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O’Dowd K, Isham IM, Vatandour S, Boulianne M, Dozois CM, Gagnon CA, Barjesteh N, Abdul-Careem MF. Host Immune Response Modulation in Avian Coronavirus Infection: Tracheal Transcriptome Profiling In Vitro and In Vivo. Viruses 2024; 16:605. [PMID: 38675946 PMCID: PMC11053446 DOI: 10.3390/v16040605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2024] [Revised: 04/05/2024] [Accepted: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is a highly contagious Gammacoronavirus causing moderate to severe respiratory infection in chickens. Understanding the initial antiviral response in the respiratory mucosa is crucial for controlling viral spread. We aimed to characterize the impact of IBV Delmarva (DMV)/1639 and IBV Massachusetts (Mass) 41 at the primary site of infection, namely, in chicken tracheal epithelial cells (cTECs) in vitro and the trachea in vivo. We hypothesized that some elements of the induced antiviral responses are distinct in both infection models. We inoculated cTECs and infected young specific pathogen-free (SPF) chickens with IBV DMV/1639 or IBV Mass41, along with mock-inoculated controls, and studied the transcriptome using RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) at 3 and 18 h post-infection (hpi) for cTECs and at 4 and 11 days post-infection (dpi) in the trachea. We showed that IBV DMV/1639 and IBV Mass41 replicate in cTECs in vitro and the trachea in vivo, inducing host mRNA expression profiles that are strain- and time-dependent. We demonstrated the different gene expression patterns between in vitro and in vivo tracheal IBV infection. Ultimately, characterizing host-pathogen interactions with various IBV strains reveals potential mechanisms for inducing and modulating the immune response during IBV infection in the chicken trachea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelsey O’Dowd
- Health Research Innovation Centre, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (K.O.); (I.M.I.)
| | - Ishara M. Isham
- Health Research Innovation Centre, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (K.O.); (I.M.I.)
| | - Safieh Vatandour
- Department of Animal and Poultry Science, Islamic Azad University, Qaemshahr Branch, Qaem Shahr 4765161964, Iran;
| | - Martine Boulianne
- Swine and Poultry Infectious Diseases Research Centre–Fonds de Recherche du Québec (CRIPA-FRQ), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC J2S 2M2, Canada; (M.B.); (C.M.D.); (C.A.G.); (N.B.)
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC J2S 2M2, Canada
| | - Charles M. Dozois
- Swine and Poultry Infectious Diseases Research Centre–Fonds de Recherche du Québec (CRIPA-FRQ), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC J2S 2M2, Canada; (M.B.); (C.M.D.); (C.A.G.); (N.B.)
- Institut National de Recherche Scientifique-Centre Armand-Frappier Santé Biotechnologie, Laval, QC H7V 1B7, Canada
| | - Carl A. Gagnon
- Swine and Poultry Infectious Diseases Research Centre–Fonds de Recherche du Québec (CRIPA-FRQ), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC J2S 2M2, Canada; (M.B.); (C.M.D.); (C.A.G.); (N.B.)
- Molecular Diagnostic and Virology Laboratories, Centre de Diagnostic Vétérinaire de l’Université de Montréal (CDVUM), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC J2S 2M2, Canada
| | - Neda Barjesteh
- Swine and Poultry Infectious Diseases Research Centre–Fonds de Recherche du Québec (CRIPA-FRQ), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC J2S 2M2, Canada; (M.B.); (C.M.D.); (C.A.G.); (N.B.)
| | - Mohamed Faizal Abdul-Careem
- Health Research Innovation Centre, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (K.O.); (I.M.I.)
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Abd-Elsalam RM, Najimudeen SM, Mahmoud ME, Hassan MSH, Gallardo RA, Abdul-Careem MF. Differential Impact of Massachusetts, Canadian 4/91, and California (Cal) 1737 Genotypes of Infectious Bronchitis Virus Infection on Lymphoid Organs of Chickens. Viruses 2024; 16:326. [PMID: 38543692 PMCID: PMC10974418 DOI: 10.3390/v16030326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2024] [Revised: 02/18/2024] [Accepted: 02/19/2024] [Indexed: 05/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) induces severe economic losses in chicken farms due to the emergence of new variants leading to vaccine breaks. The studied IBV strains belong to Massachusetts (Mass), Canadian 4/91, and California (Cal) 1737 genotypes that are prevalent globally. This study was designed to compare the impact of these three IBV genotypes on primary and secondary lymphoid organs. For this purpose, one-week-old specific pathogen-free chickens were inoculated with Mass, Canadian 4/91, or Cal 1737 IBV variants, keeping a mock-infected control. We examined the IBV replication in primary and secondary lymphoid organs. The molecular, histopathological, and immunohistochemical examinations revealed significant differences in lesion scores and viral distribution in these immune organs. In addition, we observed B-cell depletion in the bursa of Fabricius and the spleen with a significant elevation of T cells in these organs. Further studies are required to determine the functional consequences of IBV replication in lymphoid organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reham M. Abd-Elsalam
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (R.M.A.-E.); (S.M.N.); (M.E.M.); (M.S.H.H.)
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza 12211, Egypt
| | - Shahnas M. Najimudeen
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (R.M.A.-E.); (S.M.N.); (M.E.M.); (M.S.H.H.)
| | - Motamed E. Mahmoud
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (R.M.A.-E.); (S.M.N.); (M.E.M.); (M.S.H.H.)
- Department of Animal Husbandry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Sohag University, Sohag 82524, Egypt
| | - Mohamed S. H. Hassan
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (R.M.A.-E.); (S.M.N.); (M.E.M.); (M.S.H.H.)
- Department of Avian and Rabbit Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut 71515, Egypt
| | - Rodrigo A. Gallardo
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, 1089 Veterinary Medicine Drive, 4008 VM3B, Davis, CA 95616, USA;
| | - Mohamed Faizal Abdul-Careem
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (R.M.A.-E.); (S.M.N.); (M.E.M.); (M.S.H.H.)
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Farooq M, Abd-Elsalam RM, Ratcliff N, Hassan MSH, Najimudeen SM, Cork SC, Checkley S, Niu YD, Abdul-Careem MF. Comparative pathogenicity of infectious bronchitis virus Massachusetts and Delmarva (DMV/1639) genotypes in laying hens. Front Vet Sci 2024; 10:1329430. [PMID: 38313768 PMCID: PMC10834656 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1329430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 02/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Infectious bronchitis (IB) is a highly contagious and acute viral disease of chicken caused by the infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) of the family Coronaviridae. Even with extensive vaccination against IB by the poultry industry, the occurrence of new IBV genotypes is a continuous challenge encountered by the global poultry industry. This experiment was designed to compare the pathogenicity of two IBV strains belonging to Massachusetts (Mass) and Delmarva DMV/1639 genotypes. Specific pathogen-free laying hens were challenged during the peak of production (30 weeks), keeping a mock-infected control group. During 21 days of observation following infection, a significant drop in egg production with miss-shaped and soft shells was observed in the DMV/1639 IBV-infected hens only. The DMV/1639 IBV infected group showed prolonged and higher cloacal viral shedding compared with the Mass IBV-infected group. At the end of the study (21 days post-infection), the viral genome loads in the respiratory, urogenital, and immune tissues were significantly higher in the DMV/1639 IBV-infected group compared with the Mass IBV-infected group. Macroscopic lesions such as distorted ova leading to egg peritonitis were observed only in the DMV/1639 IBV-infected group. Moreover, microscopic lesion scores were significantly higher in the lung, kidney, cecal tonsils, and oviduct of the DMV/1639 IBV-infected group compared with the Mass IBV-infected group. Finally, the apoptosis index in the kidney, ovary, magnum, isthmus, and shell gland was significantly higher in the DMV/1639 IBV-infected group compared with the control and Mass-infected groups. This study examined the pathogenicity of two IBV genotypes that are impacting the layer industry in North America.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Farooq
- Health Research Innovation Center, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Reham M Abd-Elsalam
- Health Research Innovation Center, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Natalya Ratcliff
- Health Research Innovation Center, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Mohamed S H Hassan
- Health Research Innovation Center, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
- Department of Avian and Rabbit Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt
| | - Shahnas M Najimudeen
- Health Research Innovation Center, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Susan C Cork
- Health Research Innovation Center, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Sylvia Checkley
- Health Research Innovation Center, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Yan Dong Niu
- Health Research Innovation Center, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Mohamed Faizal Abdul-Careem
- Health Research Innovation Center, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
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Efficacy of Two Vaccination Strategies against Infectious Bronchitis in Laying Hens. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:vaccines11020338. [PMID: 36851216 PMCID: PMC9967544 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11020338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Revised: 01/29/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Vaccination remains the leading control method against infectious bronchitis (IB) in poultry despite the frequently observed IB outbreaks in vaccinated flocks. Here, two vaccination regimes were evaluated against challenge with the Massachusetts (Mass) infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) strain that was linked to egg production defects in Western Canada. One vaccination strategy included live attenuated IB vaccines only, and the other used both inactivated and live attenuated IB vaccines. The two immunization programs involved priming with a monovalent live attenuated IB vaccine (Mass serotype) at day-old, followed by intervals of bivalent live attenuated IB vaccines containing the Mass and Connecticut (Conn) serotypes given to the pullets at 2-, 5-, 9-, and 14-week-old. Inactivated IB vaccine (Mass serotype) was administrated to only one group of the vaccinated birds at 14-week-old. At the peak of lay, the hens were challenged with the Mass IBV isolate (15AB-01) via the oculo-nasal route. The efficacy of the vaccines was assessed following the challenge by observing clinical signs, egg production, egg quality parameters, seroconversion, and systemic T-cell subsets (CD4+ and CD8+ cells). Moreover, the viral genome loads in the oropharyngeal (OP) and cloacal (CL) swabs were quantified at predetermined time points. At 14 days post-infection (dpi), all the hens were euthanized, and different tissues were collected for genome load quantification and histopathological examination. Post-challenge, both vaccination regimes showed protection against clinical signs and exhibited significantly higher albumen parameters, higher anti-IBV serum antibodies, and significantly lower levels of IBV genome loads in OP swabs (at 3 and 7 dpi) and trachea and cecal tonsils compared to the mock-vaccinated challenged group. However, only the birds that received live attenuated plus inactivated IB vaccines had significantly lower IBV genome loads in CL swabs at 7 dpi, as well as decreased histopathological lesion scores and IBV genome loads in magnum compared to the mock-vaccinated challenged group, suggesting a slightly better performance for using live attenuated and inactivated IB vaccines in combination. Overall, the present findings show no significant difference in protection between the two vaccination regimes against the Mass IBV challenge in laying hens.
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Hassan MSH, Buharideen SM, Ali A, Najimudeen SM, Goldsmith D, Coffin CS, Cork SC, van der Meer F, Abdul-Careem MF. Efficacy of Commercial Infectious Bronchitis Vaccines against Canadian Delmarva (DMV/1639) Infectious Bronchitis Virus Infection in Layers. Vaccines (Basel) 2022; 10:vaccines10081194. [PMID: 36016082 PMCID: PMC9416550 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines10081194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Vaccination is the most important way to control infectious bronchitis (IB) in chickens. Since the end of 2015, the Delmarva (DMV)/1639 strain of infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) has caused significant damage to the layer flocks in Eastern Canada. The efficacy of a combination of existing IB vaccines licensed in Canada was assessed against experimental challenge with this IBV strain. The layer pullets were vaccinated during the rearing phase with live attenuated IB vaccines of Massachusetts (Mass) + Connecticut (Conn) types followed by an inactivated IB vaccine of Mass + Arkansas (Ark) types and then challenged with the Canadian IBV DMV/1639 strain at 30 weeks of age. Protection was evaluated based on the egg laying performance, immune responses, viral shedding, and viral genome loads and lesions in IBV target organs. The vaccinated challenged hens were protected from the drop in egg production observed in the non-vaccinated challenged hens. Early (5 dpi) anamnestic serum antibody response was measured in the vaccinated challenged hens as well as a significant level of antibodies was detected in the oviduct washes (14 dpi). In contrast, hens in the non-vaccinated challenged group showed delayed (12 dpi) and significantly lower serum antibody response. Viral RNA loads were reduced in the respiratory, alimentary, and reproductive tissues of the vaccinated challenged hens compared to the non-vaccinated challenged hens. Compared to the control groups, the vaccinated challenged hens had less marked microscopic lesions in the trachea, kidney, magnum, and uterus. Our experimental model demonstrated inconclusive results for cell-mediated immune responses and viral shedding. Overall, the vaccination program used in this study minimized viral replication and histopathological changes in most IBV target organs and protected challenged hens against drop in egg production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed S. H. Hassan
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (M.S.H.H.); (S.M.B.); (A.A.); (S.M.N.); (D.G.); (S.C.C.); (F.v.d.M.)
- Department of Poultry Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut 71515, Egypt
| | - Sabrina M. Buharideen
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (M.S.H.H.); (S.M.B.); (A.A.); (S.M.N.); (D.G.); (S.C.C.); (F.v.d.M.)
| | - Ahmed Ali
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (M.S.H.H.); (S.M.B.); (A.A.); (S.M.N.); (D.G.); (S.C.C.); (F.v.d.M.)
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Beni-Suef University, Beni Suef 62521, Egypt
| | - Shahnas M. Najimudeen
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (M.S.H.H.); (S.M.B.); (A.A.); (S.M.N.); (D.G.); (S.C.C.); (F.v.d.M.)
| | - Dayna Goldsmith
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (M.S.H.H.); (S.M.B.); (A.A.); (S.M.N.); (D.G.); (S.C.C.); (F.v.d.M.)
| | - Carla S. Coffin
- Department of Medicine, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada;
| | - Susan C. Cork
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (M.S.H.H.); (S.M.B.); (A.A.); (S.M.N.); (D.G.); (S.C.C.); (F.v.d.M.)
| | - Frank van der Meer
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (M.S.H.H.); (S.M.B.); (A.A.); (S.M.N.); (D.G.); (S.C.C.); (F.v.d.M.)
| | - Mohamed Faizal Abdul-Careem
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (M.S.H.H.); (S.M.B.); (A.A.); (S.M.N.); (D.G.); (S.C.C.); (F.v.d.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-403-220-4462; Fax: +1-403-210-9740
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Immunopathogenesis of the Canadian Delmarva (DMV/1639) infectious bronchitis virus (IBV): Impact on the reproductive tract in layers. Microb Pathog 2022; 166:105513. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2022.105513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Revised: 03/29/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Kong L, You R, Zhang D, Yuan Q, Xiang B, Liang J, Lin Q, Ding C, Liao M, Chen L, Ren T. Infectious Bronchitis Virus Infection Increases Pathogenicity of H9N2 Avian Influenza Virus by Inducing Severe Inflammatory Response. Front Vet Sci 2022; 8:824179. [PMID: 35211536 PMCID: PMC8860976 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.824179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) and H9N2 avian influenza virus (AIV) are frequently identified in chickens with respiratory disease. However, the role and mechanism of IBV and H9N2 AIV co-infection remain largely unknown. Specific-pathogen-free (SPF) chickens were inoculated with IBV 2 days before H9N2 virus inoculation (IBV/H9N2); with IBV and H9N2 virus simultaneously (IBV+H9N2); with H9N2 virus 2 days before IBV inoculation (H9N2/IBV); or with either IBV or H9N2 virus alone. Severe respiratory signs, pathological damage, and higher morbidity and mortality were observed in the co-infection groups compared with the IBV and H9N2 groups. In general, a higher virus load and a more intense inflammatory response were observed in the three co-infection groups, especially in the IBV/H9N2 group. The same results were observed in the transcriptome analysis of the trachea of the SPF chickens. Therefore, IBV might play a major role in the development of respiratory disease in chickens, and secondary infection with H9N2 virus further enhances the pathogenicity by inducing a severe inflammatory response. These findings may provide a reference for the prevention and control of IBV and H9N2 AIV in the poultry industry and provide insight into the molecular mechanisms of IBV and H9N2 AIV co-infection in chickens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingchen Kong
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
- National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, China
| | - Renrong You
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
- National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, China
| | - Dianchen Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
- National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qingli Yuan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
- National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, China
| | - Bin Xiang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
- National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jianpeng Liang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
- National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qiuyan Lin
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
- National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chan Ding
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute (SHVRI), Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Shanghai, China
| | - Ming Liao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
- National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, China
| | - Libin Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
- National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Libin Chen
| | - Tao Ren
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
- National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, China
- Tao Ren
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M Najimudeen S, Barboza-Solis C, Ali A, Buharideen SM, M Isham I, Hassan MSH, Ojkic D, Van Marle G, Cork SC, van der Meer F, Boulianne M, Abdul-Careem MF. Pathogenesis and host responses in lungs and kidneys following Canadian 4/91 infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) infection in chickens. Virology 2021; 566:75-88. [PMID: 34890893 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2021.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Revised: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) 4/91 was one of the common IBV variants isolated in Eastern Canada between 2013 and 2017 from chicken flocks showing severe respiratory and production problems. We designed an in vivo experiment, using specific pathogen free (SPF) chickens, to study the pathogenesis of, and host response to, Canadian (CAN) 4/91 IBV infection. At one week of age, the chickens were infected with 4/91 IBV/Ck/Can/17-038913 isolate. Swab samples were collected at predetermined time points. Five birds from the infected and the control groups were euthanized at 3, 7- and 10-days post-infection (dpi) to collect lung and kidney tissues. The results indicate IBV replication in these tissues at all three time points with prominent histological lesions, significant immune cell recruitment and up regulation of proinflammatory mediators. Overall, our findings add to the understanding of the pathogenesis of 4/91 infection and the subsequent host responses in the lungs and kidneys following experimental infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahnas M Najimudeen
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Catalina Barboza-Solis
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Ahmed Ali
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB, T2N 4N1, Canada; Department of Pathology, Beni-Suef University, Beni Suef, 62521, Egypt
| | - Sabrina M Buharideen
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Ishara M Isham
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Mohamed S H Hassan
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB, T2N 4N1, Canada; Department of Poultry Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut 71515, Egypt
| | - Davor Ojkic
- Animal Health Laboratory, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Guido Van Marle
- Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Susan C Cork
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Frank van der Meer
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Martine Boulianne
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Mohamed Faizal Abdul-Careem
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB, T2N 4N1, Canada.
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Pathogenicity of the Canadian Delmarva (DMV/1639) Infectious Bronchitis Virus (IBV) on Female Reproductive Tract of Chickens. Viruses 2021; 13:v13122488. [PMID: 34960757 PMCID: PMC8703381 DOI: 10.3390/v13122488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Revised: 11/25/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) infection causes significant economic losses to various sectors of the poultry industry worldwide. Over the past few years, the incidence of false layer syndrome in Eastern Canadian layer flocks has been associated with the increased prevalence of the IBV Delmarva (DMV)/1639 strain. In this study, 1-day-old specific-pathogen-free (SPF) hens were infected with the Canadian DMV/1639 strain and observed until 16 weeks of age in order to determine if the IBV DMV/1639 strain is causing false layer syndrome. Early after infection, the virus showed a wide tissue distribution with characteristic gross and histopathological lesions in the respiratory tract and kidney. Around 60–70% of the infected hens demonstrated continuous cloacal viral shedding until the end of the experiment (at 16 weeks) which was associated with high IBV genome loads detected in the cecal tonsils. The experiment confirmed the field observations that the Canadian DMV/1639 strain is highly pathogenic to the female reproductive tract causing marked cystic lesions in the oviduct. Moreover, significant histopathological damage was observed in the ovary. Our study provides a detailed description of the pathological consequences of the IBV DMV/1639 strain circulating in an important poultry production sector.
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10
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Hoerr FJ. The Pathology of Infectious Bronchitis. Avian Dis 2021; 65:600-611. [DOI: 10.1637/aviandiseases-d-21-00096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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11
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Immune Responses in Laying Hens after an Infectious Bronchitis Vaccination of Pullets: A Comparison of Two Vaccination Strategies. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:vaccines9050531. [PMID: 34065415 PMCID: PMC8161194 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9050531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2021] [Revised: 05/19/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
For decades, vaccinations have been used to limit infectious bronchitis (IB) in both the broiler and layer industries. Depending on the geographical area, live attenuated vaccines are used either alone or in combination with inactivated vaccines to control infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) infections. It has been shown that administering inactivated vaccines preceded by priming with live attenuated vaccines in pullets protects laying hens against IB. However, the immunological basis of this protective response has not been adequately investigated. The objective of the study was to compare two vaccination strategies adapted by the Canadian poultry industry in terms of their ability to systemically induce an adequate immune response in IBV-impacted tissues in laying hens. The first vaccination strategy (only live attenuated IB vaccines) and second vaccination strategy (live attenuated and inactivated IB vaccines) were applied. Serum anti-IBV antibodies were measured at two time points, i.e., 3 weeks and 10 weeks post last vaccination. The recruitment of T cell subsets (i.e., CD4+ and CD8+ T cells), and the interferon (IFN)-γ mRNA expression were measured at 10 weeks post last vaccination. We observed that vaccination strategy 2 induced significantly higher serum anti-IBV antibody responses that were capable of neutralizing an IBV Mass variant associated with a flock history of shell-less egg production better than a Delmarva (DMV)1639 variant, as well as a significantly higher IFN-γ mRNA expression in the lungs, kidneys, and oviduct. We also observed that both vaccination strategies recruited CD4+ T cells as well as CD8+ T cells to the examined tissues at various extents. Our findings indicate that vaccination strategy 2 induces better systemic and local host responses in laying hens.
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12
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Molecular Characterization of 4/91 Infectious Bronchitis Virus Leading to Studies of Pathogenesis and Host Responses in Laying Hens. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10050624. [PMID: 34069486 PMCID: PMC8161358 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10050624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2021] [Revised: 05/15/2021] [Accepted: 05/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) initially establishes the infection in the respiratory tract and then spreads to other tissues depending on its virulence. During 2011–2018, the 4/91 IBV strain was isolated from poultry flocks affected by decreased egg production and quality in Eastern Canada. One of the Canadian 4/91 IBV isolates, IBV/Ck/Can/17-038913, was propagated in embryonated chicken eggs and molecularly characterized using whole genome sequencing. An in vivo study in laying hens was conducted to observe if IBV/Ck/Can/17-038913 isolate affects the egg production and quality. Hens were infected with IBV/Ck/Can/17-038913 isolate during the peak of egg lay, using a standard dose and routes maintaining uninfected controls. Oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs were collected at predetermined time points for the quantification of IBV genome loads. At 6 and 10 days post-infection, hens were euthanized to observe the lesions in various organs and collect blood and tissue samples for the quantification of antibody response and IBV genome loads, respectively. Egg production was not impacted during the first 10 days following infection. No gross lesions were observed in the tissues of the infected birds. The IBV genome was quantified in swabs, trachea, lung, proventriculus, cecal tonsils, kidney, and reproductive tissues. The serum antibody response against IBV was quantified in infected hens. In addition, histological changes, and recruitment of immune cells, such as macrophages and T cell subsets in kidney tissues, were measured. Overall, data show that IBV/Ck/Can/17-038913 isolate is not associated with egg production issues in laying hens infected at the peak of lay, while it demonstrates various tissue tropism, including kidney, where histopathological lesions and immune cell recruitments were evident.
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Hassan MSH, Abdul-Careem MF. Avian Viruses that Impact Table Egg Production. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:E1747. [PMID: 32993040 PMCID: PMC7601732 DOI: 10.3390/ani10101747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Revised: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Eggs are a common source of protein and other nutrient components for people worldwide. Commercial egg-laying birds encounter several challenges during the long production cycle. An efficient egg production process requires a healthy bird with a competent reproductive system. Several viral pathogens that can impact the bird's health or induce reversible or irreversible lesions in the female reproductive organs adversely interfere with the egg industry. The negative effects exerted by viral diseases create a temporary or permanent decrease in egg production, in addition to the production of low-quality eggs. Several factors including, but not limited to, the age of the bird, and the infecting viral strain and part of reproductive system involved contribute to the form of reproductive disease encountered. Advanced methodologies have successfully elucidated some of the virus-host interactions relevant to the hen's reproductive performance, however, this branch needs further research. This review discusses the major avian viral infections that have been reported to adversely affect egg productivity and quality and aims to summarize the current understanding of the mechanisms that underlie the observed negative effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed S. H. Hassan
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada;
- Department of Poultry Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut 71515, Egypt
| | - Mohamed Faizal Abdul-Careem
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada;
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M. Najimudeen S, H. Hassan MS, C. Cork S, Abdul-Careem MF. Infectious Bronchitis Coronavirus Infection in Chickens: Multiple System Disease with Immune Suppression. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9100779. [PMID: 32987684 PMCID: PMC7598688 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9100779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2020] [Revised: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
In the early 1930s, infectious bronchitis (IB) was first characterized as a respiratory disease in young chickens; later, the disease was also described in older chickens. The etiology of IB was confirmed later as being due to a coronavirus: the infectious bronchitis virus (IBV). Being a coronavirus, IBV is subject to constant genome change due to mutation and recombination, with the consequence of changing clinical and pathological manifestations. The potential use of live attenuated vaccines for the control of IBV infection was demonstrated in the early 1950s, but vaccine breaks occurred due to the emergence of new IBV serotypes. Over the years, various IBV genotypes associated with reproductive, renal, gastrointestinal, muscular and immunosuppressive manifestations have emerged. IBV causes considerable economic impacts on global poultry production due to its pathogenesis involving multiple body systems and immune suppression; hence, there is a need to better understand the pathogenesis of infection and the immune response in order to help developing better management strategies. The evolution of new strains of IBV during the last nine decades against vaccine-induced immune response and changing clinical and pathological manifestations emphasize the necessity of the rational development of intervention strategies based on a thorough understanding of IBV interaction with the host.
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Hassan MSH, Ojkic D, Coffin CS, Cork SC, van der Meer F, Abdul-Careem MF. Delmarva (DMV/1639) Infectious Bronchitis Virus (IBV) Variants Isolated in Eastern Canada Show Evidence of Recombination. Viruses 2019; 11:v11111054. [PMID: 31766215 PMCID: PMC6893544 DOI: 10.3390/v11111054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Revised: 11/10/2019] [Accepted: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) infection in chickens can lead to an economically important disease, namely, infectious bronchitis (IB). New IBV variants are continuously emerging, which complicates vaccination-based IB control. In this study, five IBVs were isolated from clinical samples submitted to a diagnostic laboratory in Ontario, Canada, and subjected to detailed molecular characterization. Analysis of the spike (S)1 gene showed that these five IBVs were highly related to the Delmarva (DMV/1639) strain (~97.0% nucleotide sequence similarity) that was firstly isolated from an IB outbreak in the Delmarva peninsula, United States of America (USA), in 2011. However, the complete genomic sequence analysis showed a 93.5–93.7% similarity with the Connecticut (Conn) vaccine strain, suggesting that Conn-like viruses contributed to the evolution of the five Canadian IBV/DMV isolates. A SimPlot analysis of the complete genomic sequence showed evidence of recombination for at least three different IBV strains, including a Conn vaccine-like strain, a 4/91 vaccine-like strain, and one strain that is yet-unidentified. The unidentified strain may have contributed the genomic regions of the S, 3, and membrane (M) genes of the five Canadian IBV/DMV isolates. The study outcomes add to the existing knowledge about involvement of recombination in IBV evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed S. H. Hassan
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (M.S.H.H.); (S.C.C.); (F.v.d.M.)
| | - Davor Ojkic
- Animal Health Laboratory, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada;
| | - Carla S. Coffin
- Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada;
| | - Susan C. Cork
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (M.S.H.H.); (S.C.C.); (F.v.d.M.)
| | - Frank van der Meer
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (M.S.H.H.); (S.C.C.); (F.v.d.M.)
| | - Mohamed Faizal Abdul-Careem
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (M.S.H.H.); (S.C.C.); (F.v.d.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +403-220-4462; Fax: +403-210-9740
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Amarasinghe A, De Silva Senapathi U, Abdul-Cader MS, Popowich S, Marshall F, Cork SC, van der Meer F, Gomis S, Abdul-Careem MF. Comparative features of infections of two Massachusetts (Mass) infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) variants isolated from Western Canadian layer flocks. BMC Vet Res 2018; 14:391. [PMID: 30526618 PMCID: PMC6288874 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-018-1720-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2018] [Accepted: 11/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is one of the leading causes of mortality and morbidity in chickens. There are numerous serotypes and variants, which do not confer cross protection resulting in failure of currently used IBV vaccines. Although variant IBV isolates with major genetic differences have been subjected to comparative studies, it is unknown whether minor genetic differences in IBV variants within a serotype are different in terms of pathogenesis and eliciting host responses. Two Massachusetts (Mass) variant IBV isolates recovered from commercial layer flocks in the Western Canadian provinces of Alberta (AB) and Saskatchewan (SK) were compared genetically and evaluated for their pathogenicity, tissue distribution and ability to recruit and replicate in macrophages. RESULTS Although whole genome sequencing of these two Mass IBV isolates showed low similarity with the M41 vaccinal strain, they had an identical nucleotide sequence at open reading frames (ORFs) 3a, 3b, envelop (E), matrix (M), 5a and 5b. The rest of the ORFs of these 2 IBV isolates showed 99.9% nucleotide similarity. However, upon experimental infection, we found that the IBV isolate originating from AB was different to the one that originated in SK due to higher tracheal lesion scores and lower lung viral replication and lower genome loads in cecal tonsils. Nevertheless, both IBV isolates elicited host responses characterized by significant macrophage recruitment to the respiratory tract and there was evidence that both IBV isolates replicated within tracheal and lung macrophages. CONCLUSIONS Overall, this study shows that Mass variant IBV isolates, although possessing minor genetic variations, can lead to significant differences in pathogenicity in young chickens. Further studies are required to investigate the pathogenicity of these two Mass variant IBV isolates in laying hens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aruna Amarasinghe
- Department of Ecosystem and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
| | - Upasama De Silva Senapathi
- Department of Ecosystem and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
| | - Mohamed Sarjoon Abdul-Cader
- Department of Ecosystem and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
| | - Shelly Popowich
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B5 Canada
| | - Frank Marshall
- Marshall Swine and Poultry Health Services, 3831- Bay G- 44 Ave, Camrose, AB T4V 3T1 Canada
| | - Susan C. Cork
- Department of Ecosystem and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
| | - Frank van der Meer
- Department of Ecosystem and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
| | - Susantha Gomis
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B5 Canada
| | - Mohamed Faizal Abdul-Careem
- Department of Ecosystem and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
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