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Radhakrishnan S, Afsal EM, Anitha PM, Perumbally HA, Ajitha BK, Pulloor NK, Rafeeq Ali KP, Ajayan KV, Kanyadath AM, Verkoli AS, Sukumaran C, Nazeer HA, Sherif M, Navya V, Nishitha NK, Sabir VT, Kottayi S, Suchina EK, Thashreefa TK, Vaheed KA, Kulooth F, Suvanish Kumar VS, Chandran P, Thekkedath U, Radhakrishnan C. Performance & clinical utility of oropharyngeal versus nasopharyngeal swabs in COVID-19. Indian J Med Res 2022; 156:478-483. [PMID: 36510889 PMCID: PMC10101371 DOI: 10.4103/ijmr.ijmr_2275_21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background & objectives The oropharyngeal (OP) and nasopharyngeal (NP) swab samples are the most recommended clinical specimens for detecting SARS-CoV-2 in an individual through the quantitative real-time reverse-transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR) method. The primary objective of this study was to compare the performance of NP and OP swabs for the diagnosis of COVID-19 among 2250 concomitant samples (1125 NP + 1125 OP) using rRT-PCR test. Methods This study was conducted at a tertiary care hospital in southern India. The study compared the specificity and efficacy of the two samples (NP & OP swabs) in 1125 individuals suspected having COVID-19 infection. The rRT-PCR values from all the samples were compared based on gender, age group and viral load. The differences between unmatched proportion and matched proportion were analysed. Agreement between the two methods was assessed using Kappa statistic. Absolute sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values (PPV and NPV) for OP and NP swabs were analysed. Results The study identified a fair degree of agreement between OP and NP swabs in diagnosis of COVID-19 (kappa = 0.275, P <0.001). There was also a fair degree of agreement between NP and OP swabs irrespective of gender, age or duration of symptoms. NP swabs had better sensitivity and NPV as compared to OP swabs, however, specificity and PPV were 100 per cent for both. Interpretation & conclusions The present study showed that both OP and NP swabs had similar sensitivity and specificity for predicting the presence of SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suma Radhakrishnan
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Government Medical College, Manjeri, Kerala, India
| | - E Muhammed Afsal
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Government Medical College, Manjeri, Kerala, India
| | - P M Anitha
- Microbiology, Government Medical College, Manjeri, Kerala, India
| | | | - B K Ajitha
- Department of Statistics, Government Medical College, Kozhikode, Kerala, India
| | | | - K P Rafeeq Ali
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, General Hospital, Manjeri, Kerala, India
| | - K V Ajayan
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Government Medical College, Manjeri, Kerala, India
| | | | | | - Chinchu Sukumaran
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Government Medical College, Manjeri, Kerala, India
| | - Hafeefa Abdul Nazeer
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Government Medical College, Manjeri, Kerala, India
| | - Mohammed Sherif
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Government Medical College, Manjeri, Kerala, India
| | - V Navya
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Government Medical College, Manjeri, Kerala, India
| | - N K Nishitha
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Government Medical College, Manjeri, Kerala, India
| | - V T Sabir
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, General Hospital, Manjeri, Kerala, India
| | - Shakeeber Kottayi
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, General Hospital, Manjeri, Kerala, India
| | - E K Suchina
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Government Medical College, Manjeri, Kerala, India
| | - T K Thashreefa
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Government Medical College, Manjeri, Kerala, India
| | - K Abdul Vaheed
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, General Hospital, Manjeri, Kerala, India
| | - Fathima Kulooth
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Government Medical College, Manjeri, Kerala, India
| | | | - Praseeda Chandran
- Community Medicine, Government Medical College, Manjeri, Kerala, India
| | - Usha Thekkedath
- UCSF Surgical Innovation, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Chandni Radhakrishnan
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Government Medical College, Kozhikode, Kerala, India
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Bist P, Cheong WS, Ng A, Dikshit N, Kim BH, Pulloor NK, Khameneh HJ, Hedl M, Shenoy AR, Balamuralidhar V, Malik NBA, Hong M, Neutzner A, Chin KC, Kobayashi KS, Bertoletti A, Mortellaro A, Abraham C, MacMicking JD, Xavier RJ, Sukumaran B. Erratum: E3 Ubiquitin ligase ZNRF4 negatively regulates NOD2 signalling and induces tolerance to MDP. Nat Commun 2017; 8:16141. [PMID: 28820178 PMCID: PMC5562926 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms16141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
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Bist P, Cheong WS, Ng A, Dikshit N, Kim BH, Pulloor NK, Khameneh HJ, Hedl M, Shenoy AR, Balamuralidhar V, Malik NBA, Hong M, Neutzner A, Chin KC, Kobayashi KS, Bertoletti A, Mortellaro A, Abraham C, MacMicking JD, Xavier RJ, Sukumaran B. E3 Ubiquitin ligase ZNRF4 negatively regulates NOD2 signalling and induces tolerance to MDP. Nat Commun 2017; 8:15865. [PMID: 28656966 PMCID: PMC5493756 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms15865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2016] [Accepted: 05/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Optimal regulation of the innate immune receptor nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-containing protein 2 (NOD2) is essential for controlling bacterial infections and inflammatory disorders. Chronic NOD2 stimulation induces non-responsiveness to restimulation, termed NOD2-induced tolerance. Although the levels of the NOD2 adaptor, RIP2, are reported to regulate both acute and chronic NOD2 signalling, how RIP2 levels are modulated is unclear. Here we show that ZNRF4 induces K48-linked ubiquitination of RIP2 and promotes RIP2 degradation. A fraction of RIP2 localizes to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), where it interacts with ZNRF4 under either 55 unstimulated and muramyl dipeptide-stimulated conditions. Znrf4 knockdown monocytes have sustained nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) activation, and Znrf4 knockdown mice have reduced NOD2-induced tolerance and more effective control of Listeria monocytogenes infection. Our results thus demonstrate E3-ubiquitin ligase ZNRF4-mediated RIP2 degradation as a negative regulatory mechanism of NOD2-induced NF-κB, cytokine and anti-bacterial responses in vitro and in vivo, and identify a ZNRF4-RIP2 axis of fine-tuning NOD2 signalling to promote protective host immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pradeep Bist
- Program in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore
| | - Wan Shoo Cheong
- Program in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore
| | - Aylwin Ng
- Gastrointestinal Unit, Center for Computational and Integrative Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, USA
- Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Neha Dikshit
- Program in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore
| | - Bae-Hoon Kim
- HHMI, Yale Systems Biology Institute, Departments of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 065207, USA
| | - Niyas Kudukkil Pulloor
- Program in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore
| | - Hanif Javanmard Khameneh
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore 138648, Singapore
| | - Matija Hedl
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA
| | - Avinash R. Shenoy
- HHMI, Yale Systems Biology Institute, Departments of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 065207, USA
- Medical Research Council Centre for Molecular Bacteriology & Infection, Armstrong Rd, Imperial College, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | | | - Najib Bin Abdul Malik
- Program in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore
| | - Michelle Hong
- Program in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore
| | - Albert Neutzner
- Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel, Basel 4031, Switzerland
| | - Keh-Chuang Chin
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore 138648, Singapore
- Department of Physiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, Singapore 117593, Singapore
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, A*STAR, Singapore 138673, Singapore
| | - Koichi S. Kobayashi
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Texas A&M Health Science Centre, College Station, Texas 77843-1114, USA
| | - Antonio Bertoletti
- Program in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore
| | - Alessandra Mortellaro
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore 138648, Singapore
| | - Clara Abraham
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA
| | - John D. MacMicking
- HHMI, Yale Systems Biology Institute, Departments of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 065207, USA
| | - Ramnik J. Xavier
- Gastrointestinal Unit, Center for Computational and Integrative Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, USA
- Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Bindu Sukumaran
- Program in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore
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Dikshit N, Bist P, Fenlon SN, Pulloor NK, Chua CEL, Scidmore MA, Carlyon JA, Tang BL, Chen SL, Sukumaran B. Intracellular Uropathogenic E. coli Exploits Host Rab35 for Iron Acquisition and Survival within Urinary Bladder Cells. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1005083. [PMID: 26248231 PMCID: PMC4527590 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2015] [Accepted: 07/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Recurrent urinary tract infections (UTIs) caused by uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) are common and morbid infections with limited therapeutic options. Previous studies have demonstrated that persistent intracellular infection of bladder epithelial cells (BEC) by UPEC contributes to recurrent UTI in mouse models of infection. However, the mechanisms employed by UPEC to survive within BEC are incompletely understood. In this study we aimed to understand the role of host vesicular trafficking proteins in the intracellular survival of UPEC. Using a cell culture model of intracellular UPEC infection, we found that the small GTPase Rab35 facilitates UPEC survival in UPEC-containing vacuoles (UCV) within BEC. Rab35 plays a role in endosomal recycling of transferrin receptor (TfR), the key protein responsible for transferrin-mediated cellular iron uptake. UPEC enhance the expression of both Rab35 and TfR and recruit these proteins to the UCV, thereby supplying UPEC with the essential nutrient iron. Accordingly, Rab35 or TfR depleted cells showed significantly lower intracellular iron levels and reduced ability to support UPEC survival. In the absence of Rab35, UPEC are preferentially trafficked to degradative lysosomes and killed. Furthermore, in an in vivo murine model of persistent intracellular infection, Rab35 also colocalizes with intracellular UPEC. We propose a model in which UPEC subverts two different vesicular trafficking pathways (endosomal recycling and degradative lysosomal fusion) by modulating Rab35, thereby simultaneously enhancing iron acquisition and avoiding lysosomal degradation of the UCV within bladder epithelial cells. Our findings reveal a novel survival mechanism of intracellular UPEC and suggest a potential avenue for therapeutic intervention against recurrent UTI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neha Dikshit
- Program in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore
| | - Pradeep Bist
- Program in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore
| | - Shannon N Fenlon
- Infectious Diseases Group, Genome Institute of Singapore, Singapore; Faculty of Medicine and Institute for Life Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | | | - Christelle En Lin Chua
- Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Marci A Scidmore
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
| | - Jason A Carlyon
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Bor Luen Tang
- Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Swaine L Chen
- Infectious Diseases Group, Genome Institute of Singapore, Singapore; Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Bindu Sukumaran
- Program in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore
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Sukumaran B, bist P, Ng A, Kim BH, Kudukkil Pulloor N, Khameneh H, Hedl M, Dikshit N, Shenoy A, Balamuralidhar V, Hong M, Neutzner A, Chin KC, Kobayashi K, Bertoletti A, Mortellaro A, Abraham C, MacMicking J, Xavier R. Ubiquitination-mediated regulation of RIP2 in NOD2 signaling and MDP tolerance induction (INM2P.354). The Journal of Immunology 2015. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.194.supp.126.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
The cytoplasmic innate immune receptor NOD2 is required for antibacterial immune response. Optimal regulation of NOD2 is essential for controlling bacterial infections and inflammatory disorders. Recently, ubiquitination has emerged as an important posttranslational modification required to control NOD2-signaling. Yet, the specific ubiquitination mechanisms that negatively regulate NOD2-signalling during both acute and chronic (e.g., MDP-tolerance) stimulations are incompletely understood. Through a human genome-wide-RNA-interference screen, we identified an E3-ubiquitin ligase {termed as NOD2 Signaling Regulator (NSR)} as a novel negative-regulator of NOD2-mediated NF-KB, cytokine, and antibacterial responses. Mechanistically, NSR induced K48-linked ubiquitination of RIP2 (NOD2-adaptor), and promoted RIP2 degradation through the endoplasmic-reticulum-associated-degradation (ERAD) pathway. We identified the endoplasmic reticulum as a new regulatory site for NOD2-signaling, where RIP2 was localized and interacted with NSR and ERAD. In vivo NSR knock-down in mice resulted in increased NOD2-mediated NF-KB activation. NSR-mediated RIP2 degradation was critically required for MDP-tolerance induction both in vivo and in vitro. Thus, this study unravels a key molecular mechanism by which NOD2 pathway is attenuated, and provide new directions to understand the role of NOD2 pathway in both infectious and inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - pradeep bist
- 1DUKE-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Aylwin Ng
- 2Center for Computational and Integrative Biology, and Gastrointestinal Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA, Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA, Boston, MA
| | - Bae Hoon Kim
- 3Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA 06520, New haven, CT
| | | | - Hanif Khameneh
- 4Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore 138648, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Matija Hedl
- 5Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, USA 06520, New haven, CT
| | - Neha Dikshit
- 1DUKE-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Avinash Shenoy
- 3Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA 06520, New haven, CT
| | | | - Michelle Hong
- 1DUKE-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Albert Neutzner
- 6Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel, Basel 4031, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Keh-Chuang Chin
- 4Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore 138648, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Koichi Kobayashi
- 7Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Texas A&M Health Science Centre, USA 77843-1114, Texas, TX
| | | | - Alessandra Mortellaro
- 4Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore 138648, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Clara Abraham
- 5Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, USA 06520, New haven, CT
| | - John MacMicking
- 3Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA 06520, New haven, CT
| | - Ramnik Xavier
- 2Center for Computational and Integrative Biology, and Gastrointestinal Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA, Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA, Boston, MA
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6
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Pulloor NK, Nair S, Kostic AD, Bist P, Weaver JD, Riley AM, Tyagi R, Uchil PD, York JD, Snyder SH, García-Sastre A, Potter BVL, Lin R, Shears SB, Xavier RJ, Krishnan MN. Human genome-wide RNAi screen identifies an essential role for inositol pyrophosphates in Type-I interferon response. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1003981. [PMID: 24586175 PMCID: PMC3937324 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2013] [Accepted: 01/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The pattern recognition receptor RIG-I is critical for Type-I interferon production. However, the global regulation of RIG-I signaling is only partially understood. Using a human genome-wide RNAi-screen, we identified 226 novel regulatory proteins of RIG-I mediated interferon-β production. Furthermore, the screen identified a metabolic pathway that synthesizes the inositol pyrophosphate 1-IP7 as a previously unrecognized positive regulator of interferon production. Detailed genetic and biochemical experiments demonstrated that the kinase activities of IPPK, PPIP5K1 and PPIP5K2 (which convert IP5 to1-IP7) were critical for both interferon induction, and the control of cellular infection by Sendai and influenza A viruses. Conversely, ectopically expressed inositol pyrophosphate-hydrolases DIPPs attenuated interferon transcription. Mechanistic experiments in intact cells revealed that the expression of IPPK, PPIP5K1 and PPIP5K2 was needed for the phosphorylation and activation of IRF3, a transcription factor for interferon. The addition of purified individual inositol pyrophosphates to a cell free reconstituted RIG-I signaling assay further identified 1-IP7 as an essential component required for IRF3 activation. The inositol pyrophosphate may act by β-phosphoryl transfer, since its action was not recapitulated by a synthetic phosphonoacetate analogue of 1-IP7. This study thus identified several novel regulators of RIG-I, and a new role for inositol pyrophosphates in augmenting innate immune responses to viral infection that may have therapeutic applications. The innate immune system is critical for viral infection control by host organisms. The type I interferons are a family of major antiviral cytokines produced upon the activation of innate immune pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) by viruses. The RIG-I is a major PRR that uniquely detects RNA viruses within the cytoplasm. In this study, we aimed to discover cellular genes and pathways that play regulatory roles in the transcriptional induction of type I interferon-β (IFNβ). Using a human genome wide RNA interference (RNAi) screening, we identified 226 genes whose expression is important for proper IFNβ production. Through bioinformatics-based mining of the RNAi screen results, we identified that the cellular pathway synthesizing inositol pyrophosphates, a class of inositol phosphates with high-energy diphosphates, is a key positive regulator of RIG-I mediated IFNβ production. The kinases IPPK, PPIP5K1 and PPIP5K2, that synthesize inositol pyrophosphate 1-IP7, regulated IFNβ response in a catalytically dependent manner. Mechanistic studies identified that 1-IP7 synthesis pathway was needed for efficient phosphorylation of IRF3. The DIPP family of inositol pyrophosphate hydrolases negatively regulated the IFNβ response, upon ectopic expression. In summary, this study generated a global view of the regulation of RIG-I signaling, and identified inositol pyrophosphates as important regulators of antiviral response.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sajith Nair
- Program on Emerging Infectious Diseases, DUKE-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore
| | - Aleksandar D. Kostic
- Center for Computational and Integrative Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Pradeep Bist
- Program on Emerging Infectious Diseases, DUKE-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore
| | - Jeremy D. Weaver
- Inositol Signaling Group, Laboratory of Signal Transduction, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, NIH, DHHS, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Andrew M. Riley
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath, United Kingdom
| | - Richa Tyagi
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience and Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Pradeep D. Uchil
- Section of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - John D. York
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Solomon H. Snyder
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience and Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Adolfo García-Sastre
- Department of Microbiology, Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Barry V. L. Potter
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath, United Kingdom
| | - Rongtuan Lin
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, Canada
| | - Stephen B. Shears
- Inositol Signaling Group, Laboratory of Signal Transduction, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, NIH, DHHS, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Ramnik J. Xavier
- Center for Computational and Integrative Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Manoj N. Krishnan
- Program on Emerging Infectious Diseases, DUKE-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore
- * E-mail:
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