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Zhao G, Wang Y, Xing S, Jiang Y, Ding J, Cai Y, Ma P, Miao H, Fang Y, Jiang N, Cui D, Yu Y, Tang Q, Wang S, Li N. Exosome-based anticancer vaccines: From Bench to bedside. Cancer Lett 2024; 595:216989. [PMID: 38825162 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2024.216989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2024] [Revised: 05/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/04/2024]
Abstract
Exosomes, a subset of extracellular vesicles, are released by all active cells and play a crucial role in intercellular communications. Exosomes could facilitate the transfer of various biologically active molecules, such as DNA, non-coding RNAs, and proteins, from donor to recipient cells, thereby participating in diverse biological and pathological processes. Besides, exosomes possess unique characteristics, including non-toxicity, low-immunogenicity, and stability within biological systems, rendering them highly advantageous for cancer drug development. Meanwhile, accumulating evidence suggests that exosomes originating from tumor cells and immune cells possess distinct composition profiles that play a direct role in anticancer immunotherapy. Of note, exosomes can transport their contents to specific cells, thereby exerting an impact on the phenotype and immune-regulatory functions of targeted cells. Therapeutic cancer vaccines, an emerging therapeutics of immunotherapy, could enhance antitumor immune responses by delivering a large number of tumor antigens, thereby augmenting the immune response against tumor cells. Therefore, the therapeutic rationale of cancer vaccines and exosome-based immunotherapy are almost similar to some extent, but some challenges have hindered their application in the clinical setting. Here, in this review, we first summarized the biogenesis, structure, compositions, and biological functions of exosomes. Then we described the roles of exosomes in cancer biology, particularly in tumor immunity. We also comprehensively reviewed current exosome-based anticancer vaccine development and we divided them into three types. Finally, we give some insights into clinical translation and clinical trial progress of exosome-based anticancer vaccines for future direction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guo Zhao
- Clinical Trial Center, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Yuning Wang
- Clinical Trial Center, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Shujun Xing
- Clinical Trial Center, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Yale Jiang
- Clinical Trial Center, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Jiatong Ding
- Clinical Trial Center, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Yuanting Cai
- Clinical Trial Center, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Peiwen Ma
- Clinical Trial Center, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Huilei Miao
- Clinical Trial Center, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Yuan Fang
- Clinical Trial Center, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Ning Jiang
- Clinical Trial Center, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Dandan Cui
- Clinical Trial Center, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Yue Yu
- Clinical Trial Center, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Qiyu Tang
- Clinical Trial Center, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Shuhang Wang
- Clinical Trial Center, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China.
| | - Ning Li
- Clinical Trial Center, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China.
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Bandini S, Ulivi P, Rossi T. Extracellular Vesicles, Circulating Tumor Cells, and Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors: Hints and Promises. Cells 2024; 13:337. [PMID: 38391950 PMCID: PMC10887032 DOI: 10.3390/cells13040337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Revised: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) therapy has revolutionized the treatment of cancer, in particular lung cancer, while the introduction of predictive biomarkers from liquid biopsies has emerged as a promising tool to achieve an effective and personalized therapy response. Important progress has also been made in the molecular characterization of extracellular vesicles (EVs) and circulating tumor cells (CTCs), highlighting their tremendous potential in modulating the tumor microenvironment, acting on immunomodulatory pathways, and setting up the pre-metastatic niche. Surface antigens on EVs and CTCs have proved to be particularly useful in the case of the characterization of potential immune escape mechanisms through the expression of immunosuppressive ligands or the transport of cargos that may mitigate the antitumor immune function. On the other hand, novel approaches, to increase the expression of immunostimulatory molecules or cargo contents that can enhance the immune response, offer premium options in combinatorial clinical strategies for precision immunotherapy. In this review, we discuss recent advances in the identification of immune checkpoints using EVs and CTCs, their potential applications as predictive biomarkers for ICI therapy, and their prospective use as innovative clinical tools, considering that CTCs have already been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for clinical use, but providing good reasons to intensify the research on both.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Paola Ulivi
- Biosciences Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Romagnolo per lo Studio dei Tumori (IRST) “Dino Amadori”, 47014 Meldola, Italy; (S.B.); (T.R.)
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Li J, Huang F, Jiang Y, Zhao J, Wan J, Hao S. A novel costimulatory molecule gene-modified leukemia cell-derived exosome-targeted CD4 + T cell vaccine efficiently enhances anti-leukemia immunity. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1043484. [PMID: 36466863 PMCID: PMC9709463 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1043484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Previous studies demonstrated that CD4+ T cells can uptake tumor antigen-pulsed dendritic cell-derived exosomes (DEXO), which harbor tumor antigen peptide/pMHC I complex and costimulatory molecules and show potent effects on inducing antitumor immunity. However, in preliminary study, CD4+ T cells targeted by leukemia cell-derived exosomes (LEXs) did not show the expected effects in inducing effective anti-leukemia immunity, indicating that LEX is poorly immunogenetic largely due to an inadequate costimulatory capacity. Therefore, LEX-based anti-leukemia vaccines need to be optimized. In this study, we constructed a novel LEX-based vaccine by combining CD4+ T cells with costimulatory molecules gene-modified LEXs, which harbor upregulated CD80 and CD86, and the anti-leukemia immunity of CD80 and CD86 gene-modified LEX-targeted CD4+ T cells was investigated. We used lentiviral vectors encoding CD80 and CD86 to successfully transduced the L1210 leukemia cells, and the expression of CD80 and CD86 was remarkably upregulated in leukemia cells. The LEXs highly expressing CD80 and CD86 were obtained from the supernatants of gene-transduced leukemia cells. Our data have shown that LEX-CD8086 could promote CD4+ T cell proliferation and Th1 cytokine secretion more efficiently than control LEXs. Moreover, CD4+ TLEX-CD8086 expressed the acquired exosomal costimulatory molecules. With acquired costimulatory molecules, CD4+ TLEX-CD8086 can act as APCs and are capable of directly stimulating the leukemia cell antigen-specific CD8+ CTL response. This response was higher in potency compared to that noted by the other formulations. Furthermore, the animal study revealed that the CD4+ TLEX-CD8086 significantly inhibited tumor growth and prolonged survival of tumor-bearing mice than other formulations did in both protective and therapeutic models. In conclusion, this study revealed that CD4+ TLEX-CD8086 could effectively induce more potential anti-leukemia immunity than LEX-CD8086 alone, suggesting that the utilization of a costimulatory molecule gene-modified leukemia cell-derived exosome-targeted CD4+ T cell vaccine may have promising potential for leukemia immunotherapy.
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Khan FH, Reza MJ, Shao YF, Perwez A, Zahra H, Dowlati A, Abbas A. Role of exosomes in lung cancer: A comprehensive insight from immunomodulation to theragnostic applications. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2022; 1877:188776. [PMID: 35961620 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2022.188776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2022] [Revised: 07/18/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes are 30 to 150 nm-diameter lipid bilayer-enclosed extracellular vesicles that enable cell-to-cell communication through secretion and uptake. The exosomal cargoes contain RNA, lipids, proteins, and metabolites which can be delivered to recipient cells in vivo. In a healthy lung, exosomes facilitate interaction between adaptive and innate immunity and help maintain normal lung physiology. However, tumor-derived exosomes in lung cancer (LC) can, on the other hand, restrict immune cell proliferation, cause apoptosis in activated CD8+ T effector cells, reduce natural killer cell activity, obstruct monocyte differentiation, and promote proliferation of myeloid-derived suppressor and regulatory T cells. In addition, exosomes in the tumor microenvironment may also play a critical role in cancer progression and the development of drug resistance. In this review, we aim to comprehensively examine the current updates on the role of exosomes in lung carcinogenesis and their potential application as a diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic tool in lung cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faizan Haider Khan
- Discipline of Pathology, Lambe Institute for Translational Research, School of Medicine, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Malik Johid Reza
- College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68131, USA
| | - Yusra Fatima Shao
- Department of Oncology, Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Ahmad Perwez
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Honey Zahra
- Department of Anatomy, King George's Medical University, Lucknow, UP 226003, India
| | - Afshin Dowlati
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA; University Hospitals Seidman Cancer Center, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA; Developmental Therapeutics Program, Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44116, USA.
| | - Ata Abbas
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA; Developmental Therapeutics Program, Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44116, USA.
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Gurudas Shivji G, Dhar R, Devi A. Role of Exosomes and its emerging therapeutic applications in the pathophysiology of Non-Infectious disease. Biomarkers 2022; 27:534-548. [PMID: 35451890 DOI: 10.1080/1354750x.2022.2067233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes are a type of small Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) and play crucial roles in cancer and other diseases. Exosomes role in various diseases has been studied as they regulate intercellular communication and are obtained from almost any part of the body. Exosomes use is complicated in diseases as they promote pathogenesis but also act as a very good therapeutic agent in most diseases. The presence of a complex molecular cargo consisting of nucleic acids (DNA, RNA, miRNA, siRNA, etc.,) makes it a very good delivery agent and acts as a biomarker for many cancers, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. They can be used to selectively target cells and activate immune cell responses depending on the source obtained. Exosomes based immunotherapy is an area of gaining importance due to the proteins present in them and their specificity to the targeted cells. The role of exosomes in the diagnosis and treatment of non-infectious diseases is discussed in detail in this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gauresh Gurudas Shivji
- Cancer Biology and Stem Cell Biology Laboratory, Department of Genetic Engineering, School of Bioengineering, College of Engineering and Technology, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Potheri, Kattankulathur, Chengalpattu District, Tamilnadu 603203, India
| | - Rajib Dhar
- Cancer Biology and Stem Cell Biology Laboratory, Department of Genetic Engineering, School of Bioengineering, College of Engineering and Technology, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Potheri, Kattankulathur, Chengalpattu District, Tamilnadu 603203, India
| | - Arikketh Devi
- Cancer Biology and Stem Cell Biology Laboratory, Department of Genetic Engineering, School of Bioengineering, College of Engineering and Technology, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Potheri, Kattankulathur, Chengalpattu District, Tamilnadu 603203, India
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6
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Exosomes for Regulation of Immune Responses and Immunotherapy. JOURNAL OF NANOTHERANOSTICS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/jnt3010005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Exosomes are membrane-enveloped nanosized (30–150 nm) extracellular vesicles of endosomal origin produced by almost all cell types and encompass a multitude of functioning biomolecules. Exosomes have been considered crucial players of cell-to-cell communication in physiological and pathological conditions. Accumulating evidence suggests that exosomes can modulate the immune system by delivering a plethora of signals that can either stimulate or suppress immune responses, which have potential applications as immunotherapies for cancer and autoimmune diseases. Here, we discuss the current knowledge about the active biomolecular components of exosomes that contribute to exosomal function in modulating different immune cells and also how these immune cell-derived exosomes play critical roles in immune responses. We further discuss the translational potential of engineered exosomes as immunotherapeutic agents with their advantages over conventional nanocarriers for drug delivery and ongoing clinical trials.
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Asadirad A, Baghaei K, Hashemi SM, Dehnavi S, Ghanbarian H, Mortaz E, Anissian A, Asadzadeh Aghdaei H, Amani D. Dendritic cell immunotherapy with miR-155 enriched tumor-derived exosome suppressed cancer growth and induced antitumor immune responses in murine model of colorectal cancer induced by CT26 cell line. Int Immunopharmacol 2022; 104:108493. [PMID: 35032826 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2021.108493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 12/12/2021] [Accepted: 12/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Nowadays, various strategies are considered to prime Dendritic cells (DCs) with tumor antigens. The tumor cell-derived exosomes are recognized as one of the most efficient strategies for achieving this purpose. In this regard, MicroRNA 155 (miR-155) is employed as one of the most prominent miRNAs, which play substantial roles in DCs maturation and IL-12 production. This study investigates the tumor growth suppression and antitumor effects of DCs primed with miR-155-enriched exosome on the BALB/c murine model of colorectal cancer induced by CT-26 cell lines. Therefore, a holistic framework is proposed for the analysis procedure. In the first stage, miRNA-155 was electroporated into texosomes. In the second stage, bonemarrow-derived DCs were treated with miRNA-155 enriched texosomes. Then, antitumor properties of manipulated DC have been evaluated in the BALB/c mice model of colorectal cancer. After DC immunotherapy, several features have been assessed for each animal, including survival, body weight, tumor volume/size, histopathology, and serum cytokine levels. Also, flow cytometric evaluation has been performed for the spleen and the tumor tissue T-cell subsets. The findings demonstrated that the primed DCs could significantly increase IL-12p70 and IFN-γ in serum and accelerate the differentiation, proliferation, and cytotoxicity effects on the Th and CTL cells. Also, the treatment also increased the infiltration of Th and CTL cells into the tumor microenvironment while decreasing Tregs. This situation causes tumor growth control, and survival improvement. Therefore, DC immunotherapywith miR-155-enriched texosomes can be employed as a the desired approach for inducing antitumor immune responses, controlling tumor growth, and improving survival in mice with colorectal cancer. However, it is essential to perform more investigations to confirm the clinical application of this approach in humans and other types of tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Asadirad
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran; Cancer, Petroleum and Environmental Pollutants Research Center, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Kaveh Baghaei
- Basic and Molecular Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Disorder Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Disease, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Science, Tehran, Iran
| | - Seyed Mahmoud Hashemi
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Tissue Engineering and Applied Cell Sciences, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Urogenital Stem Cell Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sajad Dehnavi
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran; Student Research Committee, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Hossein Ghanbarian
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Research Center, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Esmaeil Mortaz
- Clinical Tuberculosis and Epidemiology Research Center, National Research Institute of Tuberculosis and Lung Diseases (NRITLD), Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Anissian
- Veterinary Pathology Department, Islamic Azad University, Abhar Branch, Abhar, Iran
| | - Hamid Asadzadeh Aghdaei
- Basic and Molecular Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Disorder Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Disease, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Science, Tehran, Iran
| | - Davar Amani
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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Role of tumour-derived exosomes in metastasis. Biomed Pharmacother 2022; 147:112657. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2022.112657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Revised: 01/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
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The Immunomodulation Potential of Exosomes in Tumor Microenvironment. J Immunol Res 2021; 2021:3710372. [PMID: 34616851 PMCID: PMC8490057 DOI: 10.1155/2021/3710372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Exosomes are lipid bilayer particles that originated from almost all types of cells and play an important role in intercellular communication. Tumor-derived exosomes contain large amounts of noncoding RNA, DNA, and proteins, which can be transferred into recipient cells as functional components in exosomes. These exosomal functional constituents depend on the originating cells, and it has been proved that types and numbers of exosomal components differ in cancer patients and healthy individuals. This review summarizes the role of tumor-derived exosomes in immunomodulation and discusses the application of exosomes in immunotherapy in cancers. Overall, exosomes isolated from cancer cells are turned out to promote immune evasion and interfere with immune responses in tumors through inducing apoptosis of CD8+ T cells, facilitating generation of Tregs, suppressing natural killer (NK) cell cytotoxicity, inhibiting maturation and differentiation of monocyte, and enhancing suppressive function of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). Mechanistically, exosomal functional components play a significant role in the immunomodulation in cancers. Moreover, based on the existing studies, exosomes could potentially serve as therapeutic delivery vehicles, noninvasive biomarkers, and immunotherapeutic vaccines for various types of cancers.
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Mkhobongo B, Chandran R, Abrahamse H. The Role of Melanoma Cell-Derived Exosomes (MTEX) and Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) within a Tumor Microenvironment. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22189726. [PMID: 34575889 PMCID: PMC8465141 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22189726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2021] [Revised: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Photodynamic Therapy (PDT), an unconventional cancer therapy with optimistic desirable effects, utilizes the delivery of a photosensitizer (PS) that is activated by light at a particular wavelength and inducing oxidative cytotoxic damage of a tumor and its surrounding vasculature. Deeper seated tumors such as internally metastasized melanomas are more difficult to treat with PDT as the penetration of laser light to those sites is less. Limitations in targeting melanomas can also be attributed to melanin pigments that hinder laser light from reaching targeted sites. Exosomes serve as naturally occurring nanoparticles that can be re-assembled with PSs, improving targeted cellular absorption of photosensitizing agents during PDT. Additionally, studies indicate that exosomes released from PDT-treated tumor cells play a critical role in mediating anti-tumor immune responses. This review collates the role of Melanoma Cell-Derived Exosomes (MTEX) in immune response mediation and metastasis. Tumor Cell-Derived Exosomes (TEX) post PDT treatment are also reviewed, as well as the effects of exosomes as carriers of photosensitizers and delivery systems for PDT. The understanding and research on the role of melanoma exosomes induced by Photodynamic Therapy and their tumor microenvironment will assist in future research in treatment prospects and implications.
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Verdi J, Ketabchi N, Noorbakhsh N, Saleh M, Ebrahimi-Barough S, Seyhoun I, Kavianpour M. Development and Clinical Application of Tumor-derived Exosomes in Patients with Cancer. Curr Stem Cell Res Ther 2021; 17:91-102. [PMID: 34161212 DOI: 10.2174/1574888x16666210622123942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A tumor is an abnormal growth of cells within a tissue that can lead to death due to late diagnosis, poor prognosis, drug resistance, and finally enhanced metastasis formation. Exosomes are nanovesicles that have been derived from all the different cell types. These vesicles can transfer various molecules, including the distinct form of nucleic acids (mRNA, miRNA, and circRNA) and proteins. Tumor-derived exosomes (TEXs) have exceptionally important roles through multiple molecular and cellular pathways like progression, tumorigenesis, drug resistance, and as well as metastasis. TEXs are detectable in all body fluids, such as serum and urine, a convenient and non-invasive way to access these nano-sized vesicles. TEXs lead to the symptom expression of genetic aberrations in the tumor cell population, making them an accurate and sensitive biomarker for the diagnosis and prognosis of tumors. On the other hand, TEXs contain major histocompatibility complexes (MHCs) and play important dual roles in regulating tumor immune responses; they can mediate both immune activation and suppression through tumor-associated immunity. Despite numerous scientific studies, there are still many technical barriers to distinguish TEXs from non-tumor-derived exosomes. Removing exosomes lead to a wide difference in outcomes inside a patient's body. Hence, controversial pieces of evidence have demonstrated the vital role of TEXs as hopeful biomarkers for the early detection of cancers, evaluation of therapeutic effects, and monitoring of the patient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javad Verdi
- Department of Applied Cell Sciences, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Neda Ketabchi
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Maragheh University of Medical Sciences, Maragheh, Iran
| | - Negar Noorbakhsh
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Science, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Mahshid Saleh
- Department of Applied Cell Sciences, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Somayeh Ebrahimi-Barough
- Department of Tissue Engineering and Applied Cell Sciences, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Iman Seyhoun
- Department of Applied Cell Sciences, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Maria Kavianpour
- Department of Applied Cell Sciences, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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12
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Rezaei R, Baghaei K, Hashemi SM, Zali MR, Ghanbarian H, Amani D. Tumor-Derived Exosomes Enriched by miRNA-124 Promote Anti-tumor Immune Response in CT-26 Tumor-Bearing Mice. Front Med (Lausanne) 2021; 8:619939. [PMID: 33987190 PMCID: PMC8110712 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2021.619939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Exosomes have been introduced as a new alternative delivery system for the transmission of small molecules. Tumor-derived exosomes (TEXs) not only contain tumor-associated antigens to stimulate antitumor immune responses but also act as natural carriers of microRNAs. The aim of the current study was to evaluate the efficacy of miR-124-3p-enriched TEX (TEXomiR) as cell-free vaccine in the induction of antitumor immune responses in a mouse model of colorectal cancer. Briefly, the exosomes were isolated from cultured CT-26 cell line, and modified calcium chloride method was used to deliver miR-124-3p mimic into the exosomes. We used a CT-26-induced BALB/c mouse model of colorectal cancer and analyzed the effect of TEXomiR on survival, tumor size, spleen and tumor-infiltrated lymphocytes, and splenocyte proliferation. Furthermore, intra-tumor regulatory T cells, cytotoxic activity of the splenocytes, and cytokine secretion was also evaluated to describe the anti-tumor immune response. When the tumor size reached 100 mm3, the mice were injected with TEXomiR, TEX, and/or phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) subcutaneously three times with 3-day interval, and then tumor size was monitored every 2 days. The in vitro results indicated that TEXs could efficiently deliver functional miR-124-3p mimic. The in vivo evaluation in tumor-bearing mice showed that treatment with TEXomiR can elicit a stronger anti-tumor immune response than unloaded TEX and PBS. Significant tumor growth inhibition and increased median survival time was achieved in tumor-bearing mice treated with TEXomiR. A significant decrease in CD4/CD8 and Treg/CD8 ratio in tumor tissue was demonstrated. Moreover, increased cytotoxicity and proliferation of splenocytes in the TEXomiR group compared to the TEX and PBS groups were identified. Taken together, our data demonstrated that tumor-derived exosomes efficiently deliver miR-124-3p mimic, and TEXomiR promotes anti-tumor immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramazan Rezaei
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Kaveh Baghaei
- Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Seyed Mahmoud Hashemi
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Tissue Engineering and Applied Cell Sciences, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Reza Zali
- Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hossein Ghanbarian
- Department of Tissue Engineering and Applied Cell Sciences, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Davar Amani
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Naseri M, Zöller M, Hadjati J, Ghods R, Ranaei Pirmardan E, Kiani J, Eini L, Bozorgmehr M, Madjd Z. Dendritic cells loaded with exosomes derived from cancer stem cell-enriched spheroids as a potential immunotherapeutic option. J Cell Mol Med 2021; 25:3312-3326. [PMID: 33634564 PMCID: PMC8034455 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.16401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Revised: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are responsible for therapeutic resistance and recurrence in colorectal cancer. Despite advances in immunotherapy, the inability to specifically eradicate CSCs has led to treatment failure. Hence, identification of appropriate antigen sources is a major challenge in designing dendritic cell (DC)‐based therapeutic strategies against CSCs. Here, in an in vitro model using the HT‐29 colon cancer cell line, we explored the efficacy of DCs loaded with exosomes derived from CSC‐enriched colonospheres (CSCenr‐EXOs) as an antigen source in activating CSC‐specific T‐cell responses. HT‐29 lysate, HT‐29‐EXOs and CSCenr lysate were independently assessed as separate antigen sources. Having confirmed CSCs enrichment in spheroids, CSCenr‐EXOs were purified and characterized, and their impact on DC maturation was investigated. Finally, the impact of the antigen‐pulsed DCs on the proliferation rate and also spheroid destructive capacity of autologous T cells was assessed. CSCenr‐EXOs similar to other antigen groups had no suppressive/negative impacts on phenotypic maturation of DCs as judged by the expression level of costimulatory molecules. Notably, similar to CSCenr lysate, CSCenr‐EXOs significantly increased the IL‐12/IL‐10 ratio in supernatants of mature DCs. CSCenr‐EXO‐loaded DCs effectively promoted T‐cell proliferation. Importantly, T cells stimulated with CSCenr‐EXOs disrupted spheroids' structure. Thus, CSCenr‐EXOs present a novel and promising antigen source that in combination with conventional tumour bulk‐derived antigens should be further explored in pre‐clinical immunotherapeutic settings for the efficacy in hampering recurrence and metastatic spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marzieh Naseri
- Oncopathology Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS), Tehran, Iran.,Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS), Tehran, Iran
| | - Margot Zöller
- Section Pancreas Research, University Hospital of Surgery, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jamshid Hadjati
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences (TUMS), Tehran, Iran
| | - Roya Ghods
- Oncopathology Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS), Tehran, Iran.,Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS), Tehran, Iran
| | - Ehsan Ranaei Pirmardan
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Biomarkers Nano-imaging Laboratory, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jafar Kiani
- Oncopathology Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS), Tehran, Iran.,Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS), Tehran, Iran
| | - Leila Eini
- Oncopathology Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS), Tehran, Iran.,Department of Basic Science, Faculty of Veterinary, Science and Research Branch of Islamic, Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mahmood Bozorgmehr
- Oncopathology Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS), Tehran, Iran
| | - Zahra Madjd
- Oncopathology Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS), Tehran, Iran.,Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS), Tehran, Iran
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14
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Samuel M, Gabrielsson S. Personalized medicine and back-allogeneic exosomes for cancer immunotherapy. J Intern Med 2021; 289:138-146. [PMID: 31359504 DOI: 10.1111/joim.12963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2019] [Revised: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 05/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles, especially exosomes, have been explored for cancer immunotherapy. The initial studies made use of autologous B-cell or dendritic cell-derived exosomes, with the idea that MHC-peptide complexes on the exosomal surface would stimulate an MHC-restricted cancer-specific immune response. This was also verified in mouse systems, whilst the effects in human clinical systems were more modest. Several studies have explored the mechanisms for exosomal T-cell activation, and a picture emerges where the antigen-presenting cells, possibly both B cells and dendritic cells of the recipient, are needed to induce a potent T-cell response to exosomes. Therefore, the exosomes function more as an adjuvant-like delivery system of antigens, and we need to further understand the exact components that trigger the most broad and potent immune responses. Here, we describe the grounds for using allogeneic exosomes for cancer therapy, something that would greatly improve the feasibility of new exosome-based immunotherapeutic approaches to cure cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Samuel
- From the, Division of Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden.,Department of Clinical Immunology and Transfusion Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - S Gabrielsson
- From the, Division of Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden.,Department of Clinical Immunology and Transfusion Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
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15
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Ito T, Sugiura K, Hasegawa A, Ouchi W, Yoshimoto T, Mizoguchi I, Inaba T, Hamada K, Eriguchi M, Koyama Y. Microbial Antigen-Presenting Extracellular Vesicles Derived from Genetically Modified Tumor Cells Promote Antitumor Activity of Dendritic Cells. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13010057. [PMID: 33406722 PMCID: PMC7824503 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13010057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs), as tumor vaccines, carry tumor-associated antigens (TAAs), and were expected to transfer TAAs to antigen-presenting cells. However, treatment with tumor-derived EVs exhibited no obvious antitumor effect on the established tumors, likely due to their immuno-suppressive functions, and also to the poor immunogenicity of TAAs. In order to improve the immune stimulating properties, EVs expressing a highly immunogenic bacterial antigen, 6 kDa early secretory antigenic target (ESAT-6), from Mycobacterium tuberculosis were prepared by genetically modifying the parent tumor cells with a plasmid coding for ESAT-6. Cultured B16 tumor cells were transfected with a ternary complex system consisting of pDNA, polyethylenimine (PEI), and chondroitin sulfate. The cells that were transfected with the ternary complex secreted EVs with a higher number of ESAT-6 epitopes than those transfected by a conventional DNA/PEI binary complex, due to the low cytotoxicity, and durable high expression efficiency of the ternary complex systems. The EVs presenting the ESAT-6 epitope (ESAT-EV) were collected and explored as immune modulatory agents. Dendritic cells (DCs) were differentiated from mouse bone marrow cells and incubated with ESAT-EV. After incubating with the EVs for one day, the DCs expressed a significantly higher level of DC maturation marker, CD86. The DCs treated with ESAT-EV showed a significantly improved antitumor activity in tumor-bearing mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoko Ito
- Japan Anti-Tuberculosis Association, Shin-Yamanote Hospital, Tokyo 189-0021, Japan;
- Department of Advanced Pathobiology, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, Osaka 598-8531, Japan; (K.S.); (A.H.); (W.O.); (T.I.)
- Department of Immunoregulation, Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo 160-8402, Japan; (T.Y.); (I.M.)
- Department of Clinical Oncology, School of Medicine, Toho University, Tokyo 143-8541, Japan;
- Correspondence: (T.I.); (Y.K.)
| | - Kikuya Sugiura
- Department of Advanced Pathobiology, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, Osaka 598-8531, Japan; (K.S.); (A.H.); (W.O.); (T.I.)
| | - Aya Hasegawa
- Department of Advanced Pathobiology, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, Osaka 598-8531, Japan; (K.S.); (A.H.); (W.O.); (T.I.)
| | - Wakana Ouchi
- Department of Advanced Pathobiology, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, Osaka 598-8531, Japan; (K.S.); (A.H.); (W.O.); (T.I.)
| | - Takayuki Yoshimoto
- Department of Immunoregulation, Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo 160-8402, Japan; (T.Y.); (I.M.)
| | - Izuru Mizoguchi
- Department of Immunoregulation, Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo 160-8402, Japan; (T.Y.); (I.M.)
| | - Toshio Inaba
- Department of Advanced Pathobiology, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, Osaka 598-8531, Japan; (K.S.); (A.H.); (W.O.); (T.I.)
| | - Katsuyuki Hamada
- Department of Clinical Oncology, School of Medicine, Toho University, Tokyo 143-8541, Japan;
| | - Masazumi Eriguchi
- Japan Anti-Tuberculosis Association, Shin-Yamanote Hospital, Tokyo 189-0021, Japan;
| | - Yoshiyuki Koyama
- Japan Anti-Tuberculosis Association, Shin-Yamanote Hospital, Tokyo 189-0021, Japan;
- Department of Advanced Pathobiology, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, Osaka 598-8531, Japan; (K.S.); (A.H.); (W.O.); (T.I.)
- Department of Immunoregulation, Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo 160-8402, Japan; (T.Y.); (I.M.)
- Department of Clinical Oncology, School of Medicine, Toho University, Tokyo 143-8541, Japan;
- Correspondence: (T.I.); (Y.K.)
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16
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Abstract
Exosomes are cell-derived nano-sized, phospholipid vehicles that function to transport prodigious amounts of bioactive molecules to specific recipient tissues. Several hallmarks of cancer are impacted by this exosome-mediated cell-to-cell communication, including, remodeling the architecture of the extracellular matrix, endowing cancer cells with characteristics of drug resistance, or even modulating immune responses. Owing to their immunomodulatory potential and endogenous functionalities, exosomes may also be exploited in various innovative immunological approaches to activate adaptive and innate immune effector cells to mount an effective anticancer immunosurveillance. The review highlights the recent advances in state-of-the-art technologies and protocols for using exosomes as an effective and promising application for cancer immunotherapy.
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17
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Naseri M, Bozorgmehr M, Zöller M, Ranaei Pirmardan E, Madjd Z. Tumor-derived exosomes: the next generation of promising cell-free vaccines in cancer immunotherapy. Oncoimmunology 2020; 9:1779991. [PMID: 32934883 PMCID: PMC7466856 DOI: 10.1080/2162402x.2020.1779991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Identification of immunogenic tumor antigens that are efficiently processed and delivered by dendritic cells to prime the immune system and to induce an appropriate immune response is a research hotspot in the field of cancer vaccine development. High biosafety is an additional demand. Tumor-derived exosomes (TEXs) are nanosized lipid bilayer encapsulated vesicles that shuttle bioactive information to the tumor microenvironment facilitating tumor progression. However, accumulating evidence points toward the capacity of TEXs to efficiently stimulate immune responses against tumors provided they are appropriately administered. After briefly describing the function of exosomes in cancer biology and their communication with immune cells, we summarize in this review in vitro and preclinical studies eliciting the potency of TEXs in inducing effective anti-tumor responses and recently modified strategies further improving TEX-vaccination efficacy. We interpret the available data as TEXs becoming a lead in cancer vaccination based on tumor antigen-selective high immunogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marzieh Naseri
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Oncopathology Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mahmood Bozorgmehr
- Oncopathology Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Margot Zöller
- Section Pancreas Research, University Hospital of Surgery, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Ehsan Ranaei Pirmardan
- Molecular Biomarkers Nano-imaging Laboratory, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Zahra Madjd
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Oncopathology Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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18
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Cheng K, Kang Q, Zhao X. Biogenic nanoparticles as immunomodulator for tumor treatment. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2020; 12:e1646. [DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2020] [Revised: 04/26/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Keman Cheng
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology (NCNST) Beijing China
- Department of Biomaterials, Key Laboratory of Biomedical Engineering of Fujian Province College of Materials, Xiamen University Xiamen Fujian China
| | - Qinglin Kang
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences The University of Queensland Brisbane Queensland Australia
| | - Xiao Zhao
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology (NCNST) Beijing China
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19
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Tumor-Derived Exosomes in Immunosuppression and Immunotherapy. J Immunol Res 2020; 2020:6272498. [PMID: 32537468 PMCID: PMC7261328 DOI: 10.1155/2020/6272498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Revised: 04/27/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Tumor-derived exosomes (TEX) are involved in cancer development, metastasis, and disease progression. They can modulate angiogenesis to elevate the malignant degree of tumor cells. TEX carry immunosuppressive factors affecting the antitumor activities of immune cells. Tumor cells as well as immune cells secrete immunologically active exosomes which affect intercellular communication, antigen presentation, activation of immune cells, and immune surveillance. Cell proliferation and immune response suppression create a favorable microenvironment for tumor. TEX can inhibit immune cell proliferation, induce apoptosis of activated CD8+ Teffs, suppress NK cell activity, interfere with monocyte differentiation, and promote Treg as well as MDSC expansion. Exosomes of microenvironment cells may also contribute to the development of drug resistance in cancer therapy. An important role of TEX in modulating the sensitivity of tumor cells to immunotherapy is a promising area of research to make the cancer therapy more successful.
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20
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Liu Y, Wang Y, Lv Q, Li X. Exosomes: From garbage bins to translational medicine. Int J Pharm 2020; 583:119333. [PMID: 32348800 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2020.119333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Revised: 04/09/2020] [Accepted: 04/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes are lipid bilayer-enclosed vesicles of endosomal origin, which initially considered as garbage bins to dispose unwanted cellular components, but they are now emerged as an intercellular communication system involved in several physiological and pathological conditions. With the increasing understanding that the healthy patients release exosomes with distinct proteins and RNAs, exosomes have been exploited as biomarkers for disease diagnosis and prognosis. Owing to the intrinsic immunomodulatory in a tumor microenvironment, exosomes have also been vaccinated into patients against malignant diseases. Moreover, the nano-metered exosomes are relatively stable in extracellular fluids. Thus they appear attractive in delivering "cargo" to destined cells with enhanced efficiency. In this review, we outline the current knowledge in exosomal biogenesis and isolation. Furthermore, the biological activities of exosomes are also discussed with a focus on their potentials to be employed in translational medicine, especially as biomarkers, vaccines and therapeutic delivery system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Liu
- Department of Pharmacy, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuzhu Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qianzhou Lv
- Department of Pharmacy, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Xiaoyu Li
- Department of Pharmacy, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
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21
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Kothandan VK, Kothandan S, Kim DH, Byun Y, Lee YK, Park IK, Hwang SR. Crosstalk between Stress Granules, Exosomes, Tumour Antigens, and Immune Cells: Significance for Cancer Immunity. Vaccines (Basel) 2020; 8:E172. [PMID: 32276342 PMCID: PMC7349635 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines8020172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2020] [Revised: 03/29/2020] [Accepted: 04/04/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
RNA granules and exosomes produced by tumour cells under various stresses in the microenvironment act as critical determinants of cell survival by promoting angiogenesis, cancer metastasis, chemoresistance, and immunosuppression. Meanwhile, developmental cancer/testis (CT) antigens that are normally sequestered in male germ cells of the testes, but which are overexpressed in malignant tumour cells, can function as tumour antigens triggering immune responses. As CT antigens are potential vaccine candidates for use in cancer immunotherapy, they could be targeted together with crosstalk between stress granules, exosomes, and immune cells for a synergistic effect. In this review, we describe the effects of exosomes and exosomal components presented to the recipient cells under different types of stresses on immune cells and cancer progression. Furthermore, we discuss their significance for cancer immunity, as well as the outlook for their future application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinoth Kumar Kothandan
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Graduate School, Chosun University, 309 Pilmun-daero, Dong-gu, Gwangju 61452, Korea
| | - Sangeetha Kothandan
- Department of Industrial Biotechnology, Bharath Institute of Higher Education and Research, Chennai 600073, India
| | - Do Hee Kim
- Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering, Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu, Seoul 04763, Korea
| | - Youngro Byun
- College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, Korea
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Biopharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Convergent Science and Technology, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, Korea
| | - Yong-kyu Lee
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea National University of Transportation, 50 Daehak-ro, Chungju, Chungbuk 27469, Korea
| | - In-Kyu Park
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Chonnam National University Medical School, 322 Seoyang-ro, Hwasun 58128, Korea
| | - Seung Rim Hwang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Graduate School, Chosun University, 309 Pilmun-daero, Dong-gu, Gwangju 61452, Korea
- College of Pharmacy, Chosun University, 309 Pilmun-daero, Dong-gu, Gwangju 61452, Korea
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22
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Shukla L, Yuan Y, Shayan R, Greening DW, Karnezis T. Fat Therapeutics: The Clinical Capacity of Adipose-Derived Stem Cells and Exosomes for Human Disease and Tissue Regeneration. Front Pharmacol 2020; 11:158. [PMID: 32194404 PMCID: PMC7062679 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.00158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Accepted: 02/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Fat grafting is a well-established surgical technique used in plastic surgery to restore deficient tissue, and more recently, for its putative regenerative properties. Despite more frequent use of fat grafting, however, a scientific understanding of the mechanisms underlying either survival or remedial benefits of grafted fat remain lacking. Clinical use of fat grafts for breast reconstruction in tissues damaged by radiotherapy first provided clues regarding the clinical potential of stem cells to drive tissue regeneration. Healthy fat introduced into irradiated tissues appeared to reverse radiation injury (fibrosis, scarring, contracture and pain) clinically; a phenomenon since validated in several animal studies. In the quest to explain and enhance these therapeutic effects, adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) were suggested as playing a key role and techniques to enrich ADSCs in fat, in turn, followed. Stem cells - the body's rapid response 'road repair crew' - are on standby to combat tissue insults. ADSCs may exert influences either by releasing paracrine-signalling factors alone or as cell-free extracellular vesicles (EVs, exosomes). Alternatively, ADSCs may augment vital immune/inflammatory processes; or themselves differentiate into mature adipose cells to provide the 'building-blocks' for engineered tissue. Regardless, adipose tissue constitutes an ideal source for mesenchymal stem cells for therapeutic application, due to ease of harvest and processing; and a relative abundance of adipose tissue in most patients. Here, we review the clinical applications of fat grafting, ADSC-enhanced fat graft, fat stem cell therapy; and the latest evolution of EVs and nanoparticles in healing, cancer and neurodegenerative and multiorgan disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lipi Shukla
- O'Brien Institute Department, St Vincent's Institute for Medical Research, Fitzroy, VIC, Australia.,Department of Plastic Surgery, St Vincent's Hospital, Fitzroy, VIC, Australia
| | - Yinan Yuan
- O'Brien Institute Department, St Vincent's Institute for Medical Research, Fitzroy, VIC, Australia
| | - Ramin Shayan
- O'Brien Institute Department, St Vincent's Institute for Medical Research, Fitzroy, VIC, Australia.,Department of Plastic Surgery, St Vincent's Hospital, Fitzroy, VIC, Australia.,Plastic, Hand and Faciomaxillary Surgery Unit, Alfred Hospital, Prahran, VIC, Australia.,Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - David W Greening
- Molecular Proteomics, Baker Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, Australia
| | - Tara Karnezis
- O'Brien Institute Department, St Vincent's Institute for Medical Research, Fitzroy, VIC, Australia
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23
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Miles J, Andre M, Caobi A, Ruiz M, Nair M, Raymond A. Bioengineered Exosomal Extracellular Vesicles in Cancer Therapeutics. Crit Rev Biomed Eng 2020; 48:177-187. [PMID: 33389895 PMCID: PMC11102805 DOI: 10.1615/critrevbiomedeng.2020034847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Liquid or blood-based biopsy is a less invasive and more efficient method in which to clinicians can identify diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic responsive biomarkers in cancer patients. Circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA), circulating tumor cells (CTCs), RNAs, proteins, metabolites, and extracellular vesicles (EVs) are all potential biomarkers found in liquid biopsies. All nucleated cells including healthy, virally infected, and cancer cells release EVs. Since the early 1980s, evidence has mounted to support the pathophysiological role of EVs in cancer. Here we focus on the smallest of the EV, the exosome, and their clinical relevance as nanotherapeutics for cancers. Exosomes obtained from tumors have been reported to promote and/or facilitate malignancy of cancers especially in terms of metastatic potential. Exosomal EVs have also contributed to the development of therapeutic resistance. Recent studies demonstrate that intrinsic and bioengineered exosomes can serve as effective therapeutic agents that disrupt cancer progression. Here we review the current literature regarding the utilization of bioengineered exosomes for therapeutics to treat prevalent cancers such as melanoma, glioma, breast, pancreatic, hepatic, cervical, prostate, and colon cancers. Overall, studies reviewed show that bioengineered exosomes are effective and promising for targeted cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Miles
- Department of Immunology and NanoMedicine, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University 11200 SW 8th Street Miami, FL 33199, USA
| | - M. Andre
- Department of Immunology and NanoMedicine, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University 11200 SW 8th Street Miami, FL 33199, USA
| | - A. Caobi
- Department of Immunology and NanoMedicine, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University 11200 SW 8th Street Miami, FL 33199, USA
| | - M. Ruiz
- Department of Human and Health Services, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University 11200 SW 8th Street Miami, FL 33199, USA
- Miami Cancer Institute, Bone Marrow Transplant and CART T-Cell Therapy Department, Baptist Health South Florida, 8900 N Kendall Dr., Miami, FL 33176, USA
| | - M. Nair
- Department of Immunology and NanoMedicine, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University 11200 SW 8th Street Miami, FL 33199, USA
| | - A.D. Raymond
- Department of Immunology and NanoMedicine, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University 11200 SW 8th Street Miami, FL 33199, USA
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24
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Hu Y, Zhang R, Chen G. Exosome and Secretion: Action On? ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2020; 1248:455-483. [PMID: 32185722 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-15-3266-5_19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Originally treated as part of a cellular waste, extracellular vesicles (EVs) are being shown to possess a vast variety of functions, of which exosome is the most studied one. Most cells, such as tumor cells, immunocytes, and fibroblasts can secrete exosomes, especially under certain stresses the amount is much higher, and the contents of exosome represent the status of the donor cells and the tumor microenvironment. As crucial transporters for cells' content exchange, much attention has been raised in the utilities of exosomes to suppress immune response, and to modify a microenvironment favorable for cancer progression. Exosomal immune checkpoints, such as programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1), contribute to immunosuppression and are associated with anti-PD-1 response. Many forms of soluble immune checkpoint receptors have also been shown to influence efficacy mediated by their therapeutic antibodies. Therefore, targeting pro-tumorous exosomes may achieve antitumor effect supplementary to existing therapies. Exosome, itself natural liposome-like structure, allows it to be a potential drug delivery tool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Hu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200093, China.
- Women's Cancer Program, Samuel Oschin Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, 90048, USA.
| | - Rui Zhang
- Department of Cardiology, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200093, China
- Smidt Heart Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, 90048, USA
| | - Gang Chen
- The State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Basic Science of Stomatology (Hubei-MOST) & Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine of Ministry of Education, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430079, People's Republic of China
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25
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Khawar MB, Abbasi MH, Siddique Z, Arif A, Sheikh N. An Update on Novel Therapeutic Warfronts of Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) in Cancer Treatment: Where We Are Standing Right Now and Where to Go in the Future. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2019; 2019:9702562. [PMID: 31428232 PMCID: PMC6683766 DOI: 10.1155/2019/9702562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Revised: 06/03/2019] [Accepted: 07/04/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a heterogeneous group of membrane-bounded vesicles that are believed to be produced and secreted by presumably all cell types under physiological and pathological conditions, including tumors. EVs are very important vehicles in intercellular communications for both shorter and longer distances and are able to deliver a wide range of cargos including proteins, lipids, and various species of nucleic acids effectively. EVs have been emerging as a novel biotherapeutic platform to efficiently deliver therapeutic cargos to treat a broad range of diseases including cancer. This vast potential of drug delivery lies in their abilities to carry a variety of cargos and their ease in crossing the biological membranes. Similarly, their presence in a variety of body fluids makes them a potential biomarker for early diagnosis, prognostication, and surveillance of cancer. Here, we discuss the relatively least and understudied aspects of EV biology and tried to highlight the obstacles and limitations in their clinical applications and also described most of the new warfronts to beat cancer at multiple stages. However, much more challenges still remain to evaluate EV-based therapeutics, and we are very much hopeful that the current work prompts further discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Babar Khawar
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Cell & Molecular Biology Lab, Department of Zoology, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Muddasir Hassan Abbasi
- Cell & Molecular Biology Lab, Department of Zoology, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
- Department of Zoology, University of Okara, Okara, Pakistan
| | - Zerwa Siddique
- Centre for Applied Molecular Biology (CAMB), University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Amin Arif
- Cell & Molecular Biology Lab, Department of Zoology, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Nadeem Sheikh
- Cell & Molecular Biology Lab, Department of Zoology, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
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26
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Chiabotto G, Gai C, Deregibus MC, Camussi G. Salivary Extracellular Vesicle-Associated exRNA as Cancer Biomarker. Cancers (Basel) 2019; 11:cancers11070891. [PMID: 31247906 PMCID: PMC6679099 DOI: 10.3390/cancers11070891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Revised: 06/11/2019] [Accepted: 06/22/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) secreted in biological fluids contain several transcripts of the cell of origin, which may modify the functions and phenotype of proximal and distant cells. Cancer-derived EVs may promote a favorable microenvironment for cancer growth and invasion by acting on stroma and endothelial cells and may favor metastasis formation. The transcripts contained in cancer EVs may be exploited as biomarkers. Protein and extracellular RNA (exRNA) profiling in patient bio-fluids, such as blood and urine, was performed to identify molecular features with potential diagnostic and prognostic values. EVs are concentrated in saliva, and salivary EVs are particularly enriched in exRNAs. Several studies were focused on salivary EVs for the detection of biomarkers either of non-oral or oral cancers. The present paper provides an overview of the available studies on the diagnostic potential of exRNA profiling in salivary EVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Chiabotto
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Torino, Torino 10126, Italy.
| | - Chiara Gai
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Torino, Torino 10126, Italy.
| | - Maria Chiara Deregibus
- i3T Business Incubator and Technology Transfer, University of Torino, Torino 10126, Italy.
| | - Giovanni Camussi
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Torino, Torino 10126, Italy.
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27
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Graner MW. Roles of Extracellular Vesicles in High-Grade Gliomas: Tiny Particles with Outsized Influence. Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet 2019; 20:331-357. [PMID: 30978305 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-genom-083118-015324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
High-grade gliomas, particularly glioblastomas (grade IV), are devastating diseases with dismal prognoses; afflicted patients seldom live longer than 15 months, and their quality of life suffers immensely. Our current standard-of-care therapy has remained essentially unchanged for almost 15 years, with little new therapeutic progress. We desperately need a better biologic understanding of these complicated tumors in a complicated organ. One area of rejuvenated study relates to extracellular vesicles (EVs)-membrane-enclosed nano- or microsized particles that originate from the endosomal system or are shed from the plasma membrane. EVs contribute to tumor heterogeneity (including the maintenance of glioma stem cells or their differentiation), the impacts of hypoxia (angiogenesis and coagulopathies), interactions amid the tumor microenvironment (concerning the survival of astrocytes, neurons, endothelial cells, blood vessels, the blood-brain barrier, and the ensuing inflammation), and influences on the immune system (both stimulatory and suppressive). This article reviews glioma EVs and the ways that EVs manifest themselves as autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine factors in proximal and distal intra- and intercellular communications. The reader should note that there is much controversy, and indeed confusion, in the field over the exact roles for EVs in many biological processes, and we will engage some of these difficulties herein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael W Graner
- Department of Neurosurgery, Anschutz Medical Campus, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado 80045, USA;
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28
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Guo X, Qiu W, Wang J, Liu Q, Qian M, Wang S, Zhang Z, Gao X, Chen Z, Guo Q, Xu J, Xue H, Li G. Glioma exosomes mediate the expansion and function of myeloid-derived suppressor cells through microRNA-29a/Hbp1 and microRNA-92a/Prkar1a pathways. Int J Cancer 2019; 144:3111-3126. [PMID: 30536597 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.32052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2018] [Accepted: 11/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) play a pivotal role in mediating the formation of an immunosuppressive environment and assisting tumors in evading the host immune response. However, the mechanism through which tumors manipulate the differentiation and function of MDSCs remains unclear. Here, we report that hypoxia-induced glioma cells can stimulate the differentiation of functional MDSCs by transferring exosomal miR-29a and miR-92a to MDSCs. Our results showed that glioma-derived exosomes (GEXs) can enhance the differentiation of functional MDSCs both in vitro and in vivo, and hypoxia-induced GEXs (H-GEXs) demonstrated a stronger MDSCs induction ability than did normoxia-induced GEXs (N-GEXs). A subsequent miRNA sequencing analysis of N-GEXs and H-GEXs revealed that hypoxia-induced exosomal miR-29a and miR-92a expression induced the propagation of MDSCs. miR-29a and miR-92a activated the proliferation and function of MDSCs by targeting high-mobility group box transcription factor 1 (Hbp1) and protein kinase cAMP-dependent type I regulatory subunit alpha (Prkar1a), respectively. Altogether, the results of our study provide new insights into the role of glioma exosomal miRNAs in mediating the formation of immunosuppressive microenvironments in tumors and elucidate the underlying exosomal miR-29a/miR-92a-based regulatory mechanism responsible for the modulation of functional MDSC induction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofan Guo
- Institute of Brain and Brain-Inspired Science, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Function Remodeling, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Qiu
- Institute of Brain and Brain-Inspired Science, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Function Remodeling, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Jian Wang
- Institute of Brain and Brain-Inspired Science, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Function Remodeling, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China.,Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China.,Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Qinglin Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Mingyu Qian
- Institute of Brain and Brain-Inspired Science, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Function Remodeling, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Shaobo Wang
- Institute of Brain and Brain-Inspired Science, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Function Remodeling, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Zongpu Zhang
- Institute of Brain and Brain-Inspired Science, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Function Remodeling, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiao Gao
- Institute of Brain and Brain-Inspired Science, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Function Remodeling, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Zihang Chen
- Institute of Brain and Brain-Inspired Science, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Function Remodeling, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Qindong Guo
- Institute of Brain and Brain-Inspired Science, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Function Remodeling, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianye Xu
- Institute of Brain and Brain-Inspired Science, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Function Remodeling, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Hao Xue
- Institute of Brain and Brain-Inspired Science, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Function Remodeling, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China.,Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Gang Li
- Institute of Brain and Brain-Inspired Science, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Function Remodeling, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China.,Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China
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29
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Yaddanapudi K, Meng S, Whitt AG, Al Rayyan N, Richie J, Tu A, Eaton JW, Li C. Exosomes from GM-CSF expressing embryonic stem cells are an effective prophylactic vaccine for cancer prevention. Oncoimmunology 2019; 8:1561119. [PMID: 30723593 DOI: 10.1080/2162402x.2018.1561119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2018] [Revised: 11/26/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The antigenic similarity between embryos and tumors has raised the idea of using embryonic material as a preventative vaccine against neoplastic disease. Indeed, we have previously reported that a vaccine comprises allogeneic murine embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and murine fibroblasts expressing GM-CSF (to amplify immune responses) successfully blocks the outgrowth of an implantable cancer (Lewis lung carcinoma; LLC) and lung tumors generated in mice using a combination of a mutagen followed by chronic pulmonary inflammation. However, such a vaccine is obviously impractical for application to humans. The use of fibroblasts to generate GM-CSF is needlessly complicated, and intact whole ESCs carry the hazard of generating embryomas/teratomas. Here, we report the successful application of an alternative prophylactic vaccine comprises exosomes derived from murine ESCs engineered to produce GM-CSF. Vaccination of mice with these exosomes significantly slowed or blocked the outgrowth of implanted LLC while control exosomes lacking GM-CSF were ineffective. Examination of tumor-infiltrating immune cells from mice vaccinated with the GM-CSF-expressing exosomes showed robust tumor-reactive CD8+ T effector responses, Th1 cytokine responses, and higher CD8+ T effector/CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ T regulatory cell ratio in the tumors. We conclude that a similar vaccine derived from GM-CSF- expressing human ESCs can be employed as a preventative vaccine for humans with an increased risk of developing cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kavitha Yaddanapudi
- Immuno-Oncology Program, JG Brown Cancer Center, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA.,Department of Medicine, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Shuhan Meng
- Experimental Therapeutics Program, JG Brown Cancer Center, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA.,Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Aaron G Whitt
- Department of Medicine, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA.,Experimental Therapeutics Program, JG Brown Cancer Center, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA.,Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Numan Al Rayyan
- Immuno-Oncology Program, JG Brown Cancer Center, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA.,Department of Medicine, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Jamaal Richie
- Immuno-Oncology Program, JG Brown Cancer Center, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA.,Department of Medicine, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Allison Tu
- Experimental Therapeutics Program, JG Brown Cancer Center, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - John W Eaton
- Immuno-Oncology Program, JG Brown Cancer Center, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Chi Li
- Department of Medicine, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA.,Experimental Therapeutics Program, JG Brown Cancer Center, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA.,Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA
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30
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Moradi‐Chaleshtori M, Hashemi SM, Soudi S, Bandehpour M, Mohammadi‐Yeganeh S. Tumor‐derived exosomal microRNAs and proteins as modulators of macrophage function. J Cell Physiol 2018; 234:7970-7982. [DOI: 10.1002/jcp.27552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2017] [Accepted: 09/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Moradi‐Chaleshtori
- Department of Biotechnology School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences Tehran Iran
| | - Seyed Mahmoud Hashemi
- Department of Immunology School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences Tehran Iran
- Department of Applied Cell Sciences School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences Tehran Iran
| | - Sara Soudi
- Department of Immunology Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University Tehran Iran
| | - Mojgan Bandehpour
- Department of Biotechnology School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences Tehran Iran
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences Tehran Iran
| | - Samira Mohammadi‐Yeganeh
- Department of Biotechnology School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences Tehran Iran
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences Tehran Iran
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31
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Graner MW. Extracellular vesicles in cancer immune responses: roles of purinergic receptors. Semin Immunopathol 2018; 40:465-475. [PMID: 30209547 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-018-0706-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2018] [Accepted: 09/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nano- to micro-scale membrane-enclosed vesicles that are released from presumably all cell types. Tumor cells and immune cells are prodigious generators of EVs often with competing phenotypes in terms of immune suppression versus immune stimulation. Purinergic receptors, proteins that bind diverse purine nucleotides and nucleosides (ATP, ADP, AMP, adenosine), are widely expressed across tissues and cell types, and are prominent players in immune and tumor cell nucleotide metabolism. The effects of purinergic receptor stimulation or agonism tend to produce inflammatory responses that may aid immune stimulation but may also provoke various immune suppression mechanisms, particularly in the tumor microenvironment. EVs released by cells following receptor stimulation are frequently pro-inflammatory, but often also pro-thrombolytic; these EVs may generate an environment that favors tumor progression at the cost of an effective immune response. Purinergic signaling pathways are becoming more recognized as valuable targets in various therapeutic scenarios, including cancer. It is possible that some of those clinically relevant compounds might also impact EV secretion and/or phenotype, which would hopefully capitalize on the immune stimulatory properties of purinergic signaling while minimizing the immune suppressive consequences. This review covers a relatively understudied area in EV biology, but even so, focuses almost exclusively on the purinergic receptors in a very limited capacity. There is much more to evaluate and incorporate into our understanding of extracellular nucleotides in EV biology, and we hope this work prompts further discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael W Graner
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Colorado Denver, Anschutz Medical Campus, RC2, 12700 E 19th Ave, Room 5125, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA.
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32
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Graner MW, Schnell S, Olin MR. Tumor-derived exosomes, microRNAs, and cancer immune suppression. Semin Immunopathol 2018; 40:505-515. [PMID: 29869058 PMCID: PMC6202205 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-018-0689-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Accepted: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Originally considered to be part of a cellular waste pathway, expansive research into exosomes has shown that these vesicles possess a vast array of functional utilities. As vital transporters of materials for communications between cells, particular interest has been generated in the ability of cancer cells to use exosomes to induce immune suppression, and to establish a thriving microenvironment, ideal for disease progression. Exosomes carry and transfer many types of cargo, including microRNAs (miRNAs; miRs), which are important modulators of messenger RNA (mRNA) expression. These miRNAs have been shown to be noteworthy components of the mechanisms used by tumor-derived exosomes to carry out their functions. Alternatively, research has been expanding into using exosomes and miRNAs as both biomarkers for detecting cancer and disease progression, and as potential treatment tools. Here, we discuss some of the progress that researchers have made related to cancer exosomes, their suppression of the immune system and the importance of the miRNAs they shuttle, along with some of the shortcomings, obstacles, and challenges that lie ahead.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael W Graner
- Anschutz Medical Campus, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Colorado Denver, RC2, 12700 E 19th Ave, Room 5125, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA.
| | - Sathya Schnell
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, MMC 806, 420 Delaware St SE, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Michael R Olin
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, MMC 806, 420 Delaware St SE, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
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33
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Hsieh CH, Tai SK, Yang MH. Snail-overexpressing Cancer Cells Promote M2-Like Polarization of Tumor-Associated Macrophages by Delivering MiR-21-Abundant Exosomes. Neoplasia 2018; 20:775-788. [PMID: 29981499 PMCID: PMC6031090 DOI: 10.1016/j.neo.2018.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2018] [Revised: 06/01/2018] [Accepted: 06/11/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a major event during cancer progression and metastasis; however, the definitive role of EMT in remodeling tumor microenvironments (TMEs) is unclear. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are a major type of host immune cells in TMEs, and they perform a wide range of functions to regulate tumor colonization and progression by regulating tumor invasiveness, local tumor immunity, and angiogenesis. TAMs are considered to have an M2-like, i.e., alternatively activated, phenotype; however, how these EMT-undergoing cancer cells promote M2 polarization of TAMs as a crucial tumor-host interplay during cancer progression is unclear. In this study, we investigated the mechanism of EMT-mediated TAM activation. Here, we demonstrate that the EMT transcriptional factor Snail directly activates the transcription of MIR21 to produce miR-21-abundant tumor-derived exosomes (TEXs). The miR-21-containing exosomes were engulfed by CD14+ human monocytes, suppressing the expression of M1 markers and increasing that of M2 markers. Knockdown of miR-21 in Snail-expressing human head and neck cancer cells attenuated the Snail-induced M2 polarization, angiogenesis, and tumor growth. In head and neck cancer samples, a high expression of miR-21 was correlated with a higher level of SNAI1 and the M2 marker MRC1. This study elucidates the mechanism of EMT-mediated M2 polarization through delivery of the miR-21-abundant exosomes, which may serve as a candidate biomarker of tumor progression and provide a potential target for intercepting EMT-mediated TME remodeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Hsin Hsieh
- Biotechnology and Laboratory Science in Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei 11221, Taiwan
| | - Shyh-Kuan Tai
- Department of Otolaryngology, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei 11217, Taiwan
| | - Muh-Hwa Yang
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei 11221, Taiwan; Biotechnology and Laboratory Science in Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei 11221, Taiwan; Cancer Progression Research Center, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei 11221, Taiwan; Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Oncology, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei 11217, Taiwan.
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34
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Diamond JM, Vanpouille-Box C, Spada S, Rudqvist NP, Chapman JR, Ueberheide BM, Pilones KA, Sarfraz Y, Formenti SC, Demaria S. Exosomes Shuttle TREX1-Sensitive IFN-Stimulatory dsDNA from Irradiated Cancer Cells to DCs. Cancer Immunol Res 2018; 6:910-920. [PMID: 29907693 DOI: 10.1158/2326-6066.cir-17-0581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 236] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2017] [Revised: 04/01/2018] [Accepted: 06/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Radiotherapy (RT) used at immunogenic doses leads to accumulation of cytosolic double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) in cancer cells, which activates type I IFN (IFN-I) via the cGAS/STING pathway. Cancer cell-derived IFN-I is required to recruit BATF3-dependent dendritic cells (DC) to poorly immunogenic tumors and trigger antitumor T-cell responses in combination with immune checkpoint blockade. We have previously demonstrated that the exonuclease TREX1 regulates radiation immunogenicity by degrading cytosolic dsDNA. Tumor-derived DNA can also activate cGAS/STING-mediated production of IFN-I by DCs infiltrating immunogenic tumors. However, how DNA from cancer cells is transferred to the cytoplasm of DCs remains unclear. Here, we showed that tumor-derived exosomes (TEX) produced by irradiated mouse breast cancer cells (RT-TEX) transfer dsDNA to DCs and stimulate DC upregulation of costimulatory molecules and STING-dependent activation of IFN-I. In vivo, RT-TEX elicited tumor-specific CD8+ T-cell responses and protected mice from tumor development significantly better than TEX from untreated cancer cells in a prophylactic vaccination experiment. We demonstrated that the IFN-stimulatory dsDNA cargo of RT-TEX is regulated by TREX1 expression in the parent cells. Overall, these results identify RT-TEX as a mechanism whereby IFN-stimulatory dsDNA is transferred from irradiated cancer cells to DCs. We have previously shown that the expression of TREX1 is dependent on the RT dose size. Thus, these data have important implications for the use of RT with immunotherapy. Cancer Immunol Res; 6(8); 910-20. ©2018 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie M Diamond
- Department of Pathology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York.,Department of Radiation Oncology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York
| | | | - Sheila Spada
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York
| | | | - Jessica R Chapman
- Proteomics Laboratory, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York
| | - Beatrix M Ueberheide
- Proteomics Laboratory, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York
| | - Karsten A Pilones
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York
| | - Yasmeen Sarfraz
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York
| | - Silvia C Formenti
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York
| | - Sandra Demaria
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York. .,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York
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35
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Lane RE, Korbie D, Hill MM, Trau M. Extracellular vesicles as circulating cancer biomarkers: opportunities and challenges. Clin Transl Med 2018; 7:14. [PMID: 29855735 PMCID: PMC5981152 DOI: 10.1186/s40169-018-0192-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2018] [Accepted: 05/23/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small, lipid-bound particles containing nucleic acid and protein cargo which are excreted from cells under a variety of normal and pathological conditions. EVs have garnered substantial research interest in recent years, due to their potential utility as circulating biomarkers for a variety of diseases, including numerous types of cancer. The following review will discuss the current understanding of the form and function of EVs, their specific role in cancer pathogenesis and their potential for non-invasive disease diagnosis and/or monitoring. This review will also highlight several key issues for this field, including the importance of implementing robust and reproducible sample handling protocols, and the challenge of extracting an EV-specific biomarker signal from a complex biological background.
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Affiliation(s)
- R E Lane
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - D Korbie
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - M M Hill
- The University of Queensland Diamantina Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Translational Research Institute, The University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, QLD, Australia.,QIMR-Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, QLD, Australia
| | - M Trau
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia. .,School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia.
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36
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Conte M, De Palma R, Altucci L. HDAC inhibitors as epigenetic regulators for cancer immunotherapy. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2018. [PMID: 29535070 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2018.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, anti-tumor immunotherapy has shown promising results, and immune-oncology is now emerging as the fourth major wave in the treatment of tumors after radiotherapy, chemotherapy and molecular targeted therapy. Understanding the impact of the immune system on neoplastic cells is crucial to improve its effectiveness against cancer. The stratification of patients who might benefit from immunotherapy as well as the personalization of medicine have contributed to the discovery of new immunotherapeutic targets and molecules. In the present review, we discuss the mechanistic role of histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) as potential immunomodulating agents to treat cancer. Our current understanding of the use of HDACi in combination with various immunotherapeutic approaches, such as immunomodulating agents and cancer vaccines, is also addressed. The potential clinical applications of the growing number of novel epigenetic drugs for cancer immunotherapy are widening, and some of these therapies are already in clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Raffaele De Palma
- Department of Precision Medicine, Università degli Studi della Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, Vico L. De Crecchio 7, 80138, Naples, Italy
| | - Lucia Altucci
- Department of Precision Medicine, Università degli Studi della Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, Vico L. De Crecchio 7, 80138, Naples, Italy.
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37
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Williams C, Royo F, Aizpurua-Olaizola O, Pazos R, Boons GJ, Reichardt NC, Falcon-Perez JM. Glycosylation of extracellular vesicles: current knowledge, tools and clinical perspectives. J Extracell Vesicles 2018. [PMID: 29535851 PMCID: PMC5844028 DOI: 10.1080/20013078.2018.1442985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
It is now acknowledged that extracellular vesicles (EVs) are important effectors in a vast number of biological processes through intercellular transfer of biomolecules. Increasing research efforts in the EV field have yielded an appreciation for the potential role of glycans in EV function. Indeed, recent reports show that the presence of glycoconjugates is involved in EV biogenesis, in cellular recognition and in the efficient uptake of EVs by recipient cells. It is clear that a full understanding of EV biology will require researchers to focus also on EV glycosylation through glycomics approaches. This review outlines the major glycomics techniques that have been applied to EVs in the context of the recent findings. Beyond understanding the mechanisms by which EVs mediate their physiological functions, glycosylation also provides opportunities by which to engineer EVs for therapeutic and diagnostic purposes. Studies characterising the glycan composition of EVs have highlighted glycome changes in various disease states, thus indicating potential for EV glycans as diagnostic markers. Meanwhile, glycans have been targeted as molecular handles for affinity-based isolation in both research and clinical contexts. An overview of current strategies to exploit EV glycosylation and a discussion of the implications of recent findings for the burgeoning EV industry follows the below review of glycomics and its application to EV biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles Williams
- Exosomes Laboratory. CIC bioGUNE, CIBER, Bizkaia, Spain.,Glycotechnology Laboratory, CIC BiomaGUNE, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Felix Royo
- Exosomes Laboratory. CIC bioGUNE, CIBER, Bizkaia, Spain
| | - Oier Aizpurua-Olaizola
- Exosomes Laboratory. CIC bioGUNE, CIBER, Bizkaia, Spain.,Department of Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, and Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Raquel Pazos
- Glycotechnology Laboratory, CIC BiomaGUNE, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Geert-Jan Boons
- Department of Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, and Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | | | - Juan M Falcon-Perez
- Exosomes Laboratory. CIC bioGUNE, CIBER, Bizkaia, Spain.,CIBER-BBN, San Sebastian, Spain.,IKERBASQUE Basque Foundation for science, Bilbao, Spain
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Wang J, Faict S, Maes K, De Bruyne E, Van Valckenborgh E, Schots R, Vanderkerken K, Menu E. Extracellular vesicle cross-talk in the bone marrow microenvironment: implications in multiple myeloma. Oncotarget 2018; 7:38927-38945. [PMID: 26950273 PMCID: PMC5122441 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.7792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2015] [Accepted: 02/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The bone marrow (BM) represents a complex microenvironment containing stromal cells, immune cells, osteoclasts, osteoblasts, and hematopoietic cells, which are crucial for the immune response, bone formation, and hematopoiesis. Apart from soluble factors and direct cell-cell contact, extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, were recently identified as a third mediator for cell communication. Solid evidence has already demonstrated the involvement of various BM-derived cells and soluble factors in the regulation of multiple biological processes whereas the EV-mediated message delivery system from the BM has just been explored in recent decades. These EVs not only perform physiological functions but can also play a role in cancer development, including in Multiple Myeloma (MM) which is a plasma cell malignancy predominantly localized in the BM. This review will therefore focus on the multiple functions of EVs derived from BM cells, the manipulation of the BM by cancer-derived EVs, and the role of BM EVs in MM progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinheng Wang
- Department of Hematology and Immunology, Myeloma Center Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussels (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Sylvia Faict
- Department of Hematology and Immunology, Myeloma Center Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussels (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Ken Maes
- Department of Hematology and Immunology, Myeloma Center Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussels (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Elke De Bruyne
- Department of Hematology and Immunology, Myeloma Center Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussels (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Els Van Valckenborgh
- Department of Hematology and Immunology, Myeloma Center Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussels (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Rik Schots
- Department of Clinical Hematology, Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Karin Vanderkerken
- Department of Hematology and Immunology, Myeloma Center Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussels (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Eline Menu
- Department of Hematology and Immunology, Myeloma Center Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussels (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
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39
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Whiteside TL. The effect of tumor-derived exosomes on immune regulation and cancer immunotherapy. Future Oncol 2017; 13:2583-2592. [PMID: 29198150 PMCID: PMC5827821 DOI: 10.2217/fon-2017-0343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2017] [Accepted: 09/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor-derived exosomes (TEX) carry both immunosuppressive and immunostimulatory receptor/ligands that in part mimic the profiles of the parent tumor cells. Operating as an intercellular communication system, TEX deliver protumor or antitumor signals to immune and nonimmune cells reprogramming their functions. Mechanisms responsible for cellular reprogramming include cell surface signaling and/or uptake of TEX by recipient cells. Once internalized, TEX transfer mRNA, miRNA and proteins that promote transcriptional/translational activities. TEX-mediated signaling is contextual and, in the tumor microenvironment, TEX largely mediate suppression. TEX may interfere with immune therapies either by sequestration of therapeutic antibodies or elimination of vaccine-induced or adoptively-transferred immune effector cells. TEX are emerging as an ubiquitous subcellular system regulating immune responses in patients with cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa L Whiteside
- Departments of Pathology, Immunology & Otolaryngology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine & UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
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40
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Huang F, Wan J, Hao S, Deng X, Chen L, Ma L. TGF-β1-silenced leukemia cell-derived exosomes target dendritic cells to induce potent anti-leukemic immunity in a mouse model. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2017; 66:1321-1331. [PMID: 28601924 PMCID: PMC11028598 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-017-2028-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Tumor-derived exosomes (TEX) can induce a specific antitumor immune response and have been developed as a promising tumor vaccine. Despite promising preclinical data, TEX exhibit relatively low efficacy and limited clinical benefit in clinical trials. In the present study, we investigated whether exosomes from the TGF-β1 silenced L1210 cells (LEXTGF-β1si) can enhance the efficacy of DC-based vaccines. We silenced TGF-β1 in L1210 cells with a lentiviral shRNA vector and prepared the LEXTGF-β1si. It was shown that LEXTGF-β1si can significantly decrease TGF-β1 expression of dendritic cells (DC) and effectively promote their maturation and immune function. In addition, DC pulsed with LEXTGF-β1si (DCLEX-TGF-β1si) more effectively promoted CD4+ T cell proliferation in vitro and Th1 cytokine secretion and induced tumor-specific CTL response. This response was higher in potency compared to that noted by the other two formulations. Moreover, DCLEX-TGF-β1si inhibited tumor growth more efficiently than other formulations did as the preventive or therapeutic tumor vaccine. Accordingly, these findings revealed that DCLEX-TGF-β1si induced a more potent antigen-specific anti-leukemic immunity than DC pulsed with exosomes from non-manipulated L1210 cells. This indicated that the targeting of DC by LEXTGF-β1si may be used as a promising approach for leukemia immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Huang
- Department of Hematology, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, 1665# Kongjiang Road, Shanghai, 200090, China
| | - Jiangbo Wan
- Department of Hematology, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, 1665# Kongjiang Road, Shanghai, 200090, China
| | - Siguo Hao
- Department of Hematology, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, 1665# Kongjiang Road, Shanghai, 200090, China.
| | - Xiaohui Deng
- Department of Hematology, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, 1665# Kongjiang Road, Shanghai, 200090, China
| | - Linjun Chen
- Department of Hematology, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, 1665# Kongjiang Road, Shanghai, 200090, China
| | - Liyuan Ma
- Department of Hematology, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, 1665# Kongjiang Road, Shanghai, 200090, China
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41
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Fang RH, Jiang Y, Fang JC, Zhang L. Cell membrane-derived nanomaterials for biomedical applications. Biomaterials 2017; 128:69-83. [PMID: 28292726 PMCID: PMC5417338 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2017.02.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 300] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2017] [Revised: 02/28/2017] [Accepted: 02/28/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The continued evolution of biomedical nanotechnology has enabled clinicians to better detect, prevent, manage, and treat human disease. In order to further push the limits of nanoparticle performance and functionality, there has recently been a paradigm shift towards biomimetic design strategies. By taking inspiration from nature, the goal is to create next-generation nanoparticle platforms that can more effectively navigate and interact with the incredibly complex biological systems that exist within the body. Of great interest are cellular membranes, which play essential roles in biointerfacing, self-identification, signal transduction, and compartmentalization. In this review, we explore the major ways in which researchers have directly leveraged cell membrane-derived biomaterials for the fabrication of novel nanotherapeutics and nanodiagnostics. Such emerging technologies have the potential to significantly advance the field of nanomedicine, helping to improve upon traditional modalities while also enabling novel applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronnie H Fang
- Department of NanoEngineering and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Yao Jiang
- Department of NanoEngineering and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Jean C Fang
- Department of NanoEngineering and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Liangfang Zhang
- Department of NanoEngineering and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
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42
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Al-Samadi A, Awad SA, Tuomainen K, Zhao Y, Salem A, Parikka M, Salo T. Crosstalk between tongue carcinoma cells, extracellular vesicles, and immune cells in in vitro and in vivo models. Oncotarget 2017; 8:60123-60134. [PMID: 28947958 PMCID: PMC5601126 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.17768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2016] [Accepted: 04/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The crosstalk between immune cells, cancer cells, and extracellular vesicles (EVs) secreted by cancer cells remains poorly understood. We created three-dimensional (3D) cell culture models using human leiomyoma discs and Myogel to study the effects of immune cells on highly (HSC-3) and less (SCC-25) invasive oral tongue squamous cell carcinoma (OTSCC) cell lines. Additionally, we studied the effects of EVs isolated from these cell lines on the cytotoxicity of CD8+ T and NK cells isolated from three healthy donors. Our analysis included the effects of these EVs on innate immunity in zebrafish larvae. Activated immune cells significantly decreased the proliferation of both OTSCC cell lines and associated with a diminished invasion area of HSC-3 cells. In general, EVs from SCC-25 increased the cytotoxic activity of CD8+ T and NK cells more than those from HSC-3 cells. However, this effect varied depending on the source and the immune and cancer cell subgroups. In zebrafish, the amount of IL-13 mRNA was decreased by SCC-25 EVs. This study describes promising in vitro and in vivo models to investigate interactions between immune cells, cancer cells, and EVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Al-Samadi
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Diseases, Clinicum, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Shady Adnan Awad
- Hematology Research Unit, Department of Hematology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Central Hospital Comprehensive Cancer Center, Helsinki, Finland.,Clinical Pathology Department, National Cancer Institute, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Katja Tuomainen
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Diseases, Clinicum, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Yue Zhao
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Diseases, Clinicum, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Abdelhakim Salem
- Department of Internal Medicine, Clinicum, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Mataleena Parikka
- Faculty of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland.,Oral and Maxillofacial Unit, Tampere University Hospital, Tampere, Finland
| | - Tuula Salo
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Diseases, Clinicum, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Cancer and Translational Medicine Research Unit, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.,Medical Research Center, Oulu University Hospital, Oulu, Finland
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43
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Wang N, Xie L. Diagnostic and therapeutic applications of tumor-associated exosomes. PRECISION RADIATION ONCOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/pro6.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ning Wang
- School of Medicine and Life Sciences; University of Jinan, Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences; Jinan Shandong Province China
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology; Shandong Cancer Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University; Jinan Shandong Province China
| | - Li Xie
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology; Shandong Cancer Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University; Jinan Shandong Province China
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44
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Inamdar S, Nitiyanandan R, Rege K. Emerging applications of exosomes in cancer therapeutics and diagnostics. Bioeng Transl Med 2017; 2:70-80. [PMID: 28529978 PMCID: PMC5413841 DOI: 10.1002/btm2.10059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2016] [Revised: 02/26/2017] [Accepted: 03/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Exosomes are nanoscale extracellular vesicles that are shed from different cells in the body. Exosomes encapsulate several biomolecules including lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, and can therefore play a key role in cellular communication. These vesicles can be isolated from different body fluids and their small sizes make them attractive in various biomedical applications. Here, we review state-of-the art approaches in exosome isolation and purification, and describe their potential use in cancer vaccines, drug delivery, and diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahil Inamdar
- Chemical EngineeringArizona State UniversityTempeAZ 85287
| | | | - Kaushal Rege
- Chemical EngineeringArizona State UniversityTempeAZ 85287
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45
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Whiteside TL. Exosomes in Cancer: Another Mechanism of Tumor-Induced Immune Suppression. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2017; 1036:81-89. [PMID: 29275466 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-67577-0_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes are the smallest extracellular vesicles (EV) produced under physiological and pathological conditions by all cells and present in all body fluids. They are critical components of the intercellular communication network. Tumor cells release exosomes which are enriched in immunosuppressive molecules as well as biologically-active soluble factors and enzymes. Tumor-derived exosomes (TEX) interact with immune effector cells in the tumor microenvironment and in the circulation, deliver negative signals to these cells and interfere with their anti-tumor functions. By suppressing functions of immune effector cells, TEX promote tumor progression and facilitate tumor escape from the immune system. Thus, TEX can be viewed as immune checkpoint inhibitors. Silencing of TEX-mediated immune inhibition without disrupting the physiologically important cellular communication networks represents a considerable challenge. Current efforts are directed at achieving a better understanding of the role exosomes play in cancer progression and/or outcome and of molecular/genetic mechanisms responsible for immunoinhibitory activity of TEX.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa L Whiteside
- Departments of Pathology, Immunology and Otolaryngology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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46
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Exosome-based tumor antigens–adjuvant co-delivery utilizing genetically engineered tumor cell-derived exosomes with immunostimulatory CpG DNA. Biomaterials 2016; 111:55-65. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2016.09.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2016] [Accepted: 09/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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47
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Camisaschi C, Vallacchi V, Vergani E, Tazzari M, Ferro S, Tuccitto A, Kuchuk O, Shahaj E, Sulsenti R, Castelli C, Rodolfo M, Rivoltini L, Huber V. Targeting Immune Regulatory Networks to Counteract Immune Suppression in Cancer. Vaccines (Basel) 2016; 4:vaccines4040038. [PMID: 27827921 PMCID: PMC5192358 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines4040038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2016] [Revised: 09/14/2016] [Accepted: 10/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The onset of cancer is unavoidably accompanied by suppression of antitumor immunity. This occurs through mechanisms ranging from the progressive accumulation of regulatory immune cells associated with chronic immune stimulation and inflammation, to the expression of immunosuppressive molecules. Some of them are being successfully exploited as therapeutic targets, with impressive clinical results achieved in patients, as in the case of immune checkpoint inhibitors. To limit immune attack, tumor cells exploit specific pathways to render the tumor microenvironment hostile for antitumor effector cells. Local acidification might, in fact, anergize activated T cells and facilitate the accumulation of immune suppressive cells. Moreover, the release of extracellular vesicles by tumor cells can condition distant immune sites contributing to the onset of systemic immune suppression. Understanding which mechanisms may be prevalent in specific cancers or disease stages, and identifying possible strategies to counterbalance would majorly contribute to improving clinical efficacy of cancer immunotherapy. Here, we intend to highlight these mechanisms, how they could be targeted and the tools that might be available in the near future to achieve this goal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Camisaschi
- Unit of Immunotherapy of Human Tumors, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Viviana Vallacchi
- Unit of Immunotherapy of Human Tumors, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Elisabetta Vergani
- Unit of Immunotherapy of Human Tumors, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Marcella Tazzari
- Unit of Immunotherapy of Human Tumors, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Simona Ferro
- Unit of Immunotherapy of Human Tumors, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Alessandra Tuccitto
- Unit of Immunotherapy of Human Tumors, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Olga Kuchuk
- Mount Sinai Liver Cancer Program, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA.
| | - Eriomina Shahaj
- Unit of Immunotherapy of Human Tumors, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Roberta Sulsenti
- Unit of Immunotherapy of Human Tumors, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Chiara Castelli
- Unit of Immunotherapy of Human Tumors, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Monica Rodolfo
- Unit of Immunotherapy of Human Tumors, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Licia Rivoltini
- Unit of Immunotherapy of Human Tumors, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Veronica Huber
- Unit of Immunotherapy of Human Tumors, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, 20133 Milan, Italy.
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48
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Joyce DP, Kerin MJ, Dwyer RM. Exosome-encapsulated microRNAs as circulating biomarkers for breast cancer. Int J Cancer 2016; 139:1443-8. [PMID: 27170104 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.30179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2016] [Revised: 04/22/2016] [Accepted: 05/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Breast cancer is a highly prevalent disease, accounting for 29% of invasive cancers in women. Survival from this disease depends on the stage at diagnosis, with patients who are detected earlier having more favourable outcomes. It is because of this that research groups are focusing on the development of a blood-based biomarker for breast cancer. Such biomarkers may facilitate the detection of breast cancer in its infancy before it has spread beyond the primary site. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have shown immense potential in this setting. These short, non-coding RNA sequences have been shown to be dysregulated in breast cancer. Despite showing immense promise, miRNAs have not been successfully implemented in the clinical setting due to a lack of a standardised approach which has resulted in conflicting results. These challenges may be addressed at least in part through the study of exosomes. The biomarker potential for exosomes holds huge promise and may revolutionise the way in which we diagnose and manage breast cancer. These nanovesicles may be isolated from a variety of bodily fluids, including serum, and their miRNA content has been shown to reflect that of the parent breast cancer cell. This review will highlight the nomenclature and defining characteristics of exosomes, and current methods of isolation of serum-derived exosomes. Initial promising reports on the potential utility of exosomal miRNAs to be used as breast cancer biomarkers will also be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doireann P Joyce
- Discipline of Surgery, School of Medicine, Lambe Institute for Translational Research, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Michael J Kerin
- Discipline of Surgery, School of Medicine, Lambe Institute for Translational Research, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Róisín M Dwyer
- Discipline of Surgery, School of Medicine, Lambe Institute for Translational Research, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland
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49
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Burrello J, Monticone S, Gai C, Gomez Y, Kholia S, Camussi G. Stem Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles and Immune-Modulation. Front Cell Dev Biol 2016; 4:83. [PMID: 27597941 PMCID: PMC4992732 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2016.00083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 191] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2016] [Accepted: 08/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Extra-cellular vesicles (EVs) are bilayer membrane structures enriched with proteins, nucleic acids, and other active molecules and have been implicated in many physiological and pathological processes over the past decade. Recently, evidence suggests EVs to play a more dichotomic role in the regulation of the immune system, whereby an immune response may be enhanced or supressed by EVs depending on their cell of origin and its functional state. EVs derived from antigen (Ag)-presenting cells for instance, have been involved in both innate and acquired (or adaptive) immune responses, as Ag carriers or presenters, or as vehicles for delivering active signaling molecules. On the other hand, tumor and stem cell derived EVs have been identified to exert an inhibitory effect on immune responses by carrying immuno-modulatory effectors, such as transcriptional factors, non-coding RNA (Species), and cytokines. In addition, stem cell-derived EVs have also been reported to impair dendritic cell maturation and to regulate the activation, differentiation, and proliferation of B cells. They have been shown to control natural killer cell activity and to suppress the innate immune response (IIR). Studies reporting the role of EVs on T lymphocyte modulation are controversial. Discrepancy in literature may be due to stem cell culture conditions, methods of EV purification, EV molecular content, and functional state of both parental and target cells. However, mesenchymal stem cell-derived EVs were shown to play a more suppressive role by shifting T cells from an activated to a T regulatory phenotype. In this review, we will discuss how stem cell-derived EVs may contribute toward the modulation of the immune response. Collectively, stem cell-derived EVs mainly exhibit an inhibitory effect on the immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacopo Burrello
- Stem Cell Laboratory, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Torino Torino, Italy
| | - Silvia Monticone
- Stem Cell Laboratory, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Torino Torino, Italy
| | - Chiara Gai
- Stem Cell Laboratory, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Torino Torino, Italy
| | - Yonathan Gomez
- Stem Cell Laboratory, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Torino Torino, Italy
| | - Sharad Kholia
- Stem Cell Laboratory, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Torino Torino, Italy
| | - Giovanni Camussi
- Stem Cell Laboratory, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Torino Torino, Italy
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50
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Heiler S, Wang Z, Zöller M. Pancreatic cancer stem cell markers and exosomes - the incentive push. World J Gastroenterol 2016; 22:5971-6007. [PMID: 27468191 PMCID: PMC4948278 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v22.i26.5971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2016] [Revised: 06/03/2016] [Accepted: 06/28/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Pancreatic cancer (PaCa) has the highest death rate and incidence is increasing. Poor prognosis is due to late diagnosis and early metastatic spread, which is ascribed to a minor population of so called cancer stem cells (CSC) within the mass of the primary tumor. CSC are defined by biological features, which they share with adult stem cells like longevity, rare cell division, the capacity for self renewal, differentiation, drug resistance and the requirement for a niche. CSC can also be identified by sets of markers, which for pancreatic CSC (Pa-CSC) include CD44v6, c-Met, Tspan8, alpha6beta4, CXCR4, CD133, EpCAM and claudin7. The functional relevance of CSC markers is still disputed. We hypothesize that Pa-CSC markers play a decisive role in tumor progression. This is fostered by the location in glycolipid-enriched membrane domains, which function as signaling platform and support connectivity of the individual Pa-CSC markers. Outside-in signaling supports apoptosis resistance, stem cell gene expression and tumor suppressor gene repression as well as miRNA transcription and silencing. Pa-CSC markers also contribute to motility and invasiveness. By ligand binding host cells are triggered towards creating a milieu supporting Pa-CSC maintenance. Furthermore, CSC markers contribute to the generation, loading and delivery of exosomes, whereby CSC gain the capacity for a cell-cell contact independent crosstalk with the host and neighboring non-CSC. This allows Pa-CSC exosomes (TEX) to reprogram neighboring non-CSC towards epithelial mesenchymal transition and to stimulate host cells towards preparing a niche for metastasizing tumor cells. Finally, TEX communicate with the matrix to support tumor cell motility, invasion and homing. We will discuss the possibility that CSC markers are the initial trigger for these processes and what is the special contribution of CSC-TEX.
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