Transepithelial transport of putrescine across monolayers of the human intestinal epithelial cell line, Caco-2

Polysaccharides to postbiotics: Nurturing bone health via modulating "gut-immune axis"

The increasing prevalence of individuals affected by bone pathologies globally has sparked catastrophic concerns. Ankylosing spondylitis, osteoporosis, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, and fractures alone impact an estimated 1.71 billion people worldwide. The gut microbiota plays a crucial role in interacting with the host through the synthesis of a diverse range of metabolites called gut-associated metabolites (GAMs), which originate from external dietary substrates or endogenous host compounds. Many metabolic disorders have been linked to alterations in the gut microbiota's activity and composition. The development of metabolic illnesses has been linked to certain microbiota-derived metabolites, such as branched-chain amino acids, bile acids, short-chain fatty acids, tryptophan, trimethylamine N-oxide, and indole derivatives. Moreover, the modulation of gut microbiota through biotics (prebiotics, probiotics and postbiotics) presents a promising avenue for therapeutic intervention. Biotics selectively promote the growth of beneficial gut bacteria, thereby enhancing the production of GAMs with potential beneficial effects on bone metabolism. Understanding the intricate interplay between GAMs, and bone-associated genes through molecular informatics holds significant promise for early diagnosis, prognosis, and novel treatment strategies for various bone disorders.

High-Dose Spermidine Supplementation Does Not Increase Spermidine Levels in Blood Plasma and Saliva of Healthy Adults: A Randomized Placebo-Controlled Pharmacokinetic and Metabolomic Study

(1) Background: Spermidine is a biogenic polyamine that plays a crucial role in mammalian metabolism. As spermidine levels decline with age, spermidine supplementation is suggested to prevent or delay age-related diseases. However, valid pharmacokinetic data regarding spermidine remains lacking. Therefore, for the first time, the present study investigated the pharmacokinetics of oral spermidine supplementation. (2) Methods: This study was designed as a randomized, placebo-controlled, triple-blinded, two-armed crossover trial with two 5-day intervention phases separated by a washout phase of 9 days. In 12 healthy volunteers, 15 mg/d of spermidine was administered orally, and blood and saliva samples were taken. Spermidine, spermine, and putrescine were quantified by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The plasma metabolome was investigated using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) metabolomics. (3) Results: Compared with a placebo, spermidine supplementation significantly increased spermine levels in the plasma, but it did not affect spermidine or putrescine levels. No effect on salivary polyamine concentrations was observed. (4) Conclusions: This study's results suggest that dietary spermidine is presystemically converted into spermine, which then enters systemic circulation. Presumably, the in vitro and clinical effects of spermidine are at least in part attributable to its metabolite, spermine. It is rather unlikely that spermidine supplements with doses <15 mg/d exert any short-term effects.

c-MYC-Driven Polyamine Metabolism in Ovarian Cancer: From Pathogenesis to Early Detection and Therapy

c-MYC and its paralogues MYCN and MYCL are among the most frequently amplified and/or overexpressed oncoproteins in ovarian cancer. c-MYC plays a key role in promoting ovarian cancer initiation and progression. The polyamine pathway is a bona fide target of c-MYC signaling, and polyamine metabolism is strongly intertwined with ovarian malignancy. Targeting of the polyamine pathway via small molecule inhibitors has garnered considerable attention as a therapeutic strategy for ovarian cancer. Herein, we discuss the involvement of c-MYC signaling and that of its paralogues in promoting ovarian cancer tumorigenesis. We highlight the potential of targeting c-MYC-driven polyamine metabolism for the treatment of ovarian cancers and the utility of polyamine signatures in biofluids for early detection applications.

ADME/T-based strategies for paraquat detoxification: Transporters and enzymes

Paraquat (PQ) is a toxic, organic herbicide for which there is no specific antidote. Although banned in some countries, it is still used as an irreplaceable weed killer in others. The lack of understanding of the precise mechanism of its toxicity has hindered the development of treatments for PQ exposure. While toxicity is thought to be related to PQ-induced oxidative stress, antioxidants are limited in their ability to ameliorate the untoward biological responses to this agent. Summarized in this review are data on the absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity (ADME/T) of PQ, focusing on the essential roles of individual transporters and enzymes in these processes. Based on these findings, strategies are proposed to design and test specific and effective antidotes for the clinical management of PQ poisoning.

Transepithelial Transport Route and Liposome Encapsulation of Milk-Derived ACE-Inhibitory Peptide Arg-Leu-Ser-Phe-Asn-Pro

The purpose of the study was to investigate the transepithelial transport route of Arg-Leu-Ser-Phe-Asn-Pro (RLSFNP), a milk-derived angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory peptide, and to encapsulate RLSFNP in a liposome to improve its intestinal bioavailability. The transport route was investigated using transport inhibitors in a human intestinal Caco-2 cell monolayer model. Sodium azide and wortmannin significantly reduced the permeability of RLSFNP ( P < 0.01), indicating that energy-dependent transcytosis is involved in the transport of RLSFNP across Caco-2 cells. The hexapeptide RLSFNP was then embedded in liposomes, and the RLSFNP liposome was characterized. Afterward, the cellular uptake and transepithelial transport ability of the RLSFNP liposome across Caco-2 cell monolayers was observed. The results demonstrated that the RLSFNP liposome was successfully prepared, having a significant sustained release and storage capability. The RLSFNP liposome can be absorbed by Caco-2 cells, with an increased intestinal absorption of RLSFNP compared to RLSFNP alone. The results showed a new way to improve RLSFNP intestinal bioavailability.

Intestinal transportations of main chemical compositions of polygoni multiflori radix in caco-2 cell model

Context. Polygoni Multiflori Radix (PMR) is originated from the root of Polygonum multiflorum Thunb. and used in oriental countries for centuries. However, little researches pay close attention to the absorption of its major constituents. Objective. Transepithelial transport of TSG, RL, PL, and four anthraquinones is carried out. Materials and Methods. Caco-2 cell monolayer, which represented a well-established model for the study of intestinal transport of nutrients and xenobiotics, was used in this paper. Results. The apparent permeability coefficients (P_app) in the Caco-2 cell monolayers were TSG (2.372 × 10⁻⁹) < EG (2.391 × 10⁻⁹) < EN (2.483 × 10⁻⁹) < PL (4.917 × 10⁻⁹) < RN (1.707 × 10⁻⁸) < RL (1.778 × 10⁻⁸) < AE (1.952 × 10⁻⁸). Thus, RN, RL, and AE were considered partly absorbed, while other constituents were hardly absorbed. Discussion and Conclusion. Glycosides showed poor permeabilities than aglycones. In the meantime, TSG and EN gave out poor recovery rates in this assay, which indicated that TSG and EN may accumulate or metabolise in the Caco-2 cells. In silico prediction indicated that Gibbs energy (r = 0.751, p < 0.05) and heat of form (r = 0.701, p < 0.05) were strongly positively correlated with P_app.

Involvement of polyamines in iron(III) transport in human intestinal Caco-2 cell lines

Natural polyamines such as putrescine (Put), spermidine (Spd), and spermine (Spm), which are present in the human diet in large amounts, associated with their active transporter, are assumed to play a role in non-heme iron uptake and iron bioavailability from nutrients. Enterocytes and hepatocytes play pivotal roles in the regulation of body iron homeostasis. In this study, we report the effects of natural polyamines on iron transport in the Caco-2 cell line. In enterocyte-like Caco-2 cells, polyamines did not significantly modulate the transepithelial iron flux across the cell monolayer cultured on permeable membranes. In contrast, Spd, Spm, and to a lesser extent, Put were shown to activate Caco-2 cell iron uptake and to induce an increase in the ferritin level. This iron co-transport in enterocytes, which involved an interaction between iron and polyamine then cell uptake of the polyamine-iron complexes by the polyamine transport system, was more pronounced in proliferating than in differentiated Caco-2 cells. Moreover, it was observed at physiological concentrations of both polyamines and iron. It could thus play a role in the rapid renewal of enterocytes. These data suggest the involvement of polyamines as components of the pool of transferrin-independent iron-chelating vectors. Further investigations are needed to demonstrate their biological relevance in physiological situations.

Histamine in food: is there anything to worry about?

Biogenic mono-, di- and poly-amines are widely distributed among living organisms. The amines fulfil many important functions in the human body both in the periphery and brain. Some authors suggest that foods rich in biogenic amines, especially histamine, present high health hazards for consumers. However, this is conditional on a range of other factors. The alimentary tract is well equipped with enzymes that inactivate amines and the blood-brain barrier prevents them entering the brain from the circulation. Oxidative deamination, methylation, acetylation and transglutamylation are the degradation pathways which operate efficiently in the stomach, intestines and liver. Particularly important is oxidative deamination. Food histamine poisoning or cheese reaction, manifested itself in patients treated with drugs that inhibit amine oxidases or in patients showing an enterocytic diamine oxidase deficit. It is rather food allergy, which should worry us more, as endogenous histamine release from mast cells is more dangerous. Preventive measures should be undertaken against increases in food allergies.

Impact of dietary amino acids and polyamines on intestinal carcinogenesis and chemoprevention in mouse models

Colon cancer in humans is influenced by both genetic and dietary risk factors. The majority of colon cancers have somatic mutations in the APC (adenomatous polyposis coli) tumour-suppressor gene. Dietary arginine enhances the risk of APC-dependent colon carcinogenesis in mouse models by a mechanism involving NOS2 (nitric oxide synthase 2), as elimination of NOS2 alleles suppresses this phenotype. DFMO (difluoromethylornithine), a specific inhibitor of polyamine synthesis, also inhibits dietary arginine-induced colon carcinogenesis in C57BL/6J-Apc(Min)/J mice. The primary consequence of dietary arginine is to increase the adenoma grade in these mice. Either loss of NOS2 alleles or inhibition of polyamine synthesis suppresses the arginine-induced increase in adenoma grade. In addition to promoting intestinal carcinogenesis, polyamines can also reduce the efficacy of certain intestinal cancer chemopreventive agents. The NSAID (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug) sulindac is a potent inhibitor of intestinal carcinogenesis in the C57BL/6J-Apc(Min)/J mouse model and is used to treat humans with FAP (familial adenomatous polyposis). Dietary putrescine reduces the ability of sulindac to suppress intestinal tumorigenesis in the mouse model. These data suggest that reducing polyamine metabolism and dietary polyamine levels may enhance strategies for colon cancer chemoprevention.

Absorption Properties of Micellar Lipid Metabolites into Caco2 Cells

To elucidate the absorption characteristics of dietary lipids in the human intestine, we investigated the cellular uptake of lipid metabolites using a differential monolayer of the Caco2 cells. As lipid metabolites, several free fatty acids and 2-monoacylglycerols, were formed a mixed micelle by bile salts and lysophospholipids and they were supplied to the Caco2 cells. To estimate the effect of the mixed micelles on the permeability of cells' membranes during incubation with the mixed micelles, the transepitherial electrical resistance (TEER) value was monitored, and no pronounced changes of TEER was detected. This suggested that mixed micelles did not affect their cellular properties of the barrier measured by TEER. The lipid metabolites transferred from the mixed micelle into the Caco2 cells were determined quantitatively by an enzymatic colorimetric method and were done by thin layer chromatography (TLC) for a species of acylglycerols. These highly sensitive methods enabled us to monitor the transepithelial transports of various kinds of non-isotope-labeled various lipid metabolites. Newly re-synthesized triacylglycerols were accumulated in Caco2 cells after 30 min incubation with the mixed micelles, and their amounts increased gradually for 4 h. The secretion of re-esterified triacylglycerols into a basolateral medium from the Caco2 cells began at 2 h after the mixed micelles were added to the apical medium. The intake of external lipid metabolites by the Caco2 cells were evaluated by an initial 2-h incubation with the mixed micelles. For example, 2-monomyristin and 2-monopalmitin were more rapidly transferred into the Caco2 cells from the mixed micelles than 2-monocaprin was. On the other hand, the absorption rates of capric acid, lauric acid and myristic acid by the cells were larger than those of stearic acid and oleic acid. It revealed that the side-chain structure of these lipid metabolites affected their absorption by the Caco2 cells. The results of this study suggested that the Caco2 cell monolayer could be a useful model for investigating the involvement of dietary lipids in the transepithelial absorption in the human intestine.

Hormonal regulation of dipeptide transporter (PepT1) in Caco-2 cells with normal and anoxia/reoxygenation management

AIM: To determine the regulation effects of recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) on dipeptide transporter (PepT1) in Caco-2 cells with normal culture and anoxia/reoxygenation injury.

METHODS: A human intestinal cell monolayer (Caco-2) was used as the in vitro model of human small intestine and cephalexin as the model substrate for dipeptide transporter (PepT1). Caco-2 cells grown on Transwell membrane filters were preincubated in the presence of rhGH in the culture medium for 4 d, serum was withdrawn from monolayers for 24 h before each experiment. The transport experiments of cephalexin across apical membromes were then conducted; Caco-2 cells grown on multiple well dishes (24 pore) with normal culture or anoxia/reoxygenation injury were preincubated with rhGH as above and uptake of cephalexin was then measured.

RESULTS: The transport and uptake of cephelaxin across apical membranes of Caco-2 cells after preincubation with rhGH were significantly increased compared with controls (P = 0.045, 0.0223). Also, addition of rhGH at physiological concentration (34 nM) to incubation medium greatly stimulates cephalexin uptake by anoxia/reoxygenation injuried Caco-2 cells (P = 0.0116), while the biological functions of PepT1 in injured Caco-2 cells without rhGH were markedly downregulated. Northern blot analysis showed that the level of PepT1 mRNA of rhGH-treated injured Caco-2 cells was greatly increased compared to controls.

CONCLUSION: The present results of rhGH stimulating the uptake and transport of cephalexin indicated that rhGH greatly upregulates the physiological effects of dipeptide transporters of Caco-2 cells. The alteration in the gene expression may be a mechanism of regulation of PepT1. In addition, Caco-2 cells take up cephalexin by the Proton-dependent dipeptide transporters that closely resembles the transporters present in the intestine. Caco-2 cells represent an ideal cellular model for future studies of the dipeptide transporter.

Clinical application of serial operations with preserving spleen

AIM: To evaluate the clinical application of serial operations with preservation of spleen.

METHODS: Serial operations with preserving spleen were performed on 211 cases in our hospital from 1980 to 2000. The patient’s age ranged from 13 to 56 years, averaging 38 years. Diseases included splenic injury in 171 cases, portal hypertension in 9 cases, splenic cyst in 10 cases, and the lesion of pancreatic body and tail in 21 cases.

RESULTS: All the cases were cured, and 129 patients were followe dup from 3 mo to 3 years with the leukocyte phagocytosis test, detection of immunoglubin, CT, ^99mTc scanning and ultrasonography. The results were satisfactory.

CONCLUSION: The operations with preserving spleen were safe, feasible, and worth of clinical application.