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Kewcharoenwong C, Freeouf S, Nithichanon A, Petsophonsakul W, Pornprasert S, Khamduang W, Suzuki T, Onodera T, Takahashi Y, Lertmemongkolchai G. One-dose intradermal rabies booster enhances rabies antibody production and avidity maturation. Med Microbiol Immunol 2024; 213:7. [PMID: 38761268 PMCID: PMC11102368 DOI: 10.1007/s00430-024-00791-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/21/2024] [Indexed: 05/20/2024]
Abstract
The incidence of rabies in Thailand reached its peak in 2018 with 18 human deaths. Preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP) vaccination is thus recommended for high-risk populations. WHO has recently recommended that patients who are exposed to a suspected rabid animal and have already been immunized against rabies should receive a 1-site intradermal (ID) injection of 0.1 mL on days 0 and 3 as postexposure prophylaxis (PEP). In Thailand, village health and livestock volunteers tasked with annual dog vaccination typically receive only a single lifetime PrEP dose and subsequent boosters solely upon confirmed animal bites. However, the adequacy of a single PrEP dose for priming and maintaining immunity in this high-risk group has not been evaluated. Therefore, our study was designed to address two key questions: (1) sufficiency of single-dose PrEP-to determine whether a single ID PrEP dose provides adequate long-term immune protection for high-risk individuals exposed to numerous dogs during their vaccination duties. (2) Booster efficacy for immune maturation-to investigate whether one or two additional ID booster doses effectively stimulate a mature and sustained antibody response in this population. The level and persistence of the rabies antibody were determined by comparing the immunogenicity and booster efficacy among the vaccination groups. Our study demonstrated that rabies antibodies persisted for more than 180 days after cost-effective ID PrEP or the 1st or the 2nd single ID booster dose, and adequate antibody levels were detected in more than 95% of participants by CEE-cELISA and 100% by indirect ELISA. Moreover, the avidity maturation of rabies-specific antibodies occurred after the 1st single ID booster dose. This smaller ID booster regimen was sufficient for producing a sufficient immune response and enhancing the maturation of anti-rabies antibodies. This safe and effective PrEP regimen and a single visit involving a one-dose ID booster are recommended, and at least one one-dose ID booster regimen could be equitably implemented in at-risk people in Thailand and other developing countries. However, an adequate antibody level should be monitored before the booster is administered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chidchamai Kewcharoenwong
- Department of Medical Technology, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- The Centre for Research & Development of Medical Diagnostic Laboratories, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
- Lanna Dog Welfare, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Saranta Freeouf
- Department of Medical Technology, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Arnone Nithichanon
- The Centre for Research & Development of Medical Diagnostic Laboratories, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
| | - Wilaiwan Petsophonsakul
- Department of Medical Technology, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Lanna Dog Welfare, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Sakorn Pornprasert
- Department of Medical Technology, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Woottichai Khamduang
- Department of Medical Technology, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Tadaki Suzuki
- Department of Pathology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Taishi Onodera
- Research Center for Drug and Vaccine Development, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yoshimasa Takahashi
- Research Center for Drug and Vaccine Development, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ganjana Lertmemongkolchai
- Department of Medical Technology, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.
- The Centre for Research & Development of Medical Diagnostic Laboratories, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand.
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Tolentino Júnior DS, Vasconcelos Marques MS, de Oliveira RC. Rabies vaccination of the Maxakali indigenous population. Vaccine 2024; 42:2495-2498. [PMID: 38413279 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2023.12.083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2023] [Revised: 12/29/2023] [Accepted: 12/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/29/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Dilceu Silveira Tolentino Júnior
- Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, René Rachou Institute, Postgraduate Program in Collective Health, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil; Special Indigenous Health District of Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo, Ministry of Health, Governador Valadares, Minas Gerais, Brazil; Vale do Rio Doce University. Postgraduate Program in Integrated Territory Management, Governador Valadares, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
| | - Maryana Santos Vasconcelos Marques
- Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, René Rachou Institute, Postgraduate Program in Collective Health, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil; Special Indigenous Health District of Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo, Ministry of Health, Governador Valadares, Minas Gerais, Brazil; Vale do Rio Doce University. Postgraduate Program in Integrated Territory Management, Governador Valadares, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Roberto Carlos de Oliveira
- Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, René Rachou Institute, Postgraduate Program in Collective Health, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil; Special Indigenous Health District of Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo, Ministry of Health, Governador Valadares, Minas Gerais, Brazil; Vale do Rio Doce University. Postgraduate Program in Integrated Territory Management, Governador Valadares, Minas Gerais, Brazil
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Pichon S, Guinet-Morlot F, Saleh J, Essink B, Pineda-Peña AC, Moureau A, Petit C, Minutello AM. Safety and immunogenicity of three dose levels of an investigational, highly purified Vero cell rabies vaccine: A randomized, controlled, observer-blinded, Phase II study with a simulated post-exposure regimen in healthy adults. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2023; 19:2275453. [PMID: 37921410 PMCID: PMC10627063 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2023.2275453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 10/21/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023] Open
Abstract
A serum-free, highly purified rabies vaccine produced in Vero cells is under development. The initial formulation, PVRV-NG, was evaluated in five Phase II studies and subsequently reformulated (PVRV-NG2). This multicenter, observer-blinded Phase II study investigated the safety and immune response of three different doses (antigen content) of PVRV-NG2 versus a licensed human diploid cell rabies vaccine (HDCV; Imovax rabies®). Healthy adults (N = 320) were randomized to receive PVRV-NG2 (low, medium, or high dose), PVRV-NG, or HDCV (2:2:2:1:1 ratio), according to a five-dose Essen simulated post-exposure regimen (Days [D] 0, 3, 7, 14, and 28). All participants received human rabies immunoglobulin intramuscularly on D0. Immunogenicity was assessed at D0, 14, 28, 42, and 6 months after the final injection using the rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test. Seroconversion rates were calculated as the percentage of participants achieving rabies virus neutralizing antibody titers ≥0.5 IU/mL. All analyses were descriptive. At each timepoint, geometric mean titers (GMTs) increased with antigen content (measured using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay). High-dose PVRV-NG2 GMTs were the highest at all timepoints, medium-dose PVRV-NG2 GMTs were similar to those with HDCV, and low-dose PVRV-NG2 GMTs were similar to PVRV-NG. The safety profile of PVRV-NG2 was comparable to PVRV-NG; however, fewer injection site reactions were reported with PVRV-NG2 or PVRV-NG (range 36.7-47.5%) than with HDCV (61.5%). This study demonstrated a dose-effect of antigen content at all timepoints. As post-exposure prophylaxis, the safety and immunogenicity profiles of the high-dose PVRV-NG2 group compared favorably with HDCV. Clinicaltrials.gov number: NCT03145766.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvie Pichon
- Clinical Development, Sanofi, Marcy-l’Étoile, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Celine Petit
- Clinical Development, Sanofi, Marcy-l’Étoile, France
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Khairullah AR, Kurniawan SC, Hasib A, Silaen OSM, Widodo A, Effendi MH, Ramandinianto SC, Moses IB, Riwu KHP, Yanestria SM. Tracking lethal threat: in-depth review of rabies. Open Vet J 2023; 13:1385-1399. [PMID: 38107233 PMCID: PMC10725282 DOI: 10.5455/ovj.2023.v13.i11.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023] Open
Abstract
An infectious disease known as rabies (family Rhabdoviridae, genus Lyssavirus) causes severe damage to mammals' central nervous systems (CNS). This illness has been around for a very long time. The majority of human cases of rabies take place in underdeveloped regions of Africa and Asia. Following viral transmission, the Rhabdovirus enters the peripheral nervous system and proceeds to the CNS, where it targets the encephalon and produces encephalomyelitis. Postbite prophylaxis requires laboratory confirmation of rabies in both people and animals. All warm-blooded animals can transmit the Lyssavirus infection, while the virus can also develop in the cells of cold-blooded animals. In the 21st century, more than 3 billion people are in danger of contracting the rabies virus in more than 100 different nations, resulting in an annual death toll of 50,000-59,000. There are three important elements in handling rabies disease in post exposure prophylaxis (PEP), namely wound care, administration of anti-rabies serum, and anti-rabies vaccine. Social costs include death, lost productivity as a result of early death, illness as a result of vaccination side effects, and the psychological toll that exposure to these deadly diseases has on people. Humans are most frequently exposed to canine rabies, especially youngsters and the poor, and there are few resources available to treat or prevent exposure, making prevention of human rabies challenging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aswin Rafif Khairullah
- Division of Animal Husbandry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia
| | - Shendy Canadya Kurniawan
- Master Program of Animal Sciences, Department of Animal Sciences, Specialisation in Molecule, Cell and Organ Functioning, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Abdullah Hasib
- School of Agriculture and Food Sustainability, The University of Queensland, Gatton, Australia
| | - Otto Sahat Martua Silaen
- Doctoral Program in Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia
| | - Agus Widodo
- Department of Health, Faculty of Vocational Studies, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia
| | - Mustofa Helmi Effendi
- Division of Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia
| | | | - Ikechukwu Benjamin Moses
- Department of Applied Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Nigeria
| | - Katty Hendriana Priscilia Riwu
- Department of Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Pendidikan Mandalika, Mataram, Indonesia
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Najam A, Ahmad S, Abid R, Ali H, Husnain M, Aziz T, Adeel SS, Muhammad N, Ghazanfar S. Immune-adjuvant effect of vitamin A and probiotics supplementation on humoral response to cell culture rabies vaccine in rabbits. 3 Biotech 2023; 13:232. [PMID: 37323857 PMCID: PMC10258788 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-023-03631-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023] Open
Abstract
This study was carried out to evaluate the effects of vitamin A (Vit A) and probiotic co-supplementation with rabies vaccine on humoral immune response in New Zealand white (NZW) rabbits. For this experiment, 54 rabbits were randomized into six experimental and three control groups. Mixed cultures of commercial probiotics supplements and a dose of Vit A were administered to each animal. Results were compared with the control group fed with only basal diet. Animals in different treatment groups showed significantly higher sero-conversions against rabies vaccine. There was a significant increase (p < 0.001) in the titers of rabies antibodies in all treatment groups on 14th and 35th days than control C3 group. Both commercial probiotics irrespective of brand increase the humoral immune response of rabbits against rabies vaccine. The mean titer values of all groups G1-G6 and sub-controls (C1, C2) were generally above 3.6 EU/ml on day 14th and between 3.7 and 3.9 EU/ml, showing highest sero-conversion on 35th day than mean titer of C3 control = 3.091 and 3.505 EU/ml respectively on both days. The maximum titer values were obtained with the addition of organic carrots to the daily diet. These results suggest that simple dietary interventions using probiotics and Vit A in natural form may enhance the efficacy of rabies vaccine in the host. These cost-effective strategies can be applied for getting higher yields of polyclonal antibody production in animal models, thus providing promising means of improving the final product yield and can be adopted easily by the manufacturers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amina Najam
- Biological Production Division, National Institute of Health, Islamabad, Pakistan
- Department of Microbiology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, 44100 Pakistan
| | - Safia Ahmad
- Department of Microbiology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, 44100 Pakistan
| | - Rameesha Abid
- Department of Microbiology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, 44100 Pakistan
- National Institute for Genomics and Advanced Biotechnology (NIGAB), National Agricultural Research Centre, Park Road, Islamabad, 45500 Pakistan
| | - Hussain Ali
- Biological Production Division, National Institute of Health, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Murtaza Husnain
- Department of Biochemistry, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, 44100 Pakistan
| | - Tariq Aziz
- Department of Zoology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, 44100 Pakistan
| | - Syeda Shazia Adeel
- Biological Production Division, National Institute of Health, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Naeil Muhammad
- Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University, Zagazig, 44519 Egypt
| | - Shakira Ghazanfar
- National Institute for Genomics and Advanced Biotechnology (NIGAB), National Agricultural Research Centre, Park Road, Islamabad, 45500 Pakistan
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Damanet B, Costescu Strachinaru DI, Levêque A. Single visit rabies pre-exposure prophylaxis: A literature review. Travel Med Infect Dis 2023; 54:102612. [PMID: 37394127 DOI: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2023.102612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2023] [Revised: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The current WHO-recommended rabies pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) are two-visit vaccination schedules, but there are studies suggesting that single visit schedules might be sufficient to prime the immunity. METHODS A literature review was conducted to retrieve and summarize published data on single visit rabies PrEP. PubMed database was screened for articles published between January 1st, 2003 and December 31st, 2022. The bibliographies of the articles chosen to undergo full text review and of the current major WHO publications on rabies were searched to find additional references, regardless of publication date. The primary outcome was the percentage of subjects having received rabies PrEP on single visit schedules who achieved antibody levels ≥0.5 IU/mL one week after post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP), regardless of the PEP regimen. RESULTS 11 studies were selected for inclusion, totalling 935 subjects, of which 696 received a simulated PEP schedule. Of these 696, a serological test result on day 7 was available for 408 of them, and 406 subjects (99.51%) seroconverted after PEP without any difference regarding time delay between PrEP and PEP or the vaccination schedule used for PEP. CONCLUSION Single visit PrEP schedules seem to confer sufficient protection in most healthy individuals without immunocompromised status if a booster PEP is administered after a suspected rabies exposure. Further studies in real-life settings and in different age categories are needed to confirm this finding, which may increase the availability of vaccines and thus the accessibility of PrEP for vulnerable populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Damanet
- School of Public Health, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium; National Institute for Health and Disability Insurance, Brussels, Belgium.
| | | | - Alain Levêque
- School of Public Health, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
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Zajac MD, Ortega MT, Moore SM. Development and Evaluation of an Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay Targeting Rabies-Specific IgM and IgG in Human Sera. Viruses 2023; 15:v15040874. [PMID: 37112853 PMCID: PMC10142732 DOI: 10.3390/v15040874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Revised: 03/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/26/2023] [Indexed: 04/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Immunity from rabies depends on rabies virus neutralizing antibodies (RVNA) induced after immunization; however, the influence of antibody isotype switching has not been extensively investigated. This has become particularly relevant with changes in World Health Organization (WHO) recommended rabies vaccine regimens that may influence RVNA isotype kinetics, potentially affecting the peak, and longevity, of RVNA immunoglobulin (IgG) levels. We developed rapid and reliable assays for quantifying the anti-rabies IgM/IgG class switch in human serum based on an indirect ELISA technique. The immune response was tracked in ten individuals naïve to the rabies vaccine by quantifying serum titers weekly, from day seven to day 42 post-immunization, using a serum neutralization assay and the ELISA IgM/IgG assays. The average RVNA IU/mL levels were at D0 ≤ 0.1, D7 0.24, D14 8.36, D21 12.84, D28 25.74 and D42 28.68. Levels of specific IgM antibodies to rabies glycoprotein (EU/mL) were higher, on average, at D7, 1.37, and from D14, 5.49, to D21, 6.59. In contrast, average IgG antibodies (EU/mL) predominated from D28, 10.03, to D42, 14.45. We conclude that levels of anti-rabies IgM/IgG at D28 characterize the isotype class switch. These assays, combined with serum neutralization assays, distinguished the RVNA levels in terms of the IgM/IgG responses and are expected to add to the diagnostic repertoire, provide additional information in establishing rabies vaccine regimens, both post- and pre-exposure prophylaxis, and contribute to research efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle D. Zajac
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA; (M.D.Z.); (M.T.O.)
| | - Maria Teresa Ortega
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA; (M.D.Z.); (M.T.O.)
| | - Susan M. Moore
- Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
- Correspondence:
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Briggs DJ, Moore SM. Correction: Briggs, D.J.; Moore, S.M. The Route of Administration of Rabies Vaccines: Comparing the Data. Viruses 2021, 13, 1252. Viruses 2022; 14:v14071368. [PMID: 35891573 PMCID: PMC9319318 DOI: 10.3390/v14071368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
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Volokhov DV, Furtak V, Allen C, Pulle G, Zajac MD, Levin Y, Kochba E, Moore SM. Robust humoral immune response against rabies virus in rabbits and guinea pigs immunized with plasmid DNA vectors encoding rabies virus glycoproteins - An approach to the production of polyclonal antibody reagents. Mol Cell Probes 2022; 64:101833. [PMID: 35691598 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcp.2022.101833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
DNA-based immunization has been previously shown to be an efficient approach to induce robust immunity against infectious diseases in animals and humans. The advantages of DNA vaccines are simplicity of their construction and production, low cost, high stability, and ability to elicit a full spectrum of immune responses to target antigens. The goals of this study were (i) to assess the antibody immune response to rabies virus glycoproteins (rGPs) in rabbits and guinea pigs after intramuscular immunization with pTargeT and pVAC2-mcs mammalian expression vectors encoding either the wild-type (WT) or codon-optimized (cOPT) rGP genes; and (ii) to prepare in-house rabbit anti-rGP polyclonal antibody reagents suitable for in Single Radial Immunodiffusion (SRID) and Indirect Fluorescent Antibody (IFA) assays. The maximum antibody responses against rabies virus in rabbits and guinea pigs were observed after immunization series with 500 μg/dose of pVAC2-mcs vector encoding either the WT or cOPT rGP genes adjuvanted with Emulsigen-D. No significant difference in the anti-rabies virus neutralizing antibody titers was observed in rabbits immunized with the WT and cOPT rGPs. The in-house rabbit anti-rGP polyclonal antibody reagents reacted comparable to the current reference reagents in SRID and IFA assays. The results of the study demonstrated that the DNA immunization of animals with the WT or cOPT rGPs is a promising approach to either induction of high anti-rabies virus neutralizing antibody titers in vivo or for production of polyclonal antibody reagents against rabies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dmitriy V Volokhov
- Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 10903 New Hampshire Ave., Silver Spring, MD, 20993, USA.
| | - Vyacheslav Furtak
- Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 10903 New Hampshire Ave., Silver Spring, MD, 20993, USA
| | - Cynthia Allen
- Vaccine Quality Division, Center for Biologics Evaluation (CBE), Biologic and Radiopharmaceutical Drugs Directorate (BRDD), Health Canada, 100 Eglantine Driveway, Ottawa, ON K1A 0K9, Canada
| | - Gayle Pulle
- Vaccine Quality Division, Center for Biologics Evaluation (CBE), Biologic and Radiopharmaceutical Drugs Directorate (BRDD), Health Canada, 100 Eglantine Driveway, Ottawa, ON K1A 0K9, Canada
| | - Michelle D Zajac
- Kansas State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, 1800 Denison Ave., Manhattan, KS, 66506, USA
| | - Yotam Levin
- NanoPass Technologies Ltd., 3 Golda Meir St., Nes Ziona, 7403648, Israel
| | - Efrat Kochba
- NanoPass Technologies Ltd., 3 Golda Meir St., Nes Ziona, 7403648, Israel
| | - Susan M Moore
- The University of Missouri Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory (VMDL), One Health Laboratory, 1509 Rollins St., Columbia, MO, 65211, USA
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Special Issue “Innovative Techniques and Approaches in the Control and Prevention of Rabies Virus”. Viruses 2022; 14:v14050845. [PMID: 35632587 PMCID: PMC9144731 DOI: 10.3390/v14050845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
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