Resources, Production Scales and Time Required for Producing RNA Vaccines for the Global Pandemic Demand

Quality by design approach to improve quality and decrease cost of in vitro transcription of mRNA using design of experiments

In vitro transcription (IVT) reaction is an RNA polymerase-catalyzed production of messenger RNA (mRNA) from DNA template, and the unit operation with highest cost of goods in the mRNA drug substance production process. To decrease the cost of mRNA production, reagents should be optimally utilized. Due to the catalytic, multicomponent nature of the IVT reaction, optimization is a multi-factorial problem, ideally suited to design-of-experiment approach for optimization and identification of design space. We derived a data-driven model of the IVT reaction and explored factors that drive process yield (in g/L), including impact of nucleoside triphosphate (NTP) concentration and Mg:NTP ratio on reaction yield and how to optimize the main cost drivers RNA polymerase and DNA template, while minimizing dsRNA formation, a critical quality attribute in mRNA products. We report a methodological approach to derive an optimum reaction design, with which cost efficiency of the reaction was improved by 44%. We demonstrate the validity of the model on mRNA construct of different lengths. Finally, we maximized the yield of the IVT reaction to 24.9 ± 1.5 g/L in batch, thus doubling the highest ever reported IVT yield.

Advances in the design and delivery of RNA vaccines for infectious diseases

RNA medicines represent a paradigm shift in treatment and prevention of critical diseases of global significance, e.g., infectious diseases. The highly successful messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) were developed at record speed during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic. A consequence of this is exceptionally shortened vaccine development times, which in combination with adaptability makes the RNA vaccine technology highly attractive against infectious diseases and for pandemic preparedness. Here, we review state of the art in the design and delivery of RNA vaccines for infectious diseases based on different RNA modalities, including linear mRNA, self-amplifying RNA, trans-amplifying RNA, and circular RNA. We provide an overview of the clinical pipeline of RNA vaccines for infectious diseases, and present analytical procedures, which are paramount for characterizing quality attributes and guaranteeing their quality, and we discuss future perspectives for using RNA vaccines to combat pathogens beyond SARS-CoV-2.

Vaccine process technology-A decade of progress

In the past decade, new approaches to the discovery and development of vaccines have transformed the field. Advances during the COVID-19 pandemic allowed the production of billions of vaccine doses per year using novel platforms such as messenger RNA and viral vectors. Improvements in the analytical toolbox, equipment, and bioprocess technology have made it possible to achieve both unprecedented speed in vaccine development and scale of vaccine manufacturing. Macromolecular structure-function characterization technologies, combined with improved modeling and data analysis, enable quantitative evaluation of vaccine formulations at single-particle resolution and guided design of vaccine drug substances and drug products. These advances play a major role in precise assessment of critical quality attributes of vaccines delivered by newer platforms. Innovations in label-free and immunoassay technologies aid in the characterization of antigenic sites and the development of robust in vitro potency assays. These methods, along with molecular techniques such as next-generation sequencing, will accelerate characterization and release of vaccines delivered by all platforms. Process analytical technologies for real-time monitoring and optimization of process steps enable the implementation of quality-by-design principles and faster release of vaccine products. In the next decade, the field of vaccine discovery and development will continue to advance, bringing together new technologies, methods, and platforms to improve human health.

Mechanistic modeling of in vitro transcription incorporating effects of magnesium pyrophosphate crystallization

The in vitro transcription (IVT) reaction used in the production of messenger RNA vaccines and therapies remains poorly quantitatively understood. Mechanistic modeling of IVT could inform reaction design, scale-up, and control. In this work, we develop a mechanistic model of IVT to include nucleation and growth of magnesium pyrophosphate crystals and subsequent agglomeration of crystals and DNA. To help generalize this model to different constructs, a novel quantitative description is included for the rate of transcription as a function of target sequence length, DNA concentration, and T7 RNA polymerase concentration. The model explains previously unexplained trends in IVT data and quantitatively predicts the effect of adding the pyrophosphatase enzyme to the reaction system. The model is validated on additional literature data showing an ability to predict transcription rates as a function of RNA sequence length.

The paths toward non-viral CAR-T cell manufacturing: A comprehensive review of state-of-the-art methods

Although CAR-T cell therapy has emerged as a game-changer in cancer immunotherapy several bottlenecks limit its widespread use as a front-line therapy. Current protocols for the production of CAR-T cells rely mainly on the use of lentiviral/retroviral vectors. Nevertheless, according to the safety concerns around the use of viral vectors, there are several regulatory hurdles to their clinical use. Large-scale production of viral vectors under "Current Good Manufacturing Practice" (cGMP) involves rigorous quality control assessments and regulatory requirements that impose exorbitant costs on suppliers and as a result, lead to a significant increase in the cost of treatment. Pursuing an efficient non-viral method for genetic modification of immune cells is a hot topic in cell-based gene therapy. This study aims to investigate the current state-of-the-art in non-viral methods of CAR-T cell manufacturing. In the first part of this study, after reviewing the advantages and disadvantages of the clinical use of viral vectors, different non-viral vectors and the path of their clinical translation are discussed. These vectors include transposons (sleeping beauty, piggyBac, Tol2, and Tc Buster), programmable nucleases (ZFNs, TALENs, and CRISPR/Cas9), mRNA, plasmids, minicircles, and nanoplasmids. Afterward, various methods for efficient delivery of non-viral vectors into the cells are reviewed.

Membrane technology for the purification of RNA and DNA therapeutics

Nucleic acid therapeutics have the potential to revolutionize the biopharmaceutical industry, providing highly effective vaccines and novel treatments for cancers and genetic disorders. The successful commercialization of these therapeutics will require development of manufacturing strategies specifically tailored to the purification of nucleic acids. Membrane technologies already play a critical role in the downstream processing of nucleic acid therapeutics, ranging from clarification to concentration to selective purification. This review provides an overview of how membrane systems are currently used for nucleic acid purification, while highlighting areas of future need and opportunity, including adoption of membranes in continuous bioprocessing.

Comprehensive evaluation of T7 promoter for enhanced yield and quality in mRNA production

The manufacturing of mRNA vaccines relies on cell-free based systems that are easily scalable and flexible compared with the traditional vaccine manufacturing processes. Typically, standard processes yield 2 to 5 g L-1 of mRNA, with recent process optimisations increasing yields to 12 g L-1. However, increasing yields can lead to an increase in the production of unwanted by-products, namely dsRNA. It is therefore imperative to reduce dsRNA to residual levels in order to avoid intensive purification steps, enabling cost-effective manufacturing processes. In this work, we exploit sequence modifications downstream of the T7 RNA polymerase promoter to increase mRNA yields whilst simultaneously minimising dsRNA. In particular, transcription performance was optimised by modifying the sequence downstream of the T7 promoter with additional AT-rich sequences. We have identified variants that were able to produce higher amounts of mRNA (up to 14 g L-1) in 45 min of reaction. These variants exhibited up to a 30% reduction in dsRNA byproduct levels compared to a wildtype T7 promoter, and have similar EGFP protein expression. The results show that optimising the non-coding regions can have an impact on mRNA production yields and quality, reducing overall manufacturing costs.

Efficient in vitro and in vivo transfection of self-amplifying mRNA with linear poly(propylenimine) and poly(ethylenimine-propylenimine) random copolymers as non-viral carriers

Messenger RNA (mRNA) based vaccines have been introduced worldwide to combat the Covid-19 pandemic. These vaccines consist of non-amplifying mRNA formulated in lipid nanoparticles (LNPs). Consequently, LNPs are considered benchmark non-viral carriers for nucleic acid delivery. However, the formulation and manufacturing of these mRNA-LNP nanoparticles are expensive and time-consuming. Therefore, we used self-amplifying mRNA (saRNA) and synthesized novel polymers as alternative non-viral carrier platform to LNPs, which enable a simple, rapid, one-pot formulation of saRNA-polyplexes. Our novel polymer-based carrier platform consists of randomly concatenated ethylenimine and propylenimine comonomers, resulting in linear, poly(ethylenimine-ran-propylenimine) (L-PEIx-ran-PPIy) copolymers with controllable degrees of polymerization. Here we demonstrate in multiple cell lines, that our saRNA-polyplexes show comparable to higher in vitro saRNA transfection efficiencies and higher cell viabilities compared to formulations with Lipofectamine MessengerMAX™ (LFMM), a commercial, lipid-based carrier considered to be the in vitro gold standard carrier. This is especially true for our in vitro best performing saRNA-polyplexes with N/P 5, which are characterised with a size below 100 nm, a positive zeta potential, a near 100% encapsulation efficiency, a high retention capacity and the ability to protect the saRNA from degradation mediated by RNase A. Furthermore, an ex vivo hemolysis assay with pig red blood cells demonstrated that the saRNA-polyplexes exhibit negligible hemolytic activity. Finally, a bioluminescence-based in vivo study was performed over a 35-day period, and showed that the polymers result in a higher and prolonged bioluminescent signal compared to naked saRNA and L-PEI based polyplexes. Moreover, the polymers show different expression profiles compared to those of LNPs, with one of our new polymers (L-PPI250) demonstrating a higher sustained expression for at least 35 days after injection.

Cell-Free Synthesis: Expediting Biomanufacturing of Chemical and Biological Molecules

The increasing demand for sustainable alternatives underscores the critical need for a shift away from traditional hydrocarbon-dependent processes. In this landscape, biomanufacturing emerges as a compelling solution, offering a pathway to produce essential chemical materials with significantly reduced environmental impacts. By utilizing engineered microorganisms and biomass as raw materials, biomanufacturing seeks to achieve a carbon-neutral footprint, effectively counteracting the carbon dioxide emissions associated with fossil fuel use. The efficiency and specificity of biocatalysts further contribute to lowering energy consumption and enhancing the sustainability of the production process. Within this context, cell-free synthesis emerges as a promising approach to accelerate the shift towards biomanufacturing. Operating with cellular machinery in a controlled environment, cell-free synthesis offers multiple advantages: it enables the rapid evaluation of biosynthetic pathways and optimization of the conditions for the synthesis of specific chemicals. It also holds potential as an on-demand platform for the production of personalized and specialized products. This review explores recent progress in cell-free synthesis, highlighting its potential to expedite the transformation of chemical processes into more sustainable biomanufacturing practices. We discuss how cell-free techniques not only accelerate the development of new bioproducts but also broaden the horizons for sustainable chemical production. Additionally, we address the challenges of scaling these technologies for commercial use and ensuring their affordability, which are critical for cell-free systems to meet the future demands of industries and fully realize their potential.

Clinical and Preclinical Methods of Heat-Stabilization of Human Vaccines

Vaccines have historically faced challenges regarding stability, especially in regions lacking a robust cold chain infrastructure. This review delves into established and emergent techniques to improve the thermostability of vaccines. We discuss the widely practiced lyophilization method, effectively transforming liquid vaccine formulations into a solid powdered state, enhancing storage and transportation ability. However, potential protein denaturation during lyophilization necessitates alternative stabilization methods. Cryoprotectants, namely, starch and sugar molecules, have shown promise in protecting vaccine antigens and adjuvants from denaturation and augmenting the stability of biologics during freeze-drying. Biomineralization, a less studied yet innovative approach, utilizes inorganic or organic-inorganic hybrids to encapsulate biological components of vaccines with a particular emphasis on metal-organic coordination polymers. Encapsulation in organic matrices to form particles or microneedles have also been studied in the context of vaccine thermostability, showing some ability to store outside the cold-chain. Unfortunately, few of these techniques have advanced to clinical trials that evaluate differences in storage conditions. Nonetheless, early trials suggest that alternative storage techniques are viable and emphasize the need for more comprehensive studies. This review underscores the pressing need for heat-stable vaccines, especially in light of the increasing global distribution challenges. Combining traditional methods with novel approaches holds promise for the future adaptability of vaccine distribution and use.

Reviewing the process intensification landscape through the introduction of a novel, multitiered classification for downstream processing

A demand for process intensification in biomanufacturing has increased over the past decade due to the ever-expanding market for biopharmaceuticals. This is largely driven by factors such as a surge in biosimilars as patents expire, an aging population, and a rise in chronic diseases. With these market demands, pressure upon biomanufacturers to produce quality products with rapid turnaround escalates proportionally. Process intensification in biomanufacturing has been well received and accepted across industry based on the demonstration of its benefits of improved productivity and efficiency, while also reducing the cost of goods. However, while these benefits have been shown empirically, the challenges of adopting process intensification into industry remain, from smaller independent start-up to big pharma. Traditionally, moving from batch to a process intensification scheme has been viewed as an "all or nothing" approach involving continuous bioprocessing, in which the factors of complexity and significant capital costs hinder its adoption. In addition, the literature is crowded with a variety of terms used to describe process intensification (continuous, periodic counter-current, connected, intensified, steady-state, etc.). Often, these terms are used inappropriately or as synonyms, which generates confusion in the field. Through a detailed review of current state-of-the-art systems, consumables, and process intensification case studies, we herein propose a defined approach in the implementation of downstream process intensification through a standardized nomenclature and viewing it as distinct independent levels. These can function separately as intensified single-unit operations or be built upon by integration with other process steps allowing for simple, incremental, cost-effective implementation of process intensification in the manufacturing of biopharmaceuticals.

Can the Revolution in mRNA-Based Vaccine Technologies Solve the Intractable Health Issues of Current Ruminant Production Systems?

To achieve the World Health Organization's global Sustainable Development Goals, increased production of high-quality protein for human consumption is required while minimizing, ideally reducing, environmental impacts. One way to achieve these goals is to address losses within current livestock production systems. Infectious diseases are key limiters of edible protein production, affecting both quantity and quality. In addition, some of these diseases are zoonotic threats and potential contributors to the emergence of antimicrobial resistance. Vaccination has proven to be highly successful in controlling and even eliminating several livestock diseases of economic importance. However, many livestock diseases, both existing and emerging, have proven to be recalcitrant targets for conventional vaccination technologies. The threat posed by the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in unprecedented global investment in vaccine technologies to accelerate the development of safe and efficacious vaccines. While several vaccination platforms emerged as front runners to meet this challenge, the clear winner is mRNA-based vaccination. The challenge now is for livestock industries and relevant stakeholders to harness these rapid advances in vaccination to address key diseases affecting livestock production. This review examines the key features of mRNA vaccines, as this technology has the potential to control infectious diseases of importance to livestock production that have proven otherwise difficult to control using conventional approaches. This review focuses on the challenging diseases of ruminants due to their importance in global protein production. Overall, the current literature suggests that, while mRNA vaccines have the potential to address challenges in veterinary medicine, further developments are likely to be required for this promise to be realized for ruminant and other livestock species.

Novel Lipid Nanoparticles Stable and Efficient for mRNA Transfection to Antigen-Presenting Cells

mRNA vaccines have emerged as a pivotal tool in combating COVID-19, offering an advanced approach to immunization. A key challenge with these vaccines is their need for extremely-low-temperature storage, which affects their stability and shelf life. Our research addresses this issue by enhancing the stability of mRNA vaccines through a novel cationic lipid, O,O'-dimyristyl-N-lysyl aspartate (DMKD). DMKD effectively binds with mRNA, improving vaccine stability. We also integrated phosphatidylserine (PS) into the formulation to boost immune response by promoting the uptake of these nanoparticles by immune cells. Our findings reveal that DMKD-PS nanoparticles maintain structural integrity under long-term refrigeration and effectively protect mRNA. When tested, these nanoparticles containing green fluorescent protein (GFP) mRNA outperformed other commercial lipid nanoparticles in protein expression, both in immune cells (RAW 264.7 mouse macrophage) and non-immune cells (CT26 mouse colorectal carcinoma cells). Importantly, in vivo studies show that DMKD-PS nanoparticles are safely eliminated from the body within 48 h. The results suggest that DMKD-PS nanoparticles present a promising alternative for mRNA vaccine delivery, enhancing both the stability and effectiveness of these vaccines.

Enabling mRNA Therapeutics: Current Landscape and Challenges in Manufacturing

Recent advances and discoveries in the structure and role of mRNA as well as novel lipid-based delivery modalities have enabled the advancement of mRNA therapeutics into the clinical trial space. The manufacturing of these products is relatively simple and eliminates many of the challenges associated with cell culture production of viral delivery systems for gene and cell therapy applications, allowing rapid production of mRNA for personalized treatments, cancer therapies, protein replacement and gene editing. The success of mRNA vaccines during the COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the immense potential of this technology as a vaccination platform, but there are still particular challenges to establish mRNA as a widespread therapeutic tool. Immunostimulatory byproducts can pose a barrier for chronic treatments and different production scales may need to be considered for these applications. Moreover, long-term storage of mRNA products is notoriously difficult. This review provides a detailed overview of the manufacturing steps for mRNA therapeutics, including sequence design, DNA template preparation, mRNA production and formulation, while identifying the challenges remaining in the dose requirements, long-term storage and immunotolerance of the product.

mRNA vaccine quality analysis using RNA sequencing

The success of mRNA vaccines has been realised, in part, by advances in manufacturing that enabled billions of doses to be produced at sufficient quality and safety. However, mRNA vaccines must be rigorously analysed to measure their integrity and detect contaminants that reduce their effectiveness and induce side-effects. Currently, mRNA vaccines and therapies are analysed using a range of time-consuming and costly methods. Here we describe a streamlined method to analyse mRNA vaccines and therapies using long-read nanopore sequencing. Compared to other industry-standard techniques, VAX-seq can comprehensively measure key mRNA vaccine quality attributes, including sequence, length, integrity, and purity. We also show how direct RNA sequencing can analyse mRNA chemistry, including the detection of nucleoside modifications. To support this approach, we provide supporting software to automatically report on mRNA and plasmid template quality and integrity. Given these advantages, we anticipate that RNA sequencing methods, such as VAX-seq, will become central to the development and manufacture of mRNA drugs.

mRNA Synthesis and Encapsulation in Ionizable Lipid Nanoparticles

mRNA vaccines have recently generated significant interest due to their success during the COVID-19 pandemic. Their success is due to advances in mRNA design and encapsulation into ionizable lipid nanoparticles (iLNPs). This has highlighted the potential for the use of mRNA-iLNPs in other settings such as cancer, gene therapy, or vaccines for different infectious diseases. Here, we describe the production of mRNA-iLNPs using commercially available reagents that are suitable for use as vaccines and therapeutics. This article contains detailed protocols for the synthesis of mRNA by in vitro transcription with enzymatic capping and tailing and the encapsulation of the mRNA into iLNPs using the ionizable lipid DLin-MC3-DMA. DLin-MC3-DMA is often used as a benchmark for new formulations and provides an efficient delivery vehicle for screening mRNA design. The protocol also describes how the formulation can be adapted to other lipids. Finally, a stepwise methodology is presented for the characterization and quality control of mRNA-iLNPs, including measuring mRNA concentration and encapsulation efficiency, particle size, and zeta potential. © 2023 The Authors. Current Protocols published by Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Synthesis of mRNA by in vitro transcription and enzymatic capping and tailing Basic Protocol 2: Encapsulation of mRNA into ionizable lipid nanoparticles Alternate Protocol: Small-scale encapsulation of mRNA using preformed vesicles Basic Protocol 3: Characterization and quality control of mRNA ionizable lipid nanoparticles.

Throughput-scalable manufacturing of SARS-CoV-2 mRNA lipid nanoparticle vaccines

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are a potent delivery technology that have made it possible for the recent clinical breakthroughs in mRNA therapeutics and vaccines. A key challenge to the broader implementation of mRNA therapeutics and vaccines is the development of technology to produce precisely defined LNP formulations, with throughput that can scale from discovery to commercial manufacturing and meet the stringent manufacturing standards of the pharmaceutical industry. To address these challenges, we have developed a microfluidic chip that incorporates 1×, 10×, or 256× LNP-generating units that achieve scalable production rates of up to 17 L/h of precisely defined LNPs. Using these chips, we demonstrate that LNP physical properties and potency in vivo are unchanged as throughput is scaled. Our chips are fabricated out of silicon and glass substrates, which have excellent solvent compatibility, compatibility with pharmaceutical manufacturing, and can be fully reset and reused. SARS-CoV-2 mRNA-LNP vaccines formulated by our chips triggered potent antibody responses in a preclinical study. These results demonstrate the feasibility of directly translating microfluidic-generated LNPs to the scale necessary for commercial production.

mRNA vaccine in cancer therapy: Current advance and future outlook

Messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) vaccines are a relatively new class of vaccines that have shown great promise in the immunotherapy of a wide variety of infectious diseases and cancer. In the past 2 years, SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines have contributed tremendously against SARS-CoV2, which has prompted the arrival of the mRNA vaccine research boom, especially in the research of cancer vaccines. Compared with conventional cancer vaccines, mRNA vaccines have significant advantages, including efficient production of protective immune responses, relatively low side effects and lower cost of acquisition. In this review, we elaborated on the development of cancer vaccines and mRNA cancer vaccines, as well as the potential biological mechanisms of mRNA cancer vaccines and the latest progress in various tumour treatments, and discussed the challenges and future directions for the field.

Advancements of in vitro transcribed mRNA (IVT mRNA) to enable translation into the clinics

The accelerated progress and approval of two mRNA-based vaccines to address the SARS-CoV-2 virus were unprecedented. This record-setting feat was made possible through the solid foundation of research on in vitro transcribed mRNA (IVT mRNA) which could be utilized as a therapeutic modality. Through decades of thorough research to overcome barriers to implementation, mRNA-based vaccines or therapeutics offer many advantages to rapidly address a broad range of applications including infectious diseases, cancers, and gene editing. Here, we describe the advances that have supported the adoption of IVT mRNA in the clinics, including optimization of the IVT mRNA structural components, synthesis, and lastly concluding with different classes of IVT RNA. Continuing interest in driving IVT mRNA technology will enable a safer and more efficacious therapeutic modality to address emerging and existing diseases.

The use of RNA-based treatments in the field of cancer immunotherapy

Over the past several decades, mRNA vaccines have evolved from a theoretical concept to a clinical reality. These vaccines offer several advantages over traditional vaccine techniques, including their high potency, rapid development, low-cost manufacturing, and safe administration. However, until recently, concerns over the instability and inefficient distribution of mRNA in vivo have limited their utility. Fortunately, recent technological advancements have mostly resolved these concerns, resulting in the development of numerous mRNA vaccination platforms for infectious diseases and various types of cancer. These platforms have shown promising outcomes in both animal models and humans. This study highlights the potential of mRNA vaccines as a promising alternative approach to conventional vaccine techniques and cancer treatment. This review article aims to provide a thorough and detailed examination of mRNA vaccines, including their mechanisms of action and potential applications in cancer immunotherapy. Additionally, the article will analyze the current state of mRNA vaccine technology and highlight future directions for the development and implementation of this promising vaccine platform as a mainstream therapeutic option. The review will also discuss potential challenges and limitations of mRNA vaccines, such as their stability and in vivo distribution, and suggest ways to overcome these issues. By providing a comprehensive overview and critical analysis of mRNA vaccines, this review aims to contribute to the advancement of this innovative approach to cancer treatment.

A trans-amplifying RNA simplified to essential elements is highly replicative and robustly immunogenic in mice

Trans-amplifying RNA (taRNA) is a split-vector derivative of self-amplifying RNA (saRNA) and a promising vaccine platform. taRNA combines a non-replicating mRNA encoding an alphaviral replicase and a transreplicon (TR) RNA coding for the antigen. Upon translation, the replicase amplifies the antigen-coding TR, thereby requiring minimal amounts of TR for immunization. TR amplification by the replicase follows a complex mechanism orchestrated by genomic and subgenomic promoters (SGPs) and generates genomic and subgenomic amplicons whereby only the latter are translated into therapeutic proteins. This complexity merits simplification to improve the platform. Here, we eliminated the SGP and redesigned the 5' untranslated region to shorten the TR (STR), thereby enabling translation of the remaining genomic amplicon. We then applied a directed evolution approach to select for faster replicating STRs. The resulting evolved STR (eSTR) had acquired A-rich 5' extensions, which improved taRNA expression thanks to accelerated replication. Consequently, we reduced the minimal required TR amount by more than 10-fold without losing taRNA expression in vitro. Accordingly, eSTR-immunized mice developed greater antibody titers to taRNA-encoded influenza HA than TR-immunized mice. In summary, this work points the way for further optimization of taRNA by combining rational design and directed evolution.

Advanced delivery systems for peptide antibiotics

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) hold promise as alternatives to traditional antibiotics for preventing and treating multidrug-resistant infections. Although they have potent antimicrobial efficacy, AMPs are mainly limited by their susceptibility to proteases and potential off-site cytotoxicity. Designing the right delivery system for peptides can help to overcome such limitations, thus improving the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles of these drugs. The versatility of peptides and their genetically encodable structure make them suitable for both conventional and nucleoside-based formulations. In this review, we describe the main drug delivery procedures developed so far for peptide antibiotics: lipid nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, hydrogels, functionalized surfaces, and DNA- and RNA-based delivery systems.

Adoption of Digital Vaccination Services: It Is the Click Flow, Not the Value—An Empirical Analysis of the Vaccination Management of the COVID-19 Pandemic in Germany

This research paper examines the adoption of digital services for the vaccination during the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany. Based on a survey in Germany’s federal state with the highest vaccination rate, which used digital vaccination services, its platform configuration and adoption barriers are analyzed to understand existing and future levers for optimizing vaccination success. Though technological adoption and resistance models have been originally developed for consumer-goods markets, this study gives empirical evidence especially for the applicability of an adjusted model explaining platform adoption for vaccination services and for digital health services in general. In this model, the configuration areas of personalization, communication, and data management have a remarkable effect to lower adoption barriers, but only functional and psychological factors affect the adoption intention. Above all, the usability barrier stands out with the strongest effect, while the often-cited value barrier is not significant at all. Personalization is found to be the most important factor for managing the usability barrier and thus for addressing the needs, preferences, situation, and, ultimately, the adoption of the citizens as users. Implications are given for policy makers and managers in such a pandemic crisis to focus on the click flow and server-to-human interaction rather than emphasizing value messages or touching traditional factors.

Scalable mRNA Machine for Regulatory Approval of Variable Scale between 1000 Clinical Doses to 10 Million Manufacturing Scale Doses

The production of messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) and other biologics is performed primarily in batch mode. This results in larger equipment, cleaning/sterilization volumes, and dead times compared to any continuous approach. Consequently, production throughput is lower and capital costs are relatively high. Switching to continuous production thus reduces the production footprint and also lowers the cost of goods (COG). During process development, from the provision of clinical trial samples to the production plant, different plant sizes are usually required, operating at different operating parameters. To speed up this step, it would be optimal if only one plant with the same equipment and piping could be used for all sizes. In this study, an efficient solution to this old challenge in biologics manufacturing is demonstrated, namely the qualification and validation of a plant setup for clinical trial doses of about 1000 doses and a production scale-up of about 10 million doses. Using the current example of the Comirnaty BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine, the cost-intensive in vitro transcription was first optimized in batch so that a yield of 12 g/L mRNA was achieved, and then successfully transferred to continuous production in the segmented plug flow reactor with subsequent purification using ultra- and diafiltration, which enables the recycling of costly reactants. To realize automated process control as well as real-time product release, the use of appropriate process analytical technology is essential. This will also be used to efficiently capture the product slug so that no product loss occurs and contamination from the fill-up phase is <1%. Further work will focus on real-time release testing during a continuous operating campaign under autonomous operational control. Such efforts will enable direct industrialization in collaboration with appropriate industry partners, their regulatory affairs, and quality assurance. A production scale-operation could be directly supported and managed by data-driven decisions.

Micro and nanotechnologies: The little formulations that could

The first publication of micro- and nanotechnology in medicine was in 1798 with the use of the Cowpox virus by Edward Jenner as an attenuated vaccine against Smallpox. Since then, there has been an explosion of micro- and nanotechnologies for medical applications. The breadth of these micro- and nanotechnologies is discussed in this piece, presenting the date of their first report and their latest progression (e.g., clinical trials, FDA approval). This includes successes such as the recent severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) vaccines from Pfizer, Moderna, and Janssen (Johnson & Johnson) as well as the most popular nanoparticle therapy, liposomal Doxil. However, the enormity of the success of these platforms has not been without challenges. For example, we discuss why the production of Doxil was halted for several years, and the bankruptcy of BIND therapeutics, which relied on a nanoparticle drug carrier. Overall, the field of micro- and nanotechnology has advanced beyond these challenges and continues advancing new and novel platforms that have transformed therapies, vaccines, and imaging. In this review, a wide range of biomedical micro- and nanotechnology is discussed to serve as a primer to the field and provide an accessible summary of clinically relevant micro- and nanotechnology platforms.

Increasing yield of in vitro transcription reaction with at-line high pressure liquid chromatography monitoring

The COVID-19 pandemic triggered an unprecedented rate of development of messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) vaccines, which are produced by in vitro transcription reactions. The latter has been the focus of intense development to increase productivity and decrease cost. Optimization of in vitro transcription (IVT) depends on understanding the impact of individual reagents on the kinetics of mRNA production and the consumption of building blocks, which is hampered by slow, low-throughput, end-point analytics. We implemented a workflow based on rapid at-line high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) monitoring of consumption of nucleoside triphosphates (NTPs) with concomitant production of mRNA, with a sub-3 min read-out, allowing for adjustment of IVT reaction parameters with minimal time lag. IVT was converted to fed-batch resulting in doubling the reaction yield compared to batch IVT protocol, reaching 10 mg/ml for multiple constructs. When coupled with exonuclease digestion, HPLC analytics for quantification of mRNA was extended to monitoring capping efficiency of produced mRNA. When HPLC monitoring was applied to production of an anti-reverse cap analog (ARCA)-capped mRNA construct, which requires an approximate 4:1 ARCA:guanidine triphosphate ratio, the optimized fed-batch approach achieved productivity of 9 mg/ml with 79% capping. The study provides a methodological platform for optimization of factors influencing IVT reactions, converting the reaction from batch to fed-batch mode, determining reaction kinetics, which are critical for optimization of continuous addition of reagents, thus in principle enabling continuous manufacturing of mRNA.

An optimized live bacterial delivery vehicle safely and efficaciously delivers bacterially transcribed therapeutic nucleic acids

There is an unmet need for delivery platforms that realize the full potential of next-generation nucleic acid therapeutics. The in vivo usefulness of current delivery systems is limited by numerous weaknesses, including poor targeting specificity, inefficient access to target cell cytoplasm, immune activation, off-target effects, small therapeutic windows, limited genetic encoding and cargo capacity, and manufacturing challenges. Here we characterize the safety and efficacy of a delivery platform comprising engineered live, tissue-targeting, non-pathogenic bacteria (Escherichia coli SVC1) for intracellular cargo delivery. SVC1 bacteria are engineered to specifically bind to epithelial cells via a surface-expressed targeting ligand, to allow escape of their cargo from the phagosome, and to have minimal immunogenicity. We describe SVC1's ability to deliver short hairpin RNA (shRNA), localized SVC1 administration to various tissues, and its minimal immunogenicity. To validate the therapeutic potential of SVC1, we used it to deliver influenza-targeting antiviral shRNAs to respiratory tissues in vivo. These data are the first to establish the safety and efficacy of this bacteria-based delivery platform for use in multiple tissue types and as an antiviral in the mammalian respiratory tract. We expect that this optimized delivery platform will enable a variety of advanced therapeutic approaches.

Vaccines on demand, part II: future reality

INTRODUCTION

Prior to the emergence of SARS-CoV-2, the potential use of mRNA vaccines for a rapid pandemic response had been well described in the scientific literature, however during the SARS-CoV-2 outbreak we witnessed the large-scale deployment of the platform in a real pandemic setting. Of the three RNA platforms evaluated in clinical trials, including 1) conventional, non-amplifying mRNA (mRNA), 2) base-modified, non-amplifying mRNA (bmRNA), which incorporate chemically modified nucleotides, and 3) self-amplifying RNA (saRNA), the bmRNA technology emerged with superior clinical efficacy.

AREAS COVERED

This review describes the current state of these mRNA vaccine technologies, evaluates their strengths and limitations, and argues that saRNA may have significant advantages if the limitations of stability and complexities of manufacturing can be overcome.

EXPERT OPINION

The success of the SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines has been remarkable. However, several challenges remain to be addressed before this technology can successfully be applied broadly to other disease targets. Innovation in the areas of mRNA engineering, novel delivery systems, antigen design, and high-quality manufacturing will be required to achieve the full potential of this disruptive technology.

Split-Dose Administration Enhances Immune Responses Elicited by a mRNA/Lipid Nanoparticle Vaccine Expressing Respiratory Syncytial Virus F Protein

mRNA vaccines have recently received significant attention due to their role in combating the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. As a platform, mRNA vaccines have been shown to elicit strong humoral and cellular immune responses with acceptable safety profiles for prophylactic use. Despite their potential, industrial challenges have limited realization of the vaccine platform on a global scale. Critical among these challenges are supply chain considerations, including mRNA production, cost of goods, and vaccine frozen-chain distribution. Here, we assess the delivery of lipid nanoparticle-encapsulated mRNA (mRNA/LNP) vaccines using a split-dose immunization regimen as an approach to develop mRNA dose-sparing vaccine regimens with potential to mitigate mRNA supply chain challenges. Our data demonstrate that immunization by a mRNA/LNP vaccine encoding respiratory syncytial virus pre-F (RSV pre-F) over a 9 day period elicits comparable or superior magnitude of antibodies when compared to traditional bolus immunization of the vaccine. The split-dose immunization regimens evaluated in our studies were designed to mimic reported drug or antigen release profiles from microneedle patches, highlighting the potential benefit of pairing mRNA vaccines with patch-based delivery technologies to enable sustained release and solid-state stabilization. Overall, our findings provide a proof of concept to support further investigations into the development of sustained delivery approaches for mRNA/LNP vaccines.

Recent approaches to mRNA vaccine delivery by lipid-based vectors prepared by continuous-flow microfluidic devices

Advancements in nanotechnology have resulted in the introduction of several nonviral delivery vectors for the nontoxic, efficient delivery of encapsulated mRNA-based vaccines. Lipid- and polymer-based nanoparticles (NP) have proven to be the most potent delivery systems, providing increased delivery efficiency and protection of mRNA molecules from degradation. Here, the authors provide an overview of the recent studies carried out using lipid NPs and their functionalized forms, polymeric and lipid-polymer hybrid nanocarriers utilized mainly for the encapsulation of mRNAs for gene and immune therapeutic applications. A microfluidic system as a prevalent methodology for the preparation of NPs with continuous flow enables NP size tuning, rapid mixing and production reproducibility. Continuous-flow microfluidic devices for lipid and polymeric encapsulated RNA NP production are specifically reviewed.

Modeling a sustainable vaccine supply chain for a healthcare system

This study develops a vaccine supply chain (VSC) to ensure sustainable distribution during a global crisis in a developing economy. In this study, a multi-objective mixed-integer programming (MIP) model is formulated to develop the VSC, ensuring the entire network's economic performance. This is achieved by minimizing the overall cost of vaccine distribution and ensuring environmental and social sustainability by minimizing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and maximizing job opportunities in the entire network. The shelf-life of vaccines and the uncertainty associated with demand and supply chain (SC) parameters are also considered in this study to ensure the robustness of the model. To solve the model, two recently developed metaheuristics-namely, the multi-objective social engineering optimizer (MOSEO) and multi-objective feasibility enhanced particle swarm optimization (MOFEPSO) methods-are used, and their results are compared. Further, the Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) model has been integrated into the optimization model to determine the best solution from a set of non-dominated solutions (NDSs) that prioritize environmental sustainability. The results are analyzed in the context of the Bangladeshi coronavirus disease (COVID-19) vaccine distribution systems. Numerical illustrations reveal that the MOSEO-TOPSIS model performs substantially better in designing the network than the MOFEPSO-TOPSIS model. Furthermore, the solution from MOSEO results in achieving better environmental sustainability than MOFEPSO with the same resources. Results also reflect that the proposed MOSEO-TOPSIS can help policymakers establish a VSC during a global crisis with enhanced economic, environmental, and social sustainability within the healthcare system.

Design Strategies for and Stability of mRNA-Lipid Nanoparticle COVID-19 Vaccines

Messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines have shown great preventive potential in response to the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. The lipid nanoparticle (LNP), as a non-viral vector with good safety and potency factors, is applied to mRNA delivery in the clinic. Among the recently FDA-approved SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines, lipid-based nanoparticles have been shown to be well-suited to antigen presentation and enhanced immune stimulation to elicit potent humoral and cellular immune responses. However, a design strategy for optimal mRNA-LNP vaccines has not been fully elaborated. In this review, we comprehensively and systematically discuss the research strategies for mRNA-LNP vaccines against COVID-19, including antigen and lipid carrier selection, vaccine preparation, quality control, and stability. Meanwhile, we also discuss the potential development directions for mRNA-LNP vaccines in the future. We also conduct an in-depth review of those technologies and scientific insights in regard to the mRNA-LNP field.

Toward Autonomous Production of mRNA-Therapeutics in the Light of Advanced Process Control and Traditional Control Strategies for Chromatography

mRNA-based therapeutics are predicted to have a bright future. Recently, a B2C study was published highlighting the critical bottlenecks of mRNA manufacturing. The study focused on supply bottlenecks of various chemicals as well as shortages of skilled personnel. The assessment of existing messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) vaccine processing shows the need for continuous manufacturing processes that are capable of about 80% chemical reduction and more than 70% personnel at factor five more efficient equipment utilization. The key technology to solve these problems is both a higher degree of automation and the maximization of process throughput. In this paper, the application of a quality-by-design process development approach is demonstrated, using process models as digital twins. Their systematic application leads to both robust optimized process parameters, with an increase in productivity of up to 108%, and sophisticated control concepts, preventing batch failures and minimizing the operating workload in terms of personnel and chemicals’ consumption. The approach thereby provides a data-driven decision basis for the industrialization of such processes, which fulfills the regulatory requirements of the approval authorities and paves the way for PAT integration. In the process investigated, it was shown that conventional PID-based controls can regulate fluctuations in the input streams sufficiently well. Model-based control based on digital twins may have potential above all in a further increase in productivity, but is not mandatory to implement for the industrialization of continuous mRNA manufacturing.

Using Regulatory Stances to See All the Commercial Determinants of Health

Policy Points The commercial determinants of health (CDoH) concept, which currently focuses on markets that harm health, should be expanded to refer to the interface between commerce and health, which can sometimes have positive public health consequences. The regulatory stances framework helps us classify public health preferences for regulating specific markets related to CDoH, based on the intended effects of regulations on market size. The regulatory stances a jurisdiction can adopt can be classified as ranging from prohibitionist through contractionist, permissive, and expansionist, to universalist. The regulatory stances framework increases the usefulness of the CDoH concept by expanding the conversation beyond negative determinants of health and providing a fuller view of the tools at the disposal of society to alter markets and improve health.

CONTEXT

The effects of commerce on the public health are omnipresent. The commercial determinants of health (CDoH) represent a burgeoning area of scholarly debate and activist policymaking to redress markets that adversely affect public health. The CDoH debate is a logical extension of the tobacco control movement, but, to its detriment, the CDoH conversation remains primarily focused policies and proposals that are analogous to historical tobacco control strategies.

METHODS

This paper argues that for the CDoH to develop further and broaden its appeal, it should expand to cover markets with conditional and positive impacts on health. To explain and order this conversation, a comparative framework for regulatory policy is introduced: the regulatory stances. The regulatory stances classify a regulatory policy based on the intended effect of policy on the size of a market in the future relative to the present.

FINDINGS

Some markets that interface between commerce and health do not inherently harm health. Regulatory policy toward these markets should be different in intent than regulatory policy for markets with negative health effects.

CONCLUSIONS

By using the regulatory stances framework to encompass markets that have positive or conditional effects on health as well as those that have adverse health effects, the CDoH conversation can shift away from the exclusive focus on strategies to shrink markets with adverse health impacts to consider a wider array of policy options.

Application of bioreactor technology for cell culture-based viral vaccine production: Present status and future prospects

Bioreactors are widely used in cell culture-based viral vaccine production, especially during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. In this context, the development and application of bioreactors can provide more efficient and cost-effective vaccine production to meet the global vaccine demand. The production of viral vaccines is inseparable from the development of upstream biological processes. In particular, exploration at the laboratory-scale is urgently required for further development. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the existing upstream biological processes, to enable the selection of pilot-scale conditions for academic and industrial scientists to maximize the yield and quality of vaccine development and production. Reviewing methods for optimizing the upstream process of virus vaccine production, this review discusses the bioreactor concepts, significant parameters and operational strategies related to large-scale amplification of virus. On this basis, a comprehensive analysis and evaluation of the various process optimization methods for the production of various viruses (SARS-CoV-2, Influenza virus, Tropical virus, Enterovirus, Rabies virus) in bioreactors is presented. Meanwhile, the types of viral vaccines are briefly introduced, and the established animal cell lines for vaccine production are described. In addition, it is emphasized that the co-development of bioreactor and computational biology is urgently needed to meet the challenges posed by the differences in upstream production scales between the laboratory and industry.

Self-amplifying mRNA SARS-CoV-2 vaccines raise cross-reactive immune response to variants and prevent infection in animal models

The spike (S) protein of SARS-CoV-2 plays a crucial role in cell entry, and the nucleocapsid (N) protein is highly conserved among human coronavirus homologs. For potentially broad effectiveness against both original virus and emerging variants, we developed Alphavirus-based self-amplifying mRNA (sa-mRNA) SARS-CoV-2 vaccines: an sa-mRNA S encoding a full-length S protein stabilized in a prefusion conformation and an sa-mRNA S-N co-expressing S and N proteins for the original virus. We show that these sa-mRNA SARS-CoV-2 vaccines raised potent neutralizing antibody responses in mice against not only the original virus but also the Alpha, Beta, Gamma, and Delta variants. sa-mRNA S vaccines against the Alpha and Beta variants also raised robust cross-reactive neutralizing antibody responses against their homologous viruses and heterologous variants. sa-mRNA S and sa-mRNA S-N vaccines elicited Th1-dominant, antigen-specific CD4+ T cell responses to S and N proteins and robust and broad CD8+ T cell responses to S protein. Hamsters immunized with either vaccine were fully protected from lung infection and showed significant reduction of viral load in upper respiratory tract. Our findings demonstrate that sa-mRNA SARS-CoV-2 vaccines are potent in animal models with potential to be highly effective against SARS-CoV-2 infection in humans.

Digital Twin for HIV-Gag VLP Production in HEK293 Cells

The development and adoption of digital twins (DT) for Quality-by-Design (QbD)-based processes with flexible operating points within a proven acceptable range (PAR) and automation through Advanced Process Control (APC) with Process Analytical Technology (PAT) instead of conventional process execution based on offline analytics and inflexible process set points is one of the great challenges in modern biotechnology. Virus-like particles (VLPs) are part of a line of innovative drug substances (DS). VLPs, especially those based on human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), HIV-1 Gag VLPs, have very high potential as a versatile vaccination platform, allowing for pseudotyping with heterologous envelope proteins, e.g., the S protein of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). As enveloped VLPs, optimal process control with minimal hold times is essential. This study demonstrates, for the first time, the use of a digital twin for the overall production process of HIV-1 Gag VLPs from cultivation, clarification, and purification to lyophilization. The accuracy of the digital twins is in the range of 0.8 to 1.4% in depth filtration (DF) and 4.6 to 5.2% in ultrafiltration/diafiltration (UFDF). The uncertainty due to variability in the model parameter determination is less than 4.5% (DF) and less than 3.8% (UFDF). In the DF, a prediction of the final filter capacity was demonstrated from as low as 5.8% (9mbar) of the final transmembrane pressure (TMP). The scale-up based on DT in chromatography shows optimization potential in productivity up to a factor of 2. The schedule based on DT and PAT for APC has been compared to conventional process control, and hold-time and process duration reductions by a factor of 2 have been achieved. This work lays the foundation for the short-term validation of the DT and PAT for APC in an automated S7 process environment and the conversion from batch to continuous production.

Digital Twins for scFv Production in Escherichia coli

Quality-by-Design (QbD) is demanded by regulatory authorities in biopharmaceutical production. Within the QbD frame advanced process control (APC), facilitated through process analytical technology (PAT) and digital twins (DT), plays an increasingly important role as it can help to assure to stay within the predefined proven acceptable range (PAR).This ensures high product quality, minimizes failure and is an important step towards a real-time-release testing (RTRT) that could help to accelerate time-to-market of drug substances, which is becoming even more important in light of dynamical pandemic situations. The approach is exemplified on scFv manufacturing in Escherichia coli. Simulation results from digital twins are compared to experimental data and found to be accurate and precise. Harvest is achieved by tangential flow filtration followed by product release through high pressure homogenization and subsequent clarification by tangential flow filtration. Digital twins of the membrane processes show that shear rate and transmembrane pressure are significant process parameters, which is in line with experimental data. Optimized settings were applied to 0.3 bar and a shear rate of 11,000 s−1. Productivity of chromatography steps were 5.3 g/L/d (Protein L) and 2167 g/L/d (CEX) and the final product concentration was 8 g/L. Based on digital twin results, an optimized process schedule was developed that decreased purification time to one working day, which is a factor-two reduction compared to the conventional process schedule. This work presents the basis for future studies on advanced process control and automation for biologics production in microbials in regulated industries.

Pandemic-response adenoviral vector and RNA vaccine manufacturing

Rapid global COVID-19 pandemic response by mass vaccination is currently limited by the rate of vaccine manufacturing. This study presents a techno-economic feasibility assessment and comparison of three vaccine production platform technologies deployed during the COVID-19 pandemic: (1) adenovirus-vectored (AVV) vaccines, (2) messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines, and (3) the newer self-amplifying RNA (saRNA) vaccines. Besides assessing the baseline performance of the production process, impact of key design and operational uncertainties on the productivity and cost performance of these vaccine platforms is quantified using variance-based global sensitivity analysis. Cost and resource requirement projections are computed for manufacturing multi-billion vaccine doses for covering the current global demand shortage and for providing annual booster immunisations. The model-based assessment provides key insights to policymakers and vaccine manufacturers for risk analysis, asset utilisation, directions for future technology improvements and future epidemic/pandemic preparedness, given the disease-agnostic nature of these vaccine production platforms.

Next generation self-replicating RNA vectors for vaccines and immunotherapies

RNA technology has recently come to the forefront of innovative medicines and is being explored for a wide range of therapies, including prophylactic and therapeutic vaccines, biotherapeutic protein expression and gene therapy. In addition to conventional mRNA platforms now approved for prophylactic SARS-CoV2 vaccines, synthetic self-replicating RNA vaccines are currently being evaluated in the clinic for infectious disease and oncology. The prototypical srRNA vectors in clinical development are derived from alphaviruses, specifically Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus (VEEV). While non-VEEV alphaviral strains have been explored as single cycle viral particles, their use as synthetic vectors largely remains under-utilized in clinical applications. Here we describe the potential commonalities and differences in synthetic alphaviral srRNA vectors in host cell interactions, immunogenicity, cellular delivery, and cargo expression. Thus, unlike the current thinking that VEEV-based srRNA is a one-size-fits-all platform, we argue that a new drug development approach leveraging panels of customizable, synthetic srRNA vectors will be required for clinical success.

Process Design and Optimization towards Digital Twins for HIV-Gag VLP Production in HEK293 Cells, including Purification

Despite great efforts to develop a vaccine against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes AIDS if untreated, no approved HIV vaccine is available to date. A promising class of vaccines are virus-like particles (VLPs), which were shown to be very effective for the prevention of other diseases. In this study, production of HI-VLPs using different 293F cell lines, followed by a three-step purification of HI-VLPs, was conducted. The quality-by-design-based process development was supported by process analytical technology (PAT). The HI-VLP concentration increased 12.5-fold while >80% purity was achieved. This article reports on the first general process development and optimization up to purification. Further research will focus on process development for polishing and formulation up to lyophilization. In addition, process analytical technology and process modeling for process automation and optimization by digital twins in the context of quality-by-design framework will be developed.

How COVID-19 vaccine supply chains emerged in the midst of a pandemic

Many months after COVID-19 vaccines were first authorised for public use, still limited supplies could only partially reduce the devastating loss of life and economic costs caused by the pandemic. Could additional vaccine doses have been manufactured more quickly some other way? Would alternative policy choices have made a difference? This paper provides a simple analytical framework through which to view the contours of the vaccine value chain. It then creates a new database that maps the COVID-19 vaccines of Pfizer/BioNTech, Moderna, AstraZeneca/Oxford, Johnson & Johnson, Novavax and CureVac to the product- and location-specific manufacturing supply chains that emerged in 2020 and 2021. It describes the choppy process through which dozens of other companies at nearly 100 geographically distributed facilities came together to scale up global manufacturing. The paper catalogues major pandemic policy initiatives - such as the United States' Operation Warp Speed - that are likely to have affected the timing and formation of those vaccine supply chains. Given the data, a final section identifies further questions for researchers and policymakers.