotoxin concern for human health and its management strategies

The mycotoxin patulin is primarily produced as a secondary metabolite by numerous fungal species and predominantly by Aspergillus, Byssochlamys, and Penicillium species. It is generally associated with fungal infected food materials. Penicillium expansum is considered the only fungal species liable for patulin contamination in pome fruits, especially in apples and apple-based products. This toxin in food poses serious health concerns and economic threat, which has aroused the need to adopt effective detection and mitigation strategies. Understanding its origin sources and biosynthetic mechanism stands essential for efficiently designing a management strategy against this fungal contamination. This review aims to present an updated outline of the sources of patulin occurrence in different foods and their biosynthetic mechanisms. It further provides information regarding the detrimental effects of patulin on human and agriculture as well as its effective detection, management, and control strategies.

Recent Advances in Mycotoxin Analysis and Detection of Mycotoxigenic Fungi in Grapes and Derived Products

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi that can cause toxic effects in human and animal health. Most of the filamentous fungi that produce these mycotoxins belong to four genera, namely, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Alternaria. Mycotoxigenic fungi, along with mycotoxins, create a constant and serious economic threat for agriculture in many terms, counting product losses due to crop contamination and food spoilage, as well malnutrition when considering nutritional quality degradation. Given the importance of robust and precise diagnostics of mycotoxins and the related producing fungi in the grape food chain, one of the most important agricultural sectors worldwide, the present review initially delivers a comprehensive presentation of mycotoxin reports on grape and derived products, including a wide range of commodities such as fresh grapes, raisins, wine, juices, and other processed products. Next, based on worldwide regulations’ requirements for mycotoxins, and referring to the relative literature, this work presents methodological approaches for mycotoxin determination, and stresses major methods for the detection of fungal species responsible for mycotoxin production. The principle of function and basic technical background on the available analytical and molecular biology techniques developed—including chromatography, mass spectrometry, immunochemical-based assays, biosensors, and molecular assays—is briefly given, and references for their application to grape and derived product testing are highlighted.

Patulin and Trichothecene: characteristics, occurrence, toxic effects and detection capabilities via clinical, analytical and nanostructured electrochemical sensing/biosensing assays in foodstuffs

Patulin and Trichothecene as the main groups of mycotoxins in significant quantities can cause health risks from allergic reactions to death on both humans and animals. Accordingly, rapid and highly sensitive determination of these toxics agents is of great importance. This review starts with a comprehensive outlook regarding the characteristics, occurrence and toxic effects of Patulin and Trichothecene. In the following, numerous clinical and analytical approaches have been extensively discussed. The main emphasis of this review is placed on the utilization of novel nanomaterial based electrochemical sensing/biosensing tools for highly sensitive determination of Patulin and Trichothecene. Furthermore, a detailed and comprehensive comparison has been performed between clinical, analytical and sensing methods. Subsequently, the nanomaterial based electrochemical sensing platforms have been approved as reliable tools for on-site analysis of Patulin and Trichothecene in food processing and manufacturing industries. Different nanomaterials in improving the performance of detecting assays were investigated and have various benefits toward clinical and analytical methods. This paper would address the limitations in the current developments as well as the future challenges involved in the successful construction of sensing approaches with the functionalized nanomaterials and also allow exploring into core-research works regarding this area.

Determination of patulin and hydroxymethylfurfural in beverages by UPLC-PDA

The present study describes using molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) technology for determination of patulin (PAT) and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) in beverages by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to photodiode array (UPLC-PDA). PAT (4-hydroxy-4H-furo[3,2-c]pyran-2(6H)-one) is a mycotoxin produced by Penicillium fungi and Penicillium expansum is probably the most commonly encountered species that infects apples during their growth, harvest, storage or processing. The occurrence of PAT as a natural contaminant of apples is a worldwide problem. 5-HMF (also known as 5-(hydroxymethyl) furan-2-carbaldehyde), is formed in the Maillard reaction as well as during caramelisation. It is a good storage time-temperature marker and flavour indicator, especially in beverages such as wine, beer, but also cider and apple juice which may contain PAT. PAT and 5-HMF were separated within 2 min using a Luna Omega C18 column and the PDA detector wavelength was set to 276 nm. The validation parameters of the analytical method such as linearity, limit of detection, limit of quantification, accuracy and precision were tested. The calibration curves were linear at least in the range 50-1000 ng/ml with a good linearity (R2>0.999) for both analytes, the limit of detection and the limit of quantification for PAT and 5-HMF were in the range 4.9-6.6 and 16.1-21.8 μg/l, respectively. The recoveries of the selected analyte were in the range 61.9-109.0% with a precision of <8.2% (relative standard deviation (RSD)) for PAT and in the range 50.8-98.0% with a precision of <10.0% (RSD) for 5-HMF. The validated procedure was successfully applied for the analysis of PAT and 5-HMF in beverages from retail shops.

Oxidative hydrothermal surface modification of activated carbon for sevoflurane removal

The emission of waste anaesthetic gas is a growing contributor to global warming and remains a factor in atmospheric ozone depletion. Volatile anaesthetics in medical waste gases could be removed via adsorption using suitable activated carbon materials possessing an enhanced affinity to anaesthetic molecules. In this work, the effects of surface physical and chemical properties on sevoflurane adsorption were investigated by oxidative hydrothermal surface modification of a commercial activated carbon using only distilled water. The hydrothermal surface modification was carried out at different treatment temperatures (150-300 °C) for varying durations (10-30 min), and adsorption was conducted under fixed conditions (bed depth = 10 cm, inlet concentration = 528 mg/L, and flow rate = 3 L/min). The hydrothermal treatment generally increased the BET surface area of the activated carbons. At oxidation temperatures above 200 °C, the micropore volume of the samples diminished. The relative amount of surface oxygen was enriched as the treatment temperature increased. Treatment duration did not significantly affect the introduction of relative amount of surface oxygen, except at higher temperatures. There were no new types of functional groups introduced. However, disappearance and re-formation of oxygen functional groups containing C-O structures (as in hydroxyl and ether groups) occurred when treatment temperature was increased from 150 to 200 °C, and when treatments were conducted above 200 °C, respectively. The ester/acetal groups were enriched under the temperature range studied. The findings suggested that the re-formation of surface oxygen functionalities might lead to the development of functional groups that improve sevoflurane adsorption.

Patulin activates the NRF2 pathway by modulation of miR-144 expression in HEK293 cells

Patulin (PAT) is a mycotoxin produced by various fungal species that commonly contaminate apples and other fruit products. PAT is associated with glutathione (GSH) depletion and oxidative stress. Cytoprotective and antioxidant (AO) enzymes limit toxic outcomes and confer resistance to oxidative stress by influencing the expression of cytoprotective genes. The induction of these genes is tightly regulated by transcription factor nuclear factor erythroid 2 p45-related factor 2 (NRF2), a potential target of microRNA (miR)-144. This study aims to determine a possible role for miR-144 in NRF2 pathway activation following PAT exposure in human embryonic kidney (HEK293) cells. HEK293 cells were exposed to varying PAT concentrations (0, 0.2, 0.5, 1 μmol/L; 24 h). Protein expression of Keap1, NRF2, and phosphorylated (p) NRF2 (ser40) was quantified using western blotting. Gene expression of NRF2, SOD2, CAT, GPx, NQO1, GSTA1, HMOX, and miR-144 were evaluated by qPCR. PAT significantly decreased miR-144 (p = 0.0249) and concomitantly increased NRF2 protein expression, stability, and activation as evidenced by increased pNRF2 (p = 0.0216) expression and decreased total NRF2 (p = 0.0237). This was consistent with qPCR data which showed increased transcript levels of NRF2 (p = 0.0378) as well as the target genes CAT (p = 0.0273), NQO1 (p = 0.0156), HMOX (p = 0.0249), and GSTA1 (p = 0.0237). No changes were observed in Keap1 expression (p = 0.6444). This study implicates microRNAs in a mechanistic role in PAT-induced toxicity. PAT decreased miR-144 expression leading to NRF2 pathway activation and elevated AO gene expression.

Prevention and detoxification of patulin in apple and its products: A review

Patulin-producing fungi pose an unavoidable problem for apple and its product quality, thereby threatening human and/or animal health. Studies on controlling the patulin-producing fungal growth and patulin contamination in apple and its products by physical methods, chemical fungicides, and biological methods have been performed for decades, but patulin contamination has not been addressed. Here, the important of studying regulation mechanism of patulin production in apple at the protein expression and metabolism levels is proposed, which will facilitate the development of controlling patulin production by using physical, chemical, and biological methods. Furthermore, the advantages or disadvantages and effects or mechanisms of using physical, chemical, biological methods to control the decay caused by Penicillium expansum and to remove patulin in food was discussed. The development of physical methods to remove patulin depends on the development of special equipment. Chemical methods are economical and efficient, if we have ensured that there are no unknown reactions or toxic by-products by using these chemicals. The biological method not only effectively controls the decay caused by Penicillium espansum, but also removes the toxins that already exist in the food. Degradation of patulin by microorganisms or biodegradation enzymes is an efficient and promising method to remove patulin in food if the microorganisms used and the degradation products are completely non-toxic.

Leuconostoc mesenteroides subsp. mesenteroides LB7 isolated from apple surface inhibits P. expansum in vitro and reduces patulin in fruit juices

This research aimed to isolate lactic acid bacteria (LAB) from apple surface and to reveal their potential to inhibit the growth of Penicillium expansum. Besides, their ability to detoxify fruit juices contaminated with mycotoxin patulin, produced by this fungi, was also studied. The isolation was performed on a typical MRS medium under ambient conditions. The molecular identification of the strains was done by sequencing the 16S rRNA genes. Antifungal activities of the isolated strains have been evaluated using dual agar plate assay protocol. A total of 11 LAB isolates was obtained from apples. These isolates showed phenotypic traits consistent with the genera of LAB. They have been identified as Leuconostoc mesenteroides subsp. mesenteroides and Weissella paramesenteroides. Among them, the strain LB7 showed exciting inhibitory activities in vitro against P. expansum. LB7 also successfully detoxified homemade and commercial fruit juices contaminated with patulin. Further research will bring the application prospects of these LABs in food biocontrol and biopreservation strategies.

Surveillance of Patulin in Apple, Grapes, Juices and Value-Added Products for Sale in Pakistan

The prime objective of the current study was to investigate the occurrence of mycotoxin patulin (PAT) in apples, grapes and their value added products. PAT was determined by a validated method based on HPLC with UV detector. A total of 381 samples comprising apple and grape fruits (n = 133 each), apple-based products (n = 76, juice, puree, jam) and grape juice (n = 39) were analyzed. PAT was found in 58.9% samples of apple and apple-based products, with a mean of 49.8 µg/kg (maximum 396 µg/kg), while 27.3% samples contained PAT beyond the maximum regulatory limit of 50 µg/kg. The average levels of PAT contamination in apple-derived products was higher in apple juice concentrate, followed by apple puree, apple juice and apple jam. The incidence of PAT in table grapes was 65.1%, with a mean of 53.9 µg/kg (maximum 505 µg/kg), whereas 23.8% exceeded the maximum level. Among the fruit samples, there were differences in PAT contents due to apple variety (6 types) or grape variety (8 types), as well as for sampling location. Our investigations showed the wide PAT occurrence in fruits and derived value-added products affecting consumer product safety, so that the population is chronically exposed to this toxin.

Patulin suppresses α1-adrenergic receptor expression in HEK293 cells

Patulin (PAT) is a common mycotoxin contaminant of apple products linked to impaired metabolic and kidney function. Adenosine monophosphate activated protein kinase (AMPK), abundantly expressed in the kidney, intercedes metabolic changes and renal injury. The alpha-1-adrenergic receptors (α₁-AR) facilitate Epinephrine (Epi)-mediated AMPK activation, linking metabolism and kidney function. Preliminary molecular docking experiments examined potential interactions and AMPK-gamma subunit 3 (PRKAG3). The effect of PAT exposure (0.2-2.5 µM; 24 h) on the AMPK pathway and α₁-AR was then investigated in HEK293 human kidney cells. AMPK agonist Epi determined direct effects on the α₁-AR, metformin was used as an activator for AMPK, while buthionine sulphoximine (BSO) and N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) assessed GSH inhibition and supplementation respectively. ADRA1A and ADRA1D expression was determined by qPCR. α₁-AR, ERK1/2/MAPK and PI3K/Akt protein expression was assessed using western blotting. PAT (1 µM) decreased α₁-AR protein and mRNA and altered downstream signalling. This was consistent in cells stimulated with Epi and metformin. BSO potentiated the observed effect on α₁-AR while NAC ameliorated these effects. Molecular docking studies performed on Human ADRA1A and PRKAG3 indicated direct interactions with PAT. This study is the first to show PAT modulates the AMPK pathway and α₁-AR, supporting a mechanism of kidney injury.

Effect of ascorbic acid, oxygen and storage duration on patulin in cloudy apple juice produced on a semi-industrial scale

Patulin (PAT), a mycotoxin mainly produced by Penicillium expansum, is of high concern with regard to human food safety. This study examined the stability of PAT in artificially contaminated cloudy apple juice (CAJ) produced on a semi-industrial scale using an innovative technology allowing degassing and pressing under low-oxygen conditions (VaculIQ 1000). The effects of adding ascorbic acid (AA), degassing during production and storing in the dark at 20 °C on the PAT concentration were studied, as well as possible degradation and reaction products formed. The highest PAT degradation (50%) was observed for flash-pasteurised juice with AA added, produced under low-oxygen conditions and degassed and stored for 14 days at 20 °C in the dark in aluminium laminate aseptic bags. Juices produced showed no significant differences in the quality parameters measured and did not show significant formation of reaction products. Further research needs to be focused on the fate of PAT in CAJ produced on an industrial level with and without addition of AA.

Penicillium expansum: biology, omics, and management tools for a global postharvest pathogen causing blue mould of pome fruit

Blue mould, caused primarily by Penicillium expansum, is a major threat to the global pome fruit industry, causing multimillion-dollar losses annually. The blue mould fungus negatively affects fruit quality, thereby reducing fresh fruit consumption, and significantly contributes to food loss. P. expansum also produces an array of mycotoxins that are detrimental to human health. Management options are limited and the emergence of fungicide-resistant Penicillium spp. makes disease management difficult, therefore new approaches and tools are needed to combat blue mould in storage. This species profile comprises a comprehensive literature review of this aggressive pathogen associated with pomes (apple, pear, quince), focusing on biology, mechanisms of disease, control, genomics, and the newest developments in disease management.

TAXONOMY

Penicillium expansum Link 1809. Domain Eukaryota, Kingdom Fungi, Phylum Ascomycota, Subphylum Pezizomycotina, Class Eurotiomycetes, Subclass: Eurotiomycetidae, Order Eurotiales; Family Trichocomaceae, Genus Penicillium, Species expansum.

BIOLOGY

A wide host range necrotrophic postharvest pathogen that requires a wound (e.g., stem pull, punctures, bruises, shoulder cracks) or natural openings (e.g., lenticel, stem end, calyx sinus) to gain ingress and infect.

TOXINS

Patulin, citrinin, chaetoglobosins, communesins, roquefortine C, expansolides A and B, ochratoxin A, penitrem A, rubratoxin B, and penicillic acid.

HOST RANGE

Primarily apples, European pear, Asian pear, medlar, and quince. Blue mould has also been reported on stone fruits (cherry, plum, peach), small fruits (grape, strawberry, kiwi), and hazel nut.

DISEASE SYMPTOMS

Blue mould initially appears as light tan to dark brown circular lesions with a defined margin between the decayed and healthy tissues. The decayed tissue is soft and watery, and blue-green spore masses appear on the decayed area, starting at the infection site and radiating outward as the decayed area ages.

DISEASE CONTROL

Preharvest fungicides with postharvest activity and postharvest fungicides are primarily used to control decay. Orchard and packinghouse sanitation methods are also critical components of an integrated pest management strategy.

USEFUL WEBSITES

Penn State Tree Fruit Production Guide (https://extension.psu.edu/forage-and-food-crops/fruit), Washington State Comprehensive Tree Fruit (http://treefruit.wsu.edu/crop-protection/disease-management/blue-mold/), The Apple Rot Doctor (https://waynejurick.wixsite.com/applerotdr), penicillium expansum genome sequences and resources (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/browse/#!/eukaryotes/11336/).

Revisiting the scope and applications of food enzymes from extremophiles

Microorganisms from extreme environments tend to undergo various adaptations due to environmental conditions such as extreme pH, temperature, salinity, heavy metals, and solvents. Thus, they produce enzymes with unique properties and high specificity, making them useful industrially, particularly in the food industries. Despite these enzymes' remarkable properties, only a few instances can be reported for actual exploitation in the food industry. This review's objectives are to highlight the properties of these enzymes and their prospects in the food industry. First, an introduction to extremophilic organisms is presented, followed by the categories and application of food enzymes from extremophiles. Then, the unique structural features of extremozymes are shown. This review also covers the prospective applications of extremozymes in the food industry in a broader sense, including degradation of toxins, deconstruction of polymers into monomers, and catalysis of multistep processes. Finally, the challenges in bioprocessing of extremozymes and applications in food are presented. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Enzymes are important players in food processing and preservation. Extremozymes, by their nature, are ideal for a broad range of food processing applications, particularly those that require process conditions of extreme pH, temperature, and salinity. As the global food industry grows, so too will grow the need to research and develop food products that are diverse, safe, healthy, and nutritious. There is also the need to produce food in a sustainable way that generates less waste or maximizes waste valorization. We anticipate that extremozymes can meet some of the research and development needs of the food industry.

Aerogel doped by sulfur-functionalized graphene oxide with convenient separability for efficient patulin removal from apple juice

Patulin (PAT) contaminant causes severe food safety issue throughout apple industry. Although adsorption is the feasible approach to remove PAT, the limited adsorption capacity and separation difficulty of most adsorbent is the major drawback that remains to be overcome. Here GO-SH doped aerogel was prepared and used for removal PAT from apple juice. The intrinsic porous of the aerogel and abundant active sites including -COOH, -NH₂ and -SH offered the PAT adsorption capacity of 24.75 μg/mg that superior to most reported adsorbents. Furthermore, it could reduce 89 ± 1.23% PAT in real apple juice without juice quality deterioration and cytotoxicity. Importantly, the aerogel with good mechanical strength and structure stability could endure the complex juice solution so that there was no any residue after convenient separation of the aerogel, which proved that the proposed aerogel was a promising adsorbent to be applied to apple juice industry for PAT removal.