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Kannan A, Suomalainen M, Volle R, Bauer M, Amsler M, Trinh HV, Vavassori S, Schmid JP, Vilhena G, Marín-González A, Perez R, Franceschini A, von Mering C, Hemmi S, Greber UF. Sequence-Specific Features of Short Double-Strand, Blunt-End RNAs Have RIG-I- and Type 1 Interferon-Dependent or -Independent Anti-Viral Effects. Viruses 2022; 14:v14071407. [PMID: 35891387 PMCID: PMC9322957 DOI: 10.3390/v14071407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Revised: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Pathogen-associated molecular patterns, including cytoplasmic DNA and double-strand (ds)RNA trigger the induction of interferon (IFN) and antiviral states protecting cells and organisms from pathogens. Here we discovered that the transfection of human airway cell lines or non-transformed fibroblasts with 24mer dsRNA mimicking the cellular micro-RNA (miR)29b-1* gives strong anti-viral effects against human adenovirus type 5 (AdV-C5), influenza A virus X31 (H3N2), and SARS-CoV-2. These anti-viral effects required blunt-end complementary RNA strands and were not elicited by corresponding single-strand RNAs. dsRNA miR-29b-1* but not randomized miR-29b-1* mimics induced IFN-stimulated gene expression, and downregulated cell adhesion and cell cycle genes, as indicated by transcriptomics and IFN-I responsive Mx1-promoter activity assays. The inhibition of AdV-C5 infection with miR-29b-1* mimic depended on the IFN-alpha receptor 2 (IFNAR2) and the RNA-helicase retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) but not cytoplasmic RNA sensors MDA5 and ZNFX1 or MyD88/TRIF adaptors. The antiviral effects of miR29b-1* were independent of a central AUAU-motif inducing dsRNA bending, as mimics with disrupted AUAU-motif were anti-viral in normal but not RIG-I knock-out (KO) or IFNAR2-KO cells. The screening of a library of scrambled short dsRNA sequences identified also anti-viral mimics functioning independently of RIG-I and IFNAR2, thus exemplifying the diverse anti-viral mechanisms of short blunt-end dsRNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhilash Kannan
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zürich, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland; (A.K.); (M.S.); (R.V.); (M.B.); (M.A.); (H.V.T.); (A.F.); (C.v.M.); (S.H.)
- Neurimmune AG, Wagistrasse 18, 8952 Schlieren, Switzerland
| | - Maarit Suomalainen
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zürich, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland; (A.K.); (M.S.); (R.V.); (M.B.); (M.A.); (H.V.T.); (A.F.); (C.v.M.); (S.H.)
| | - Romain Volle
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zürich, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland; (A.K.); (M.S.); (R.V.); (M.B.); (M.A.); (H.V.T.); (A.F.); (C.v.M.); (S.H.)
| | - Michael Bauer
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zürich, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland; (A.K.); (M.S.); (R.V.); (M.B.); (M.A.); (H.V.T.); (A.F.); (C.v.M.); (S.H.)
- Laboratory of Virology and Infectious Disease, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Marco Amsler
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zürich, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland; (A.K.); (M.S.); (R.V.); (M.B.); (M.A.); (H.V.T.); (A.F.); (C.v.M.); (S.H.)
| | - Hung V. Trinh
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zürich, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland; (A.K.); (M.S.); (R.V.); (M.B.); (M.A.); (H.V.T.); (A.F.); (C.v.M.); (S.H.)
- Genezen, 9900 Westpoint Dr, Suite 128, Indianapolis, IN 46256, USA
| | - Stefano Vavassori
- Division of Immunology, University Children’s Hospital Zürich, 8032 Zürich, Switzerland; (S.V.); (J.P.S.)
| | - Jana Pachlopnik Schmid
- Division of Immunology, University Children’s Hospital Zürich, 8032 Zürich, Switzerland; (S.V.); (J.P.S.)
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Zürich, 8006 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Guilherme Vilhena
- Departamento de Física Teórica de la Materia Condensada, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, E-28049 Madrid, Spain; (G.V.); (R.P.)
- Condensed Matter Physics Center (IFIMAC), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, E-28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Alberto Marín-González
- Department of Macromolecular Structures, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Cantoblanco, E-28049 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Ruben Perez
- Departamento de Física Teórica de la Materia Condensada, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, E-28049 Madrid, Spain; (G.V.); (R.P.)
- Condensed Matter Physics Center (IFIMAC), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, E-28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Andrea Franceschini
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zürich, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland; (A.K.); (M.S.); (R.V.); (M.B.); (M.A.); (H.V.T.); (A.F.); (C.v.M.); (S.H.)
- Center for Genomic Science of IIT@SEMM, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 20139 Milano, Italy
- Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Christian von Mering
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zürich, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland; (A.K.); (M.S.); (R.V.); (M.B.); (M.A.); (H.V.T.); (A.F.); (C.v.M.); (S.H.)
- Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Silvio Hemmi
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zürich, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland; (A.K.); (M.S.); (R.V.); (M.B.); (M.A.); (H.V.T.); (A.F.); (C.v.M.); (S.H.)
| | - Urs F. Greber
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zürich, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland; (A.K.); (M.S.); (R.V.); (M.B.); (M.A.); (H.V.T.); (A.F.); (C.v.M.); (S.H.)
- Correspondence:
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Xu X, Zhang QY, Chu XY, Quan Y, Lv BM, Zhang HY. Facilitating Antiviral Drug Discovery Using Genetic and Evolutionary Knowledge. Viruses 2021; 13:v13112117. [PMID: 34834924 PMCID: PMC8626054 DOI: 10.3390/v13112117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2021] [Revised: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the course of human history, billions of people worldwide have been infected by various viruses. Despite rapid progress in the development of biomedical techniques, it is still a significant challenge to find promising new antiviral targets and drugs. In the past, antiviral drugs mainly targeted viral proteins when they were used as part of treatment strategies. Since the virus mutation rate is much faster than that of the host, such drugs feature drug resistance and narrow-spectrum antiviral problems. Therefore, the targeting of host molecules has gradually become an important area of research for the development of antiviral drugs. In recent years, rapid advances in high-throughput sequencing techniques have enabled numerous genetic studies (such as genome-wide association studies (GWAS), clustered regularly interspersed short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) screening, etc.) for human diseases, providing valuable genetic and evolutionary resources. Furthermore, it has been revealed that successful drug targets exhibit similar genetic and evolutionary features, which are of great value in identifying promising drug targets and discovering new drugs. Considering these developments, in this article the authors propose a host-targeted antiviral drug discovery strategy based on knowledge of genetics and evolution. We first comprehensively summarized the genetic, subcellular location, and evolutionary features of the human genes that have been successfully used as antiviral targets. Next, the summarized features were used to screen novel druggable antiviral targets and to find potential antiviral drugs, in an attempt to promote the discovery of new antiviral drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Qing-Ye Zhang
- Correspondence: (Q.-Y.Z.); (H.-Y.Z.); Tel.: +86-27-8728-0877 (H.-Y.Z.)
| | | | | | | | - Hong-Yu Zhang
- Correspondence: (Q.-Y.Z.); (H.-Y.Z.); Tel.: +86-27-8728-0877 (H.-Y.Z.)
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Tan KS, Andiappan AK, Lee B, Yan Y, Liu J, Tang SA, Lum J, He TT, Ong YK, Thong M, Lim HF, Choi HW, Rotzschke O, Chow VT, Wang DY. RNA Sequencing of H3N2 Influenza Virus-Infected Human Nasal Epithelial Cells from Multiple Subjects Reveals Molecular Pathways Associated with Tissue Injury and Complications. Cells 2019; 8:cells8090986. [PMID: 31461941 PMCID: PMC6770044 DOI: 10.3390/cells8090986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2019] [Revised: 08/15/2019] [Accepted: 08/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The human nasal epithelium is the primary site of exposure to influenza virus, the initiator of host responses to influenza and the resultant pathologies. Influenza virus may cause serious respiratory infection resulting in major complications, as well as severe impairment of the airways. Here, we elucidated the global transcriptomic changes during H3N2 infection of human nasal epithelial cells from multiple individuals. Using RNA sequencing, we characterized the differentially-expressed genes and pathways associated with changes occurring at the nasal epithelium following infection. We used in vitro differentiated human nasal epithelial cell culture model derived from seven different donors who had no concurrent history of viral infections. Statistical analysis highlighted strong transcriptomic signatures significantly associated with 24 and 48 h after infection, but not at the earlier 8-h time point. In particular, we found that the influenza infection induced in the nasal epithelium early and altered responses in interferon gamma signaling, B-cell signaling, apoptosis, necrosis, smooth muscle proliferation, and metabolic alterations. These molecular events initiated at the infected nasal epithelium may potentially adversely impact the airway, and thus the genes we identified could serve as potential diagnostic biomarkers or therapeutic targets for influenza infection and associated disease management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Sen Tan
- Department of Otolaryngology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119228, Singapore
| | | | - Bernett Lee
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), A*STAR, Singapore 138648, Singapore
| | - Yan Yan
- Department of Otolaryngology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119228, Singapore
- Center for Interventional Medicine, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519000, China
| | - Jing Liu
- Department of Otolaryngology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119228, Singapore
| | - See Aik Tang
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), A*STAR, Singapore 138648, Singapore
| | - Josephine Lum
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), A*STAR, Singapore 138648, Singapore
| | - Ting Ting He
- Department of Otolaryngology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119228, Singapore
| | - Yew Kwang Ong
- Department of Otolaryngology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119228, Singapore
| | - Mark Thong
- Department of Otolaryngology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119228, Singapore
| | - Hui Fang Lim
- Division of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, National University Hospital, Singapore 119074, Singapore
- Department of Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117597, Singapore
| | - Hyung Won Choi
- Department of Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117597, Singapore
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, A*STAR, Singapore 138673, Singapore
| | - Olaf Rotzschke
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), A*STAR, Singapore 138648, Singapore
| | - Vincent T Chow
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117545, Singapore.
| | - De Yun Wang
- Department of Otolaryngology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119228, Singapore.
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Influenza-Omics and the Host Response: Recent Advances and Future Prospects. Pathogens 2017; 6:pathogens6020025. [PMID: 28604586 PMCID: PMC5488659 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens6020025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2017] [Revised: 06/07/2017] [Accepted: 06/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A viruses (IAV) continually evolve and have the capacity to cause global pandemics. Because IAV represents an ongoing threat, identifying novel therapies and host innate immune factors that contribute to IAV pathogenesis is of considerable interest. This review summarizes the relevant literature as it relates to global host responses to influenza infection at both the proteome and transcriptome level. The various-omics infection systems that include but are not limited to ferrets, mice, pigs, and even the controlled infection of humans are reviewed. Discussion focuses on recent advances, remaining challenges, and knowledge gaps as it relates to influenza-omics infection outcomes.
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Field SS. Reasons for influenza vaccination underutilization: A case-control study. Am J Infect Control 2016; 44:1084-1088. [PMID: 27692087 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2016.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2016] [Revised: 05/19/2016] [Accepted: 05/19/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Influenza vaccines are underused. METHODS Most (131/140) patients from a pediatric practice who were tested for influenza in the 2012-2013 season were enrolled. Medical records plus questionnaires determined vaccine and past disease histories and influenza vaccine attitudes. Influenza-negative tested cases (n = 65) and negative controls (n = 110) closely age-matched to 55 test-positive cases were compared with influenza-positive cases (n = 66) regarding prior influenza, vaccine efficacy, and limited vaccine season conflicting with birth dates and preventative visit timing to determine possible validity of reasons given for underutilization. RESULTS The most common parental reason for not vaccinating was lack of perceived need. History of previous influenza was significantly (P < .0001) associated with disease. Live attenuated vaccine rates were greater in controls than in influenza patients for ages 2-18 years (P < .005) and for ages 6-18 years (P < .0001), whereas injectable vaccine rates were not (P = .30 and P = .60, respectively). Most positive cases (59%) and controls (89%) had no prior influenza. CONCLUSIONS Prior influenza disease may be a risk factor for infection that could influence vaccination benefit. Live attenuated influenza vaccine outperformed trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine. Limited disease experience in individuals with low influenza vaccination rates, along with vaccine efficacy limitations, lends validity to some underutilization.
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Pulloor NK, Nair S, Kostic AD, Bist P, Weaver JD, Riley AM, Tyagi R, Uchil PD, York JD, Snyder SH, García-Sastre A, Potter BVL, Lin R, Shears SB, Xavier RJ, Krishnan MN. Human genome-wide RNAi screen identifies an essential role for inositol pyrophosphates in Type-I interferon response. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1003981. [PMID: 24586175 PMCID: PMC3937324 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2013] [Accepted: 01/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The pattern recognition receptor RIG-I is critical for Type-I interferon production. However, the global regulation of RIG-I signaling is only partially understood. Using a human genome-wide RNAi-screen, we identified 226 novel regulatory proteins of RIG-I mediated interferon-β production. Furthermore, the screen identified a metabolic pathway that synthesizes the inositol pyrophosphate 1-IP7 as a previously unrecognized positive regulator of interferon production. Detailed genetic and biochemical experiments demonstrated that the kinase activities of IPPK, PPIP5K1 and PPIP5K2 (which convert IP5 to1-IP7) were critical for both interferon induction, and the control of cellular infection by Sendai and influenza A viruses. Conversely, ectopically expressed inositol pyrophosphate-hydrolases DIPPs attenuated interferon transcription. Mechanistic experiments in intact cells revealed that the expression of IPPK, PPIP5K1 and PPIP5K2 was needed for the phosphorylation and activation of IRF3, a transcription factor for interferon. The addition of purified individual inositol pyrophosphates to a cell free reconstituted RIG-I signaling assay further identified 1-IP7 as an essential component required for IRF3 activation. The inositol pyrophosphate may act by β-phosphoryl transfer, since its action was not recapitulated by a synthetic phosphonoacetate analogue of 1-IP7. This study thus identified several novel regulators of RIG-I, and a new role for inositol pyrophosphates in augmenting innate immune responses to viral infection that may have therapeutic applications. The innate immune system is critical for viral infection control by host organisms. The type I interferons are a family of major antiviral cytokines produced upon the activation of innate immune pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) by viruses. The RIG-I is a major PRR that uniquely detects RNA viruses within the cytoplasm. In this study, we aimed to discover cellular genes and pathways that play regulatory roles in the transcriptional induction of type I interferon-β (IFNβ). Using a human genome wide RNA interference (RNAi) screening, we identified 226 genes whose expression is important for proper IFNβ production. Through bioinformatics-based mining of the RNAi screen results, we identified that the cellular pathway synthesizing inositol pyrophosphates, a class of inositol phosphates with high-energy diphosphates, is a key positive regulator of RIG-I mediated IFNβ production. The kinases IPPK, PPIP5K1 and PPIP5K2, that synthesize inositol pyrophosphate 1-IP7, regulated IFNβ response in a catalytically dependent manner. Mechanistic studies identified that 1-IP7 synthesis pathway was needed for efficient phosphorylation of IRF3. The DIPP family of inositol pyrophosphate hydrolases negatively regulated the IFNβ response, upon ectopic expression. In summary, this study generated a global view of the regulation of RIG-I signaling, and identified inositol pyrophosphates as important regulators of antiviral response.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sajith Nair
- Program on Emerging Infectious Diseases, DUKE-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore
| | - Aleksandar D. Kostic
- Center for Computational and Integrative Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Pradeep Bist
- Program on Emerging Infectious Diseases, DUKE-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore
| | - Jeremy D. Weaver
- Inositol Signaling Group, Laboratory of Signal Transduction, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, NIH, DHHS, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Andrew M. Riley
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath, United Kingdom
| | - Richa Tyagi
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience and Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Pradeep D. Uchil
- Section of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - John D. York
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Solomon H. Snyder
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience and Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Adolfo García-Sastre
- Department of Microbiology, Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Barry V. L. Potter
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath, United Kingdom
| | - Rongtuan Lin
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, Canada
| | - Stephen B. Shears
- Inositol Signaling Group, Laboratory of Signal Transduction, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, NIH, DHHS, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Ramnik J. Xavier
- Center for Computational and Integrative Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Manoj N. Krishnan
- Program on Emerging Infectious Diseases, DUKE-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore
- * E-mail:
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Alawieh A, Zaraket FA, Li JL, Mondello S, Nokkari A, Razafsha M, Fadlallah B, Boustany RM, Kobeissy FH. Systems biology, bioinformatics, and biomarkers in neuropsychiatry. Front Neurosci 2012; 6:187. [PMID: 23269912 PMCID: PMC3529307 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2012.00187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2012] [Accepted: 12/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Although neuropsychiatric (NP) disorders are among the top causes of disability worldwide with enormous financial costs, they can still be viewed as part of the most complex disorders that are of unknown etiology and incomprehensible pathophysiology. The complexity of NP disorders arises from their etiologic heterogeneity and the concurrent influence of environmental and genetic factors. In addition, the absence of rigid boundaries between the normal and diseased state, the remarkable overlap of symptoms among conditions, the high inter-individual and inter-population variations, and the absence of discriminative molecular and/or imaging biomarkers for these diseases makes difficult an accurate diagnosis. Along with the complexity of NP disorders, the practice of psychiatry suffers from a "top-down" method that relied on symptom checklists. Although checklist diagnoses cost less in terms of time and money, they are less accurate than a comprehensive assessment. Thus, reliable and objective diagnostic tools such as biomarkers are needed that can detect and discriminate among NP disorders. The real promise in understanding the pathophysiology of NP disorders lies in bringing back psychiatry to its biological basis in a systemic approach which is needed given the NP disorders' complexity to understand their normal functioning and response to perturbation. This approach is implemented in the systems biology discipline that enables the discovery of disease-specific NP biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutics. Systems biology involves the use of sophisticated computer software "omics"-based discovery tools and advanced performance computational techniques in order to understand the behavior of biological systems and identify diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers specific for NP disorders together with new targets of therapeutics. In this review, we try to shed light on the need of systems biology, bioinformatics, and biomarkers in neuropsychiatry, and illustrate how the knowledge gained through these methodologies can be translated into clinical use providing clinicians with improved ability to diagnose, manage, and treat NP patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Alawieh
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, American University of Beirut Beirut, Lebanon
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Abstract
Influenza has a long history of causing morbidity and mortality in the human population through routine seasonal spread and global pandemics. The high mutation rate of the RNA genome of the influenza virus, combined with assortment of its multiple genomic segments, promote antigenic diversity and new subtypes, allowing the virus to evade vaccines and become resistant to antiviral drugs. There is thus a continuing need for new anti-influenza therapy using novel targets and creative strategies. In this review, we summarize prospective future therapeutic regimens based on recent molecular and genomic discoveries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sailen Barik
- Center for Gene Regulation in Health and Disease, Cleveland State University, 2351 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio 44115, USA.
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