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Roscoe MJ, Gough S, Orr R, Baumann O. A comparison of recall methods for high-stress critical incidents in police training. Heliyon 2024; 10:e36562. [PMID: 39263083 PMCID: PMC11387239 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e36562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2024] [Revised: 07/17/2024] [Accepted: 08/19/2024] [Indexed: 09/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Police officers often face critical incidents involving armed offenders, requiring the use of force to ensure safety. Eyewitness accounts, including those from officers, are crucial in the justice system but can be unreliable. Techniques such as self-authored statements and structured interviews are used to gather information, but their efficacy in high-stress situations is unclear. Previous research suggests that heightened arousal during memory encoding enhances recall, particularly for central details. This study compares recall methods (statements vs. interviews) for police officers in high-stress versus no-stress situations, focusing on central and peripheral event details. Officers participated in a simulated high-stress incident, providing memory data through both methods. Overall, no significant difference was found in memory scores between the techniques. However, analysis revealed significant differences favoring structured interviews for peripheral information. Recall that central information remained consistent across methods. These findings highlight the need for careful methodology when examining memories formed in stressful contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael John Roscoe
- Australian Federal Police, Canberra, ACT, 2600, Australia
- School of Psychology and Counseling, Queensland University of Technology, Musk Avenue, Kelvin Grove, Queensland, Australia
| | - Suzanne Gough
- Tactical Research Unit, Bond University, Robina, QLD, 4226, Australia
- Faculty of Health Sciences and Medicine, Bond University, Robina, QLD, 4226, Australia
| | - Robin Orr
- Tactical Research Unit, Bond University, Robina, QLD, 4226, Australia
- Faculty of Health Sciences and Medicine, Bond University, Robina, QLD, 4226, Australia
| | - Oliver Baumann
- Faculty of Society and Design, Bond University, Robina, QLD, 4226, Australia
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2
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Pötzl L, Wolf OT, Merz CJ. The influence of time of day on memory recognition for faces. Horm Behav 2024; 165:105633. [PMID: 39244875 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2024.105633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2024] [Revised: 08/26/2024] [Accepted: 09/03/2024] [Indexed: 09/10/2024]
Abstract
Time of day can alter memory performance in general. Its influence on memory recognition performance for faces, which is important for daily encounters with new persons or testimonies, has not been investigated yet. Importantly, high levels of the stress hormone cortisol impair memory recognition, in particular for emotional material. However, some studies also reported high cortisol levels to enhance memory recognition. Since cortisol levels in the morning are usually higher than in the evening, time of day might also influence recognition performance. In this pre-registered study with a two-day design, 51 healthy men encoded pictures of male and female faces with distinct emotional expressions on day one around noon. Memory for the faces was retrieved two days later at two consecutive testing times either in the morning (high and moderately increased endogenous cortisol levels) or in the evening (low endogenous cortisol levels). Additionally, alertness as well as salivary cortisol levels at the different timepoints was assessed. Cortisol levels were significantly higher in the morning compared to the evening group as expected, while both groups did not differ in alertness. Familiarity ratings for female stimuli were significantly better when participants were tested during moderately increased endogenous cortisol levels in the morning than during low endogenous cortisol levels in the evening, a pattern which was previously also observed for stressed versus non-stressed participants. In addition, cortisol levels during that time in the morning were positively correlated with the recollection of face stimuli in general. Thus, recognition memory performance may depend on the time of day and as well as on stimulus type, such as the difference of male and female faces. Most importantly, the results suggest that cortisol may be meaningful and worth investigating when studying the effects of time of day on memory performance. This research offers both, insights into daily encounters as well as legally relevant domains as for instance testimonies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Pötzl
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr University Bochum, Germany
| | - Oliver T Wolf
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr University Bochum, Germany
| | - Christian J Merz
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr University Bochum, Germany.
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3
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Lamprou E, Koupriza G, Vatakis A. The perception and passage of time during public speaking. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2024; 246:104268. [PMID: 38653079 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Revised: 03/27/2024] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Several studies have shown that anxious individuals experience a slower passage of time under threat conditioning. Anxiety-evoking situations have also been proposed to elevate arousal levels, which, in turn, alter one's time percept. However, the effect of social stressors on time perception remains significantly neglected. The current research aimed to investigate the impact of anxiety levels on time estimation and passage of time judgments during public speaking in healthy adults. Participants were recruited from a pool of students that had to give a presentation as part of a university course or their teaching duties. Following the presentation, they were asked to make retrospective time estimations on the duration of the latter, as well as to provide passage of time judgments. Self-reported questionnaires related to affective states, public speaking anxiety, and performance were also administered. Analysis showed that higher levels of public speaking anxiety predicted temporal overestimation and slower "feel" duration and passage of time. Moreover, the relationship between public speaking anxiety and passage of time was mediated by participants' mood states, which remained significant after -indirectly- controlling for fear of evaluation. Overall, our observations suggest that anxiety levels during public presentation significantly predict altered perception and experience of time. The latter can be explained by the speaker's mood status. Identifying the mechanisms that modulate timing under psychological stressors could complement our understanding regarding their impact on educational and social settings, as well as set the ground towards the development of early intervention and prevention strategies for those who suffer from stress-related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Efthymia Lamprou
- Multisensory and Temporal Processing Laboratory (MultiTimeLab), Department of Psychology, Panteion University of Social and Political Sciences, Athens, Greece
| | - Georgia Koupriza
- Multisensory and Temporal Processing Laboratory (MultiTimeLab), Department of Psychology, Panteion University of Social and Political Sciences, Athens, Greece
| | - Argiro Vatakis
- Multisensory and Temporal Processing Laboratory (MultiTimeLab), Department of Psychology, Panteion University of Social and Political Sciences, Athens, Greece.
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Barros Rodrigues D, Antypa D, Rimmele U. Impaired free recall of neutral but not negative material tested 105 min after cortisol administration. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2024; 211:107916. [PMID: 38554768 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2024.107916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Revised: 02/05/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
Pharmacological studies have consistently shown memory retrieval impairment after administration of cortisol, particularly pronounced for emotional laboratory material (i.e. list of emotional words). However, it is unclear how pharmacological elevation of cortisol affects memory retrieval of ecologically-relevant emotional material (i.e. similar to a newspaper article about an emotional event). In the present study, we aimed to explore whether cortisol administration affects the recall of ecologically-relevant emotional and neutral material, and when memory retrieval occurs after a longer delay (105 min). In this double-blind, pseudo-randomized, placebo-control study, 79 participants learned a negative text and a neutral text. Twenty-four hours later, they were administrated either 10 mg of hydrocortisone or placebo. After 105 min, participants engaged in free recall of both texts. The group with cortisol administration showed significantly reduced free recall compared to the placebo group. Interestingly, this memory retrieval impairment was driven by significantly lower recall after cortisol vs. placebo administration for neutral texts, but not negative texts. The current finding suggests that cortisol administration impairs neutral ecologically-relevant material while leaving emotional material unaffected. These divergent findings, compared to existing literature, emphasize the necessity of employing more ecologically validated material to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the intricate interplay between cortisol administration and memory for ecological material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Barros Rodrigues
- Emotion and Memory Laboratory, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Geneva, Switzerland; Center for Interdisciplinary Study of Gerontology and Vulnerability (CIGEV), University of Geneva, Switzerland.
| | - Despina Antypa
- Emotion and Memory Laboratory, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Geneva, Switzerland; Swiss Center of Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Switzerland; Neurocenter, University of Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Ulrike Rimmele
- Emotion and Memory Laboratory, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Geneva, Switzerland; Center for Interdisciplinary Study of Gerontology and Vulnerability (CIGEV), University of Geneva, Switzerland; Swiss Center of Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Switzerland; Neurocenter, University of Geneva, Switzerland
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5
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Ahmed F, Dubey DK, Garg R, Srivastava R. Effects of examination-induced stress on memory and blood pressure. J Family Med Prim Care 2023; 12:2757-2762. [PMID: 38186846 PMCID: PMC10771144 DOI: 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_925_23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Revised: 07/08/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Stress has been defined in many ways as a state of psychological arousal that results when the external demand is beyond what one can cope with. Stress is caused by various factors called stressors. Medical students are subjected to different kinds of stressors, such as pressure of academics with obligation to succeed, an uncertain future and difficulties of integrating into the system and different teaching protocols, which may affect their learning ability and performance. Stress has a great impact on brain mainly in the form of impaired memory and on cardiovascular function in the form of increased heart rate and blood pressure. The study was planned to assess the effects of examination induced stress on memory and blood pressure. The study was longitudinal in nature conducted at Department of Physiology, Santosh Medical College, Ghaziabad, India. Initially 100 subjects were selected from 17-24 years of age group then all the subjects were divided into two groups of 'slow-learners' and 'fast-learners' based upon their past academic performances. Readings were taken at two stages of academic year, 05 months before pre-prof examination and 03 days before pre-prof examination. Blood Pressure were measured and the memory assessments were done by using 10 subtests of PGI memory scale. We found a significant increase in stress level 3 days before the examination, compared to 5 months before the examination which in turn affected both blood pressure and memory functions. But, slow-learners were affected more compared to fast-learners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Firoz Ahmed
- Department of Physiology, Santosh Medical College, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Dinesh K. Dubey
- Department of Physiology, Santosh Medical College, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Rinku Garg
- Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences and Research, Sharda University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Rani Srivastava
- Department of Psychology, Santosh Medical College, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
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6
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Quinn ME, Shields GS. The Insidious Influence of Stress: An Integrated Model of Stress, Executive Control, and Psychopathology. Clin Psychol Sci 2023; 11:773-800. [PMID: 37701497 PMCID: PMC10497220 DOI: 10.1177/21677026221149736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/14/2023]
Abstract
Although exposure to acute stress undoubtedly contributes to psychopathology, most individuals do not develop psychopathology following stress exposure. To explain this, biological, emotional, and cognitive responses to stress have been implicated, but individual differences in executive control (i.e., top-down control of cognition and behavior) measured in response to stress has only recently emerged as a potential factor contributing to psychopathology. In this review, we introduce a model-the integrated model of stress, executive control, and psychopathology-positing how the impairing effects of acute stress on executive control can contribute to psychopathology. We link to research on biological, emotional, and cognitive processes, all of which can be impacted by executive control, to propose a framework for how poorer executive control under conditions of acute stress can contribute to psychopathology. This integrated model is intended to further our understanding of who is more susceptible to the negative consequences of stress.
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7
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Pötzl L, Wolf OT, Merz CJ. Rapid and delayed stress effects on recognition of female and male faces. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2023; 150:106043. [PMID: 36731350 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2023.106043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Revised: 01/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Stress and the stress hormone cortisol typically impair memory recognition, especially for emotional words, scenes or objects. However, prior research almost exclusively focused on rapid non-genomic cortisol effects. Additionally, findings for stress hormone effects on face stimuli are contradictory and rare, although very relevant for everyday life. In this preregistered study, we investigated the rapid and delayed stress effects on memory recognition for faces. In a two-day design, 52 healthy men first encoded pictures of male and female faces with distinct emotional expressions. One day later, participants were exposed to a psychophysiological stress (Socially Evaluated Cold-Pressor Test) or a (warm water) control procedure. Memory for the faces was tested at two time points: 25 min after stress onset at the peak of the cortisol increase for stressed participants (rapid non-genomic cortisol effects, which presumably operate within minutes through membrane bound receptors), as well as 90 min after stress onset when cortisol concentrations were back to baseline (delayed genomic cortisol effects, which describe an altered gene transcription resulting in modified neural functions, acting supposedly via intracellular receptors). Rapid stress effects led to enhanced memory recognition for female faces selectively, whereas delayed stress effects led to enhanced memory recognition across male and female faces. Altogether, we observed a beneficial rather than detrimental impact of stress on face recognition with a differential impact on recognition of male and female faces over time. It remains to be determined if this beneficial stress effect relies on the interaction of participants' sex and the sex of facial stimuli. Future research should also more closely look at the underlying mechanisms of how stress exactly influences face recognition, which is for example critically relevant for testimonies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Pötzl
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr University Bochum, Germany
| | - Oliver T Wolf
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr University Bochum, Germany
| | - Christian J Merz
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr University Bochum, Germany.
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8
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He Q, Beveridge EH, Vargas V, Salen A, Brown TI. Effects of Acute Stress on Rigid Learning, Flexible Learning, and Value-Based Decision-Making in Spatial Navigation. Psychol Sci 2023; 34:552-567. [PMID: 36944163 DOI: 10.1177/09567976231155870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The current study investigated how stress affects value-based decision-making during spatial navigation and different types of learning underlying decisions. Eighty-two adult participants (42 females) first learned to find object locations in a virtual environment from a fixed starting location (rigid learning) and then to find the same objects from unpredictable starting locations (flexible learning). Participants then decided whether to reach goal objects from the fixed or unpredictable starting location. We found that stress impairs rigid learning in females, and it does not impair, and even improves, flexible learning when performance with rigid learning is controlled for. Critically, examining how earlier learning influences subsequent decision-making using computational models, we found that stress reduces memory integration, making participants more likely to focus on recent memory and less likely to integrate information from other sources. Collectively, our results show how stress impacts different memory systems and the communication between memory and decision-making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiliang He
- School of Psychology, Georgia Institute of Technology
| | | | - Vanesa Vargas
- School of Psychology, Georgia Institute of Technology
| | - Ashley Salen
- School of Psychology, Georgia Institute of Technology
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9
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Custodio J, Justel N. Stress and Novelty: Two interventions to modulate emotional memory in adolescents. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE ENHANCEMENT 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s41465-023-00258-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/28/2023]
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10
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Pastötter B, von Dawans B, Domes G, Frings C. The Forward Testing Effect Is Resistant to Acute Psychosocial Retrieval Stress. Exp Psychol 2023; 70:32-39. [PMID: 36916699 PMCID: PMC10388236 DOI: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/15/2023]
Abstract
The forward testing effect refers to the finding that testing of previously studied information improves memory for subsequently studied newer information. Recent research showed that the effect is immune to acute psychosocial encoding/retrieval stress, i.e., stress that is induced before initial encoding. The present study investigated whether the forward testing effect is also robust to acute psychosocial retrieval stress, i.e., stress that is induced after encoding but before retrieval of the critical item list. Participants (N = 128) studied three lists of words in anticipation of a final cumulative recall test. Participants were tested immediately on Lists 1 and 2 (testing condition) or restudied the two lists after initial study (restudy condition). After study of the critical List 3, psychosocial stress was induced in half of the participants (stress group), whereas no stress was induced in the other half (control group). The Trier Social Stress Test for Groups (TSST-G) was used for stress induction. Salivary cortisol, alpha amylase, and subjective stress were repeatedly measured. The results of the criterion test showed a generally detrimental effect of psychosocial retrieval stress on List 3 recall. Importantly, the forward testing effect was unaffected by retrieval stress. The findings are discussed with respect to current theories of the forward testing effect.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Gregor Domes
- Department of Biological and Clinical Psychology, University of Trier, Germany
| | - Christian Frings
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, University of Trier, Germany
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11
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The benefit of retrieval practice on cued recall under stress depends on item difficulty. Neurosci Lett 2023; 797:137066. [PMID: 36642238 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2023.137066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2023] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Retrieval practice, the act of recalling previously studied information, yields greater memory retention than repeated studying (retrieval practice effect). Retrieval practice can also protect memories against the negative effects of stress at retrieval in free recall tests. In cued-recall tests, however, retrieval practice may not provide complete protection against stress-related memory impairments. Here we ask whether these conflicting results may be explained by the relative difficulty of the study materials. Participants (59 men) first studied 40 Swahili-Portuguese word pairs. Half of the pairs were then repeatedly studied while the other half were repeatedly recalled. In each condition, half of the pairs were easy to remember (high in memorability) while the other half were more difficult to remember (low in memorability). Participants returned 1 week later for a final cued-recall test. Half of the participants underwent a stress-induction protocol (modified Socially Evaluated Cold Pressor Test) 25 min before the final test for all 40-word pairs; the other half underwent a control condition. Salivary cortisol and questionnaire responses were used to assess the efficacy of stress induction. Participants recalled more word pairs learned via retrieval practice than via repeated study, replicating previous research. More importantly, the results revealed an interaction such that stress decreased recall for easy items, but increased recall for difficult items that had been successfully retrieved during encoding (conditional analysis). The results suggest that the impact of stress on cued recall depends both on the learning strategy and on the intrinsic difficulty of the to-be-learned materials.
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12
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Wagner S, Breitkopf M, Ahrens E, Ma H, Kuester O, Thomas C, von Arnim CAF, Walther A. Cognitive function in older patients and their stress challenge using different anesthesia regimes: a single center observational study. BMC Anesthesiol 2023; 23:6. [PMID: 36609226 PMCID: PMC9817364 DOI: 10.1186/s12871-022-01960-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND With increasing age older patients are at higher risk for cognitive decline after surgery. Even tailored anesthesia procedures in older patients remain a high risk for postoperative cognitive disorder. Additional stress derived from anxiety and anesthesia itself can negatively impact postoperative cognitive outcomes. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of general versus regional anesthesia on postoperative cognitive disorder and indicators of perioperative stress in elderly undergoing surgery. METHODS In this single center prospective study between December 2014 and November 2015, 46 patients aged 50 to 85 years undergoing dermatology surgery were enrolled. Patients were stratified by receiving general versus regional nerve anesthesia. On three consecutive days, saliva cortisol levels were analyzed three times per day. Cognitive function was assessed on the day before and the day after surgery using comprehensive neuropsychological testing of multiple cognitive functions including memory, executive function, attention and processing speed. RESULTS Comparing the regional anesthesia group (RAG, n = 28) with the general anesthesia group (GAG, n = 18) no significant difference in the postoperative cognitive function was observed. However, patients in the GAG had significantly higher postoperative cortisol levels when compared to patients in the RAG. In both groups, a peak of cortisol value was detected on the day of surgery, which was higher in the GAG in comparison to the RAG. CONCLUSIONS We did not observe a difference in postoperative cognitive function between patients undergoing regional or general anesthesia for dermatology surgery. However, we found lower cortisol level in the RAG. Based on these findings, future studies should investigate alternatives to reduce stress in a general anesthesia setting. TRIAL REGISTRATION ClinicalTrials.gov ID: NCT02505815.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soeren Wagner
- grid.15474.330000 0004 0477 2438Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Ismaninger Straße 22, 81675 Munich, Germany ,grid.38142.3c000000041936754XDepartment of Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA USA
| | - Martin Breitkopf
- grid.419842.20000 0001 0341 9964Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care, Katharinenhospital Klinikum Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Elena Ahrens
- grid.38142.3c000000041936754XDepartment of Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA USA
| | - Haobo Ma
- grid.38142.3c000000041936754XDepartment of Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA USA
| | - Olivia Kuester
- grid.410712.10000 0004 0473 882XDepartment of Neurology, Universitaetsklinikum Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Christine Thomas
- Department of Old Age Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Klinikum Stuttgart, Krankenhaus Bad Cannstatt, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Christine A. F. von Arnim
- grid.7450.60000 0001 2364 4210Department of Geriatrics, University of Goettingen Medical School, Goettingen, Germany
| | - Andreas Walther
- grid.419842.20000 0001 0341 9964Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care, Katharinenhospital Klinikum Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
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Cawley E, Piazza G, Das RK, Kamboj SK. A systematic review of the pharmacological modulation of autobiographical memory specificity. Front Psychol 2022; 13:1045217. [PMID: 36452391 PMCID: PMC9703074 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1045217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 08/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Over-general autobiographical memory (AM) retrieval is proposed to have a causal role in the maintenance of psychological disorders like depression and PTSD. As such, the identification of drugs that modulate AM specificity may open up new avenues of research on pharmacological modeling and treatment of psychological disorders. Aim The current review summarizes randomized, placebo-controlled studies of acute pharmacological modulation of AM specificity. Method A systematic search was conducted of studies that examined the acute effects of pharmacological interventions on AM specificity in human volunteers (healthy and clinical participants) measured using the Autobiographical Memory Test. Results Seventeen studies were identified (986 total participants), of which 16 were judged to have low risk of bias. The presence and direction of effects varied across drugs and diagnostic status of participants (clinical vs. healthy volunteers). The most commonly studied drug-hydrocortisone-produced an overall impairment in AM specificity in healthy volunteers [g = -0.28, CI (-0.53, -0.03), p = 0.03], although improvements were reported in two studies of clinical participants. In general, studies of monoamine modulators reported no effect on specificity. Conclusion Pharmacological enhancement of AM specificity is inconsistent, although monaminergic modulators show little promise in this regard. Drugs that reduce AM specificity in healthy volunteers may be useful experimental-pharmacological tools that mimic an important transdiagnostic impairment in psychological disorders. Systematic review registration PROSPERO, identifier CRD42020199076, https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?ID=CRD42020199076.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Cawley
- Research Department of Clinical, Educational and Health Psychology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
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14
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Jentsch VL, Pötzl L, Wolf OT, Merz CJ. Hormonal contraceptive usage influences stress hormone effects on cognition and emotion. Front Neuroendocrinol 2022; 67:101012. [PMID: 35798220 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2022.101012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Revised: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Men and women partially differ in how they respond to stress and how stress in return affects their cognition and emotion. The influence of hormonal contraceptives (HCs) on this interaction has received little attention, which is surprising given the prevalence of HC usage. This selective review illustrates how HC usage modulates the effects of stress hormones on cognition and emotion. As three examples, we discuss stress hormone effects on episodic memory, fear conditioning and cognitive emotion regulation. The identified studies revealed that stress effects on cognitive-emotional processes in women using HCs were at times reduced or even absent when compared to men or naturally cycling women. Especially striking were the few examples of reversed effects in HC women. As underlying neuroendocrine mechanisms, we discuss influences of HCs on the neuroendocrine stress response and effects of HCs on central glucocorticoid sensitivity. The summarized findings emphasize the need for additional translational research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valerie L Jentsch
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr University Bochum, Universitätsstraße 150, 44780 Bochum, Germany.
| | - Lisa Pötzl
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr University Bochum, Universitätsstraße 150, 44780 Bochum, Germany.
| | - Oliver T Wolf
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr University Bochum, Universitätsstraße 150, 44780 Bochum, Germany.
| | - Christian J Merz
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr University Bochum, Universitätsstraße 150, 44780 Bochum, Germany.
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15
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Cortisol reactivity impairs suppression-induced forgetting. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2022; 142:105774. [PMID: 35512558 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2022.105774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
To some extent, we can shape our recollections by intentionally remembering certain experiences while trying to forget others, for example, by intentional suppression. Acute stress impairs suppression-induced forgetting of memories. It is unclear, however, whether these deficits are a direct consequence of the acute stress-induced cortisol response. The present study was designed to examine the stress-induced impairment in suppression-induced forgetting in a subgroup of cortisol responders. We exposed healthy participants to a stress (n = 55) or no-stress control (n = 32) version of the Maastricht Acute Stress Test before they performed the Think / No-Think task. Here, participants aimed to repeatedly retrieve or suppress memories of previously learned cue-target video clips to mimic the complexity of episodic memories. Results on the subsequent memory test revealed that, while the no-stress controls and cortisol non-responders demonstrated suppression-induced forgetting, this effect was absent in cortisol responders. Moreover, the magnitude of suppression-induced forgetting was negatively correlated to stress-induced cortisol increases. The current study extends findings on stress-induced impairments in suppression-induced forgetting by specifically focusing on cortisol reactivity. Furthermore, our findings show the importance of individual differences in cortisol responses as a driving mechanism behind stress-induced alterations in our capacity to actively control our memory.
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16
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Stoll SEM, Mack L, Scheib JPP, Pruessner J, Randerath J. Selective effects of psychosocial stress on plan based movement selection. Sci Rep 2022; 12:5401. [PMID: 35354889 PMCID: PMC8967871 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-09360-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Efficient movement selection is crucial in everyday activities. Whether this function is governed by our stress system is so far unknown. In the current study, data from thirty-six young male adults were analyzed. They performed rule- and plan-based movement selection tasks before (session 1) and after (session 2) a psychosocial stressor, or after a control condition without additional social stressor. Results showed that the rule-based efficiency advantage which was observed prior to the psychosocial stressor was significantly reduced afterwards in the whole sample, as well as in the stress group. Regression analyses revealed that this effect was due to a modulation of the plan-based approach. Especially variations-both increase and decrease-in the parasympathetic activity (reflected by the heart rate variability measure RMSSD) appeared to be disadvantageous for plan-based movement selection improvement. In contrast, performance in the rule-based movement selection tasks appeared to be rather invariant to external influences. The current results suggest that autonomic nervous system activity might modulate motor-cognitive performance. This modulatory capability might be selective for plan-based approaches, hence the applied strategy to movement selection could be decisive when it comes to the vulnerability of motor-cognitive processes towards psychosocial stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E M Stoll
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, 78464, Constance, Germany.,Lurija Institute for Rehabilitation and Health Sciences at the University of Konstanz, Schmieder Foundation for Sciences and Research, 78476, Allensbach, Germany
| | - Leonie Mack
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, 78464, Constance, Germany
| | - Jean P P Scheib
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, 78464, Constance, Germany.,Lurija Institute for Rehabilitation and Health Sciences at the University of Konstanz, Schmieder Foundation for Sciences and Research, 78476, Allensbach, Germany
| | - Jens Pruessner
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, 78464, Constance, Germany
| | - Jennifer Randerath
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, 78464, Constance, Germany. .,Lurija Institute for Rehabilitation and Health Sciences at the University of Konstanz, Schmieder Foundation for Sciences and Research, 78476, Allensbach, Germany.
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17
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Marr C, Quaedflieg CWEM, Otgaar H, Hope L, Sauerland M. Facing stress: No effect of acute stress at encoding or retrieval on face recognition memory. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2021; 219:103376. [PMID: 34293595 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2021.103376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Revised: 06/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Eyewitnesses may experience stress during a crime and when attempting to identify the perpetrator subsequently. Laboratory studies can provide insight into how acute stress at encoding and retrieval affects memory performance. However, previous findings exploring this issue have been mixed. Across two preregistered experiments, we examined the effects of stress during encoding and retrieval on face and word recognition performance. We used the Maastricht Acute Stress Test (MAST) to induce stress and verified the success of the stress manipulation with blood pressure measures, salivary cortisol levels, and negative affect scores. To examine differences in stressor timing, participants encoded target faces or words both when confronted with the stressor and during the subsequent cortisol peak and retrieved these stimuli 24 h later. We found neither effects of acute stress on face recognition memory during encoding or retrieval (Experiments 1 and 2), nor effects of encoding stress on word recognition memory (Experiment 2). Bayesian analyses largely provided substantial or strong evidence for the null hypotheses. We emphasize the need for well-powered experiments using contemporary methodology for a more complete understanding of the effect of acute stress on face recognition memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carey Marr
- Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands; Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK.
| | - Conny W E M Quaedflieg
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Henry Otgaar
- Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands; Leuven Institute of Criminology, Catholic University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Lorraine Hope
- Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
| | - Melanie Sauerland
- Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
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18
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Stress, memory, and implications for major depression. Behav Brain Res 2021; 412:113410. [PMID: 34116119 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2020] [Revised: 06/04/2021] [Accepted: 06/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The stress response comprises a phylogenetically conserved set of cognitive, physiological, and behavioral responses that evolved as a survival strategy. In this context, the memory of stressful events would be adaptive as it could avoid re-exposure to an adverse event, otherwise the event would be facilitated in positively stressful or non-distressful conditions. However, the interaction between stress and memory comprises complex responses, some of them which are not yet completely understood, and which depend on several factors such as the memory system that is recruited, the nature and duration of the stressful event, as well as the timing in which this interaction takes place. In this narrative review, we briefly discuss the mechanisms of the stress response, the main memory systems, and its neural correlates. Then, we show how stress, through the action of its biochemical mediators, influences memory systems and mnemonic processes. Finally, we make use of major depressive disorder to explore the possible implications of non-adaptive interactions between stress and memory to psychiatric disorders, as well as possible roles for memory studies in the field of psychiatry.
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19
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Whiting SB, Wass SV, Green S, Thomas MSC. Stress and Learning in Pupils: Neuroscience Evidence and its Relevance for Teachers. MIND, BRAIN AND EDUCATION : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL MIND, BRAIN, AND EDUCATION SOCIETY 2021; 15:177-188. [PMID: 34239601 PMCID: PMC8248342 DOI: 10.1111/mbe.12282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2019] [Revised: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Our understanding of how stress affects primary school children's attention and learning has developed rapidly. We know that children experience differing levels of stressors (factors that cause stress) in their environments, and that this can influence how they respond to new stressors when they occur in educational contexts. Here, we review evidence showing that stress can increase children's attention and learning capacities in some circumstances but hinder them in others. We show how children differ in their attention and learning styles, dependent on stress levels: for example, more highly stressed children may be more distracted by superficial features and may find it harder to engage in planning and voluntary control. We review intervention research on stress management techniques in children, concentrating on psychological techniques (such as mindfulness and stress reappraisal), physiological techniques (such as breathing exercises) and environmental factors (such as reducing noise). At the current time, raising teachers' awareness of pupils' differing stress responses will be an important step in accommodating the differing needs of children in their classrooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sue B Whiting
- Department of Psychological Sciences Birkbeck, University of London, London, UK
| | - Sam V Wass
- School of Psychology University of East London, London, UK
| | - Simon Green
- Department of Psychological Sciences Birkbeck, University of London, London, UK
| | - Michael S C Thomas
- Department of Psychological Sciences Birkbeck, University of London, London, UK
- Centre for Educational Neuroscience Birkbeck, University of London, London, UK
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20
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Marr C, Otgaar H, Sauerland M, Quaedflieg CWEM, Hope L. The effects of stress on eyewitness memory: A survey of memory experts and laypeople. Mem Cognit 2021; 49:401-421. [PMID: 33237488 PMCID: PMC8024237 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-020-01115-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
This survey examined lay and expert beliefs about statements concerning stress effects on (eyewitness) memory. Thirty-seven eyewitness memory experts, 36 fundamental memory experts, and 109 laypeople endorsed, opposed, or selected don't know responses for a range of statements relating to the effects of stress at encoding and retrieval. We examined proportions in each group and differences between groups (eyewitness memory experts vs. fundamental memory experts; experts vs. laypeople) for endorsements (agree vs. disagree) and selections (don't know vs. agree/disagree). High proportions of experts from both research fields agreed that very high levels of stress impair the accuracy of eyewitness testimony. A majority of fundamental experts, but not eyewitness experts, endorsed the idea that stress experienced during encoding can enhance memory. Responses to statements regarding moderating factors such as stressor severity and detail type provided further insight into this discrepancy. Eyewitness memory experts more frequently selected the don't know option for neuroscientific statements regarding stress effects on memory than fundamental memory experts, although don't know selections were substantial among both expert groups. Laypeople's responses to eight of the statements differed statistically from expert answers on topics such as memory in children, in professionals such as police officers, for faces and short crimes, and the existence of repression, providing insight into possible 'commonsense' beliefs on stress effects on memory. Our findings capture the current state of knowledge about stress effects on memory as reflected by sample of experts and laypeople, and highlight areas where further research and consensus would be valuable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carey Marr
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 40, Maastricht, The Netherlands, 6229 ER.
- Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK.
| | - Henry Otgaar
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 40, Maastricht, The Netherlands, 6229 ER
- Faculty of Law, Catholic University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Melanie Sauerland
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 40, Maastricht, The Netherlands, 6229 ER
| | - Conny W E M Quaedflieg
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 40, Maastricht, The Netherlands, 6229 ER
| | - Lorraine Hope
- Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
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21
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Marr C, Sauerland M, Otgaar H, Quaedflieg CWEM, Hope L. Mitigating the negative effects of retrieval stress on memory: an arousal reappraisal intervention. Memory 2021; 29:330-344. [PMID: 33686922 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2021.1893750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
In a preregistered experiment, we examined the efficacy of arousal reappraisal as an intervention for reducing the negative effects of stress at retrieval on memory. Participants (N = 177) were semi-randomly assigned to one of three conditions: a Stress-intervention condition, a Stress-placebo condition, and a No-stress-placebo control condition. Participants viewed four images of complex, mildly negatively valenced scenes. One day later, they received an arousal reappraisal intervention or placebo before exposure to a laboratory stressor (or a control version for the No-stress condition). Participants were then tested on their memory of the images using a free recall instruction and multiple-choice recognition questions. As expected, negative affect and blood pressure increased for the stress conditions but not the control condition. Contrary to our hypotheses, memory performance did not statistically significant differ between the Stress-placebo condition and the No-stress-placebo control condition, indicating a lack of negative effects of acute retrieval stress on memory. Furthermore, we also found no statistically significant differences between the Stress-intervention condition and Stress-placebo condition in terms of memory performance, suggesting that the intervention did not assist with enhancing memory. We integrate interpretations of the findings from this study with a discussion of avenues for future research in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carey Marr
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands.,Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
| | - Melanie Sauerland
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Henry Otgaar
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands.,Faculty of Law, Catholic University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Conny W E M Quaedflieg
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Lorraine Hope
- Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
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22
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Kausche FM, Zerbes G, Kampermann L, Müller JC, Wiedemann K, Büchel C, Schwabe L. Noradrenergic stimulation increases fear memory expression. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2021; 43:71-81. [PMID: 33358539 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2020.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2020] [Revised: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Fear responses are typically not limited to the actual threatening stimulus but generalize to other stimuli resembling the threatening stimulus. Although this fear generalization is generally adaptive, fear overgeneralization is maladaptive and assumed to contribute to anxiety disorders. Despite the clinical relevance of fear (over)generalization, how the extent of fear generalization is modulated remains not well understood. Based on the known effects of stress on learning and memory, we tested here the impact of major stress mediators, glucocorticoids and noradrenergic arousal, on fear generalization. In a laboratory-based, placebo-controlled, double-blind, between-subject design, 125 healthy participants first underwent a fear conditioning procedure. About 24 h later, participants received orally either a placebo, hydrocortisone, the α2-adrenoceptor antagonist yohimbine, leading to increased noradrenergic stimulation, or both drugs before a test of fear generalization. Skin conductance responses as well as explicit rating data revealed that yohimbine intake led to enhanced fear memory expression, i.e. an enhanced responding to the CS+ but not to stimuli resembling the CS+. Moreover, neither enhanced safety learning nor a mere enhancement of perceptual discrimination ability could explain this result. In contrast to yohimbine, hydrocortisone had no significant effect on fear memory. These findings suggest that noradrenergic arousal strengthens fear memory expression and have important implications for mental disorders in which the overgeneralization of conditioned fear is prominent.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gundula Zerbes
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Universität Hamburg, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Lea Kampermann
- Institute of Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Jana Christina Müller
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Klaus Wiedemann
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Christian Büchel
- Institute of Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Lars Schwabe
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Universität Hamburg, 20146 Hamburg, Germany.
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23
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The association between primary language and quality of recovery following caesarean section: a prospective observational study. Int J Obstet Anesth 2020; 44:68-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijoa.2020.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2019] [Revised: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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24
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Klier C, Buratto LG. Stress and long-term memory retrieval: a systematic review. TRENDS IN PSYCHIATRY AND PSYCHOTHERAPY 2020; 42:284-291. [PMID: 33084805 PMCID: PMC7879075 DOI: 10.1590/2237-6089-2019-0077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2019] [Accepted: 01/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Introduction The experience of stressful events can alter brain structures involved in memory encoding, storage and retrieval. Here we review experimental research assessing the impact of the stress-related hormone cortisol on long-term memory retrieval. Method A comprehensive literature search was conducted on PubMed, Web of Science and PsycNet databases with the following terms: “stress,” “long-term memory,” and “retrieval.” Studies were included in the review if they tested samples of healthy human participants, with at least one control group, and with the onset of the stress intervention occurring after the encoding phase and shortly (up to one hour) before the final memory test. Results Thirteen studies were included in the qualitative synthesis (N = 962) and were classified according to the time elapsed between stress induction and memory retrieval (stress-retrieval delay), the stress-inducing protocol (stressor), the time of day in which stress induction took place, sex, and age of participants. Most studies induced stress with the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) between 15 and 25 minutes before the final memory (mostly recall) test and showed significant increases in cortisol levels and memory impairment. Discussion The reviewed studies indicate that stress does impair retrieval, particularly when induced with the TSST, in the afternoon, up to 45 minutes before the onset of the final memory test, in healthy young men. These results may inform future research on the impact of stress-induced cortisol surges on memory retrieval.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cadu Klier
- Departamento de Processos Psicológicos Básicos, Instituto de Psicologia, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - Luciano Grüdtner Buratto
- Departamento de Processos Psicológicos Básicos, Instituto de Psicologia, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brazil
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25
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Gagnon SA, Waskom ML, Brown TI, Wagner AD. Stress Impairs Episodic Retrieval by Disrupting Hippocampal and Cortical Mechanisms of Remembering. Cereb Cortex 2020; 29:2947-2964. [PMID: 30060134 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhy162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2018] [Revised: 05/14/2018] [Accepted: 06/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite decades of science investigating the neural underpinnings of episodic memory retrieval, a critical question remains: how does stress influence remembering and the neural mechanisms of recollection in humans? Here, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging and multivariate pattern analyses to examine the effects of acute stress during retrieval. We report that stress reduced the probability of recollecting the details of past experience, and that this impairment was driven, in part, by a disruption of the relationship between hippocampal activation, cortical reinstatement, and memory performance. Moreover, even memories expressed with high confidence were less accurate under stress, and this stress-induced decline in accuracy was explained by reduced posterior hippocampal engagement despite similar levels of category-level cortical reinstatement. Finally, stress degraded the relationship between the engagement of frontoparietal control networks and retrieval decision uncertainty. Collectively, these findings demonstrate the widespread consequences of acute stress on the neural systems of remembering.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael L Waskom
- Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Thackery I Brown
- Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,School of Psychology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Anthony D Wagner
- Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,Stanford Neurosciences Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
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26
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Marin Bosch B, Bringard A, Logrieco MG, Lauer E, Imobersteg N, Thomas A, Ferretti G, Schwartz S, Igloi K. Effect of acute physical exercise on motor sequence memory. Sci Rep 2020; 10:15322. [PMID: 32948800 PMCID: PMC7501852 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-72108-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Acute physical exercise improves memory functions by increasing neural plasticity in the hippocampus. In animals, a single session of physical exercise has been shown to boost anandamide (AEA), an endocannabinoid known to promote hippocampal plasticity. Hippocampal neuronal networks encode episodic memory representations, including the temporal organization of elements, and can thus benefit motor sequence learning. While previous work established that acute physical exercise has positive effects on declarative memory linked to hippocampal plasticity mechanisms, its influence on memory for motor sequences, and especially on neural mechanisms underlying possible effects, has been less investigated. Here we studied the impact of acute physical exercise on motor sequence learning, and its underlying neurophysiological mechanisms in humans, using a cross-over randomized within-subjects design. We measured behavior, fMRI activity, and circulating AEA levels in fifteen healthy participants while they performed a serial reaction time task before and after a short period of exercise (moderate or high intensity) or rest. We show that exercise enhanced motor sequence memory, significantly for high intensity exercise and tending towards significance for moderate intensity exercise. This enhancement correlated with AEA increase, and dovetailed with local increases in caudate nucleus and hippocampus activity. These findings demonstrate that acute physical exercise promotes sequence learning, thus attesting the overarching benefit of exercise to hippocampus-related memory functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blanca Marin Bosch
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.
| | - Aurélien Bringard
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.,Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology and Intensive Care, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Maria Grazia Logrieco
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Estelle Lauer
- Unit of Toxicology, CURML, Lausanne University Hospital and Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Nathalie Imobersteg
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.,Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology and Intensive Care, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Aurélien Thomas
- Unit of Toxicology, CURML, Lausanne University Hospital and Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland.,Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Guido Ferretti
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.,Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology and Intensive Care, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Sophie Schwartz
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.,Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.,Geneva Neuroscience Center, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Kinga Igloi
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.,Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.,Geneva Neuroscience Center, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
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27
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Byrne KA, Peters C, Willis HC, Phan D, Cornwall A, Worthy DA. Acute stress enhances tolerance of uncertainty during decision-making. Cognition 2020; 205:104448. [PMID: 32927385 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Revised: 07/15/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Acute stress has been shown to influence reward sensitivity, feedback learning, and risk-taking during decision-making, primarily through activation of the hypothalamic pituitary axis (HPA). However, it is unclear how acute stress affects decision-making among choices that vary in their degree of uncertainty. To address this question, we conducted two experiments in which participants repeatedly chose between two options-a high-uncertainty option that offered highly variable rewards but was advantageous in the long-term, and a low-uncertainty option that offered smaller yet more consistent rewards. The Socially Evaluated Cold Pressor Task (SECPT) was utilized to induce acute stress. Participants in Experiment 1 (N = 114) were exposed to either the SECPT or a warm-water control condition and then completed the decision-making under uncertainty task. Compared to the control condition, those exposed to the acute stress manipulation chose the high-uncertainty option that provided highly variable but larger rewards over the option that provided stable, smaller rewards. Experiment 2 (N = 95) incorporated a salivary cortisol measure. Results replicated the behavioral findings in Experiment 1 and demonstrated that the acute stress manipulation increased salivary cortisol. This work suggests that moderate acute stress is associated with tolerance of outcome variability in contexts that depend on learning to maximize rewards.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Dana Phan
- Clemson University, United States of America
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28
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Boundary conditions of post-retrieval extinction: A direct comparison of low and high partial reinforcement. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2020; 174:107285. [PMID: 32745600 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2020.107285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Research has shown that a single presentation of the conditioned stimulus prior to extinction training can diminish conditioned responses. However, replication has proven difficult and appears to be limited by boundary conditions. Here we tested the boundary condition of memory strength by comparing the effect of reinforcement rate to assess its role in post-retrieval extinction. Eighty university students had undergone a three-day fear conditioning experiment in which two partial reinforcement schedules (40%, 80%) were applied. The findings indicated that both low and high partial reinforcement groups did not demonstrate recovery of conditioned responses after post-retrieval extinction. In contrast, both groups demonstrated significant recovery to standard extinction with significantly greater recovery in the 80% group relative to the 40% group. Additionally, we found that greater physiological arousal during memory retrieval significantly predicted recovery of fear at test phase. We conclude that when compared to a lower partial reinforcement schedule, a higher partial reinforcement resulted in the formation of a stronger memory as indicated by greater physiological arousal during memory reactivation and recovery of conditioned responses after standard extinction, but that it does not function as a boundary condition of post-retrieval extinction. These data are significant because it is the first study to investigate the effect of varying partial reinforcement schedules on fear recovery and add to the body of literature that continue to identify sources of failure in the application of post-retrieval extinction.
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29
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Brown TI, Gagnon SA, Wagner AD. Stress Disrupts Human Hippocampal-Prefrontal Function during Prospective Spatial Navigation and Hinders Flexible Behavior. Curr Biol 2020; 30:1821-1833.e8. [PMID: 32243859 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2020.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2019] [Revised: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The ability to anticipate and flexibly plan for the future is critical for achieving goal-directed outcomes. Extant data suggest that neural and cognitive stress mechanisms may disrupt memory retrieval and restrict prospective planning, with deleterious impacts on behavior. Here, we examined whether and how acute psychological stress influences goal-directed navigational planning and efficient, flexible behavior. Our methods combined fMRI, neuroendocrinology, and machine learning with a virtual navigation planning task. Human participants were trained to navigate familiar paths in virtual environments and then (concurrent with fMRI) performed a planning and navigation task that could be most efficiently solved by taking novel shortcut paths. Strikingly, relative to non-stressed control participants, participants who performed the planning task under experimentally induced acute psychological stress demonstrated (1) disrupted neural activity critical for mnemonic retrieval and mental simulation and (2) reduced traversal of shortcuts and greater reliance on familiar paths. These neural and behavioral changes under psychological stress were tied to evidence for disrupted neural replay of memory for future locations in the spatial environment, providing mechanistic insight into why and how stress can alter planning and foster inefficient behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thackery I Brown
- School of Psychology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA; Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
| | | | - Anthony D Wagner
- Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
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30
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Cheung EO, Barsuk JH, Mitra D, Gannotta RJ, Horowitz B, Didwania AK, Victorson D. Preliminary Efficacy of a Brief Mindfulness Intervention for Procedural Stress in Medical Intern Simulated Performance: A Randomized Controlled Pilot Trial. J Altern Complement Med 2020; 26:282-290. [DOI: 10.1089/acm.2019.0209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Elaine O. Cheung
- Department of Medical Social Sciences, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL
| | - Jeffrey H. Barsuk
- Department of Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL
- Department of Medical Education, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL
| | - Debi Mitra
- Department of Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL
| | | | - Bruriah Horowitz
- Department of Medical Social Sciences, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL
| | - Aashish K. Didwania
- Department of Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL
- Department of Medical Education, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL
| | - David Victorson
- Department of Medical Social Sciences, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL
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31
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Ballan R, Gabay Y. Does Acute Stress Impact Declarative and Procedural Learning? Front Psychol 2020; 11:342. [PMID: 32273858 PMCID: PMC7113394 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2019] [Accepted: 02/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
It is well established that acute stress can influence memory function, yet its influence may differ across memory systems. Whereas stress sometimes exerts a negative influence on declarative learning, it does not necessarily harm learning in general, as demonstrated in the case of procedural learning. Probabilistic category learning is mediated by the striatum, but delaying feedback by a few seconds shifts learning to become more hippocampal-dependent. Here, we examined the influence of acute stress on this type of learning, under different conditions that favor either procedural-based (immediate feedback) vs. declarative-based (delayed feedback) learning. Sixty-two participants randomly assigned to either stress or non-stress groups, performed a probabilistic category learning task, in which they were instructed to learn associations between cues and outcomes under different feedback conditions (immediate feedback, short-delayed feedback, and long-delayed feedback). Acute stress was induced by the Maastricht Acute Stress Test (MAST), and stress levels were gauged by Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) measures and a self-reported questionnaire. Results showed that although the MAST was effective in inducing stress, this did not harm learning in either of the feedback conditions. These findings suggest that not all hippocampal-based learning types are negatively influenced by stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ranin Ballan
- Department of Special Education, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
- Edmond J. Safra Brain Research Center for the Study of Learning Disabilities, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Yafit Gabay
- Department of Special Education, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
- Edmond J. Safra Brain Research Center for the Study of Learning Disabilities, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
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32
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Shields GS. Stress and cognition: A user's guide to designing and interpreting studies. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2020; 112:104475. [PMID: 31810538 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2019.104475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2019] [Revised: 08/14/2019] [Accepted: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Fueling the rapid growth in our understanding of how stress influences cognition, the number of studies examining the effects of stress on various cognitive processes has grown substantially over the last two decades. Despite this growth, few published guidelines exist for designing these studies, and divergent paradigm designs can diminish typical effects of stress or even reverse them. The goal of this review, therefore, is to survey necessary considerations (e.g., validating a stress induction), important considerations (e.g., specifying the timing of the stressor and cognitive task), and best practices (e.g., using Bayesian analyses) when designing a study that aims at least in part to examine the effects of acute stress on some cognitive process or function. These guidelines will also serve to help readers of these studies interpret what may otherwise be very confusing, anomalous results. Designing and interpreting studies with these considerations and practices in mind will help to move the field of stress and cognition forward by clarifying how, exactly, stress influences performance on a given cognitive task in a population of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grant S Shields
- Center for Mind and Brain, University of California, Davis, United States.
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33
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Neural correlates of emotion-attention interactions: From perception, learning, and memory to social cognition, individual differences, and training interventions. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 108:559-601. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2019] [Revised: 07/02/2019] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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34
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Li S, Tang J, Gao Y, Thiel CM, Wolf OT. The serotonin transporter gene variants modulate acute stress-induced hippocampus and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex activity during memory retrieval. Psych J 2019; 8:363-377. [PMID: 31264389 DOI: 10.1002/pchj.297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Revised: 04/04/2019] [Accepted: 04/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The short (s) allele of a polymorphism in the promoter region of the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR) is related to reduced serotonin transporter efficiency and an increased vulnerability to stress and mental disorders. In the present study, we investigated how 5-HTTLPR impacts on memory retrieval under stress and related neural activity by reanalyzing a small genetic neuroimaging data set. Twenty-seven healthy male volunteers participated in both the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) and a respective control procedure and then their brain activity was measured with functional MRI (fMRI) while they performed an emotional-face-recognition task. Sixteen participants were carriers of the short allele (ss/sl carriers) and 11 were homozygous for the long allele (ll carriers). Genotype groups were compared with respect to stress-related physiological changes, memory performance, and brain activity. No significant genotype-dependent effects on memory performance or cortisol levels were found. The ss/sl carriers showed significantly higher systolic and diastolic blood pressure than the ll carriers, independent of stress. The ss/sl carriers reported stronger stress-induced nervous mood than the ll carriers. Our fMRI data revealed that the ss/sl carriers showed significantly weaker left hippocampus activation and stronger dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) deactivation when retrieving memories under stress as compared with the ll carriers. Subsequent analyses revealed that the distinct hippocampal activation pattern in both genotypes was associated with stress-induced cortisol elevation, while the distinct dmPFC activation pattern in both genotypes was associated with stress-induced changes in reaction times. Our results thus add new evidence that serotonin signaling modulates neural activity in the hippocampus and dmPFC during memory retrieval under acute psychosocial stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shijia Li
- Faculty of Education, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics (MOE&STCSM), Shanghai Changning-ECNU Mental Health Center, School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jun Tang
- Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics (MOE&STCSM), Shanghai Changning-ECNU Mental Health Center, School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yan Gao
- Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics (MOE&STCSM), Shanghai Changning-ECNU Mental Health Center, School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Christiane M Thiel
- Biological Psychology Lab, Department of Psychology, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Research Center Neurosensory Science and Systems, Cluster of Excellence Hearing4all, Carl von Ossietzky University, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Oliver T Wolf
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
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35
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Goldfarb EV. Enhancing memory with stress: Progress, challenges, and opportunities. Brain Cogn 2019; 133:94-105. [PMID: 30553573 PMCID: PMC9972486 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2018.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2018] [Revised: 11/02/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Stress can strongly influence what we learn and remember, including by making memories stronger. Experiments probing stress effects on hippocampus-dependent memory in rodents have revealed modulatory factors and physiological mechanisms by which acute stress can enhance long-term memory. However, extending these findings and mechanisms to understand when stress will enhance declarative memory in humans faces important challenges. This review synthesizes human and rodent studies of stress and memory, examining translational gaps related to measurements of declarative memory and stress responses in humans. Human studies diverge from rodent research by assessing declarative memories that may not depend on the hippocampus and by measuring peripheral rather than central stress responses. This highlights opportunities for future research across species, including assessing stress effects on hippocampal-dependent memory processes in humans and relating peripheral stress responses to stress effects on the function of memory-related brain regions in rodents. Together, these investigations will facilitate the translation of stress effects on memory function from rodents to humans and inform interventions that can harness the positive effects of stress on long-term memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth V Goldfarb
- Yale Stress Center, Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, 2 Church Street South, Suite 209, New Haven, CT 06519, United States.
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36
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Abstract
Laboratory experiments revealed the stress hormone cortisol to decrease memory retrieval of emotional material, but a translation to real-life settings is missing so far. In this study, 51 students encoded a list of neutral, positive, and negative words as well as two neutral, biographical notes one day before attendance at a seminar at the university. In the stress condition, students gave a graded oral presentation, whereas they just attended the same seminar in the control condition immediately before retrieval took place. Measures of state anxiety, salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase confirmed the oral presentation to constitute a potent stressor. Importantly, stress significantly impaired retrieval of negative words, but not retrieval of the biographical notes. These results indicate that a real-life stressor decreases memory retrieval for negative items. In contrast, delayed memory retrieval of neutral information and interrelated details of biographical notes seems to be less prone to stress effects. These results have critical implications for educational settings.
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37
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Riggenbach MR, Weiser JN, Mosley BE, Hipskind JJ, Wireman LE, Hess KL, Duffy TJ, Handel JK, Kaschalk MG, Reneau KE, Rorabaugh BR, Norrholm SD, Jovanovic T, Zoladz PR. Immediate pre-learning stress enhances baseline startle response and fear acquisition in a fear-potentiated startle paradigm. Behav Brain Res 2019; 371:111980. [PMID: 31145979 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.111980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2019] [Revised: 04/29/2019] [Accepted: 05/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Extensive work has shown that stress time-dependently influences hippocampus-dependent learning and memory. In particular, stress that is administered immediately before learning enhances long-term memory, while stress that is temporally separated from learning impairs long-term memory. We have extended these findings by examining the impact of immediate, pre-learning stress on an amygdala-dependent fear conditioning task. One hundred and forty-one healthy participants underwent a stress (socially evaluated cold pressor test) or control manipulation immediately before completing differential fear conditioning in a fear-potentiated startle paradigm. Participants then completed extinction and extinction memory testing sessions 24 and 48 h later, respectively. Stress administered immediately before acquisition increased baseline startle responses and enhanced fear learning, as evidenced by greater fear-potentiated startle to the CS + . Although no group differences were observed during extinction training on Day 2, stressed participants exhibited evidence of impaired extinction processes on Day 3, an effect that was driven by group differences in acquisition. Importantly, stressed participants' cortisol responses to the stressor on Day 1 were positively associated with CS discrimination on Days 2 and 3. These findings suggest that stress immediately before fear conditioning strengthens fear memory formation and produces a more enduring fear memory, perhaps via corticosteroid activity. Such a paradigm could be useful for understanding factors that influence traumatic memory formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mackenzie R Riggenbach
- Department of Psychology, Sociology, & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH, 45810, USA
| | - Jordan N Weiser
- Department of Psychology, Sociology, & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH, 45810, USA
| | - Brianne E Mosley
- Department of Psychology, Sociology, & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH, 45810, USA
| | - Jennifer J Hipskind
- Department of Psychology, Sociology, & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH, 45810, USA
| | - Leighton E Wireman
- Department of Psychology, Sociology, & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH, 45810, USA
| | - Kelsey L Hess
- Department of Psychology, Sociology, & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH, 45810, USA
| | - Tessa J Duffy
- Department of Psychology, Sociology, & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH, 45810, USA
| | - Julie K Handel
- Department of Psychology, Sociology, & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH, 45810, USA
| | - MacKenzie G Kaschalk
- Department of Psychology, Sociology, & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH, 45810, USA
| | - Kassidy E Reneau
- Department of Psychology, Sociology, & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH, 45810, USA
| | - Boyd R Rorabaugh
- Department of Pharmaceutical & Biomedical Sciences, Raabe College of Pharmacy, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH, 45810, USA
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Mental Health Service Line, Atlanta VA Medical Center, Decatur, GA, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Phillip R Zoladz
- Department of Psychology, Sociology, & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH, 45810, USA.
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38
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Iyadurai L, Visser RM, Lau-Zhu A, Porcheret K, Horsch A, Holmes EA, James EL. Intrusive memories of trauma: A target for research bridging cognitive science and its clinical application. Clin Psychol Rev 2019; 69:67-82. [PMID: 30293686 PMCID: PMC6475651 DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2018.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2017] [Revised: 08/17/2018] [Accepted: 08/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Intrusive memories of a traumatic event can be distressing and disruptive, and comprise a core clinical feature of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Intrusive memories involve mental imagery-based impressions that intrude into mind involuntarily, and are emotional. Here we consider how recent advances in cognitive science have fueled our understanding of the development and possible treatment of intrusive memories of trauma. We conducted a systematic literature search in PubMed, selecting articles published from 2008 to 2018 that used the terms "trauma" AND ("intrusive memories" OR "involuntary memories") in their abstract or title. First, we discuss studies that investigated internal (neural, hormonal, psychophysiological, and cognitive) processes that contribute to intrusive memory development. Second, we discuss studies that targeted these processes using behavioural/pharmacological interventions to reduce intrusive memories. Third, we consider possible clinical implications of this work and highlight some emerging research avenues for treatment and prevention, supplemented by new data to examine some unanswered questions. In conclusion, we raise the possibility that intrusive memories comprise an alternative, possibly more focused, target in translational research endeavours, rather than only targeting overall symptoms of disorders such as PTSD. If so, relatively simple approaches could help to address the need for easy-to-deliver, widely-scalable trauma interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Renée M Visser
- MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge, UK; University of Amsterdam, Department of Psychology, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Alex Lau-Zhu
- MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge, UK; Kings College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, London, UK
| | - Kate Porcheret
- University of Oxford, Sleep and Circadian Neuroscience Institute, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Oxford, UK
| | - Antje Horsch
- Lausanne University Hospital, Woman-Mother-Child Department, Lausanne, Switzerland; Institute of Higher Education and Research in Healthcare, University of Lausanne, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Emily A Holmes
- Karolinska Institutet, Division of Psychology, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ella L James
- MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge, UK
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39
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Acute psychosocial stress effects on memory performance: Relevance of age and sex. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2019; 157:48-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2018.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2018] [Revised: 11/04/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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40
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Youssef FF, Bachew R, Bissessar S, Crockett MJ, Faber NS. Sex differences in the effects of acute stress on behavior in the ultimatum game. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2018; 96:126-131. [PMID: 29940425 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2017] [Revised: 06/12/2018] [Accepted: 06/13/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Acute stress affects human decision making. It has been argued that there are systematic sex differences in behavioral responses to acute stress, with males showing a 'fight or flight' and females showing a 'tend and befriend' response. A 'tend and befriend' response would suggest that women become more cooperative under acute stress, while men do not. We investigated the effects of acute stress on social behavior. We induced stress via the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) and then immediately after measured how participants reacted to offers made in the ultimatum game by a male proposer. We found that female participants were less likely to reject offers under stress (n = 25) vs. no stress (n = 37), p = 0.009, independent of how fair these offers were, cooperative behavior consistent with the 'tend and befriend' hypothesis. Male participants when stressed (n = 30) did not show differences in rejections rates compared to the control condition (n = 26), p = 0.41. Our results provide support for a qualitatively different behavioral response to acute stress among men and women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farid F Youssef
- Department of Preclinical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago.
| | - Raecho Bachew
- Department of Preclinical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Satyavi Bissessar
- Department of Preclinical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
| | | | - Nadira S Faber
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, United Kingdom; Oxford Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
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41
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Goldfarb EV, Tompary A, Davachi L, Phelps EA. Acute stress throughout the memory cycle: Diverging effects on associative and item memory. J Exp Psychol Gen 2018; 148:13-29. [PMID: 30221962 DOI: 10.1037/xge0000472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Acute stress can modulate memory for individual parts of an event (items), but whether it similarly influences memory for associations between items remains unclear. We used a within-subjects design to explore the influence of acute stress on item and associative memory in humans. Participants associated negative words with neutral objects, rated their subjective arousal for each pair, and completed delayed item and paired associative recognition tasks. We found strikingly different patterns of acute stress effects on item and associative memory: for high-arousal pairs, preencoding stress enhanced associative memory, whereas postencoding stress enhanced item memory. Preretrieval stress consistently impaired both forms of memory. We found that the influence of stress-induced cortisol also varied, with a linear relationship between cortisol and item memory but a quadratic relationship between cortisol and associative memory. These findings reveal key differences in how stress, throughout the memory cycle, shapes our memories for items and associations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).
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42
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Vogel S, Kluen LM, Fernández G, Schwabe L. Stress affects the neural ensemble for integrating new information and prior knowledge. Neuroimage 2018; 173:176-187. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.02.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2017] [Revised: 02/09/2018] [Accepted: 02/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
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43
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Schwabe L, Schächinger H. Ten years of research with the Socially Evaluated Cold Pressor Test: Data from the past and guidelines for the future. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2018; 92:155-161. [PMID: 29573884 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2017] [Revised: 02/12/2018] [Accepted: 03/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Ten years ago, the Socially Evaluated Cold Pressor Test (SECPT) was introduced as a standardized protocol for the efficient experimental stress induction in humans. In short, the 3 min SECPT, which can be conducted by only a single experimenter, combines a physiological challenge (hand immersion into ice water) with socio-evaluative elements. The purpose of this article is twofold. First, we aim to evaluate the subjective and physiological responses elicited by the SECPT. To this end, we pooled data from 21 studies from our lab and systematically analyzed the response profile to the SECPT. Our analyses show that the SECPT leads, both in men and women, to striking increases in subjective stress levels, autonomic arousal, and cortisol, albeit the cortisol response is typically somewhat less pronounced than in the Trier Social Stress Test. Second, we aim to provide guidelines for conducting the SECPT, in order to foster homogenization of the SECPT procedure across (and within) labs. In sum, we argue that the SECPT is a highly efficient tool to induce stress and activate major stress systems in a laboratory context, in particular if the guidelines that we outline here are followed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Schwabe
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, University of Hamburg, Von-Melle-Park 5, 20146 Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Hartmut Schächinger
- Department of Clinical Psychophysiology, Johanniterufer 15, 54290 Trier, Germany
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44
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Smith AM, Thomas AK. Reducing the Consequences of Acute Stress on Memory Retrieval. JOURNAL OF APPLIED RESEARCH IN MEMORY AND COGNITION 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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45
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Szőllősi Á, Keresztes A, Novák B, Szászi B, Kéri S, Racsmány M. The Testing Effect is Preserved in Stressful Final Testing Environment. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/acp.3363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ágnes Szőllősi
- Department of Cognitive Science; Budapest University of Technology and Economics; Budapest Hungary
| | - Attila Keresztes
- Center for Lifespan Psychology; Max Planck Institute for Human Development; Berlin Germany
| | - Bálint Novák
- Department of General Psychology; Pázmány Péter Catholic University; Budapest Hungary
| | - Barnabás Szászi
- Institute of Psychology; Eötvös Loránd University; Budapest Hungary
| | - Szabolcs Kéri
- Department of Cognitive Science; Budapest University of Technology and Economics; Budapest Hungary
- National Institute of Psychiatry and Addictions; Nyírő Gyula Hospital; Budapest Hungary
| | - Mihály Racsmány
- Department of Cognitive Science; Budapest University of Technology and Economics; Budapest Hungary
- Research Group on Frontostriatal Disorders; Hungarian Academy of Sciences; Budapest Hungary
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46
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Goldfarb EV, Mendelevich Y, Phelps EA. Acute Stress Time-dependently Modulates Multiple Memory Systems. J Cogn Neurosci 2017; 29:1877-1894. [PMID: 28699809 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_01167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Acute stress has been shown to modulate the engagement of different memory systems, leading to preferential expression of stimulus-response (SR) rather than episodic context memory when both types of memory can be used. However, questions remain regarding the cognitive mechanism that underlies this bias in humans-specifically, how each form of memory is individually influenced by stress in order for SR memory to be dominant. Here we separately measured context and SR memory and investigated how each was influenced by acute stress after learning (Experiment 1) and before retrieval (Experiment 2). We found that postlearning stress, in tandem with increased adrenergic activity during learning, impaired consolidation of context memory and led to preferential expression of SR rather than context memory. Preretrieval stress also impaired context memory, albeit transiently. Neither postlearning nor preretrieval stress changed the expression of SR memory. However, individual differences in cortisol reactivity immediately after learning were associated with variability in initial SR learning. These results reveal novel cognitive mechanisms by which stress can modulate multiple memory systems.
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47
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Smith AM, Floerke VA, Thomas AK. Retrieval practice protects memory against acute stress. Science 2017; 354:1046-1048. [PMID: 27885031 DOI: 10.1126/science.aah5067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2016] [Accepted: 10/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
More than a decade of research has supported a robust consensus: Acute stress impairs memory retrieval. We aimed to determine whether a highly effective learning technique could strengthen memory against the negative effects of stress. To bolster memory, we used retrieval practice, or the act of taking practice tests. Participants first learned stimuli by either restudying or engaging in retrieval practice. Twenty-four hours later, we induced stress in half of the participants and assessed subsequent memory performance. Participants who learned by restudying demonstrated the typical stress-related memory impairment, whereas those who learned by retrieval practice were immune to the deleterious effects of stress. These results suggest that the effects of stress on memory retrieval may be contingent on the strength of the memory representations themselves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy M Smith
- Tufts University, 490 Boston Avenue, Medford, MA 02155, USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Conny W. E. M. Quaedflieg
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Psychology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Lars Schwabe
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Psychology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
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Shields GS, Sazma MA, McCullough AM, Yonelinas AP. The effects of acute stress on episodic memory: A meta-analysis and integrative review. Psychol Bull 2017; 143:636-675. [PMID: 28368148 DOI: 10.1037/bul0000100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 248] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
A growing body of research has indicated that acute stress can critically impact memory. However, there are a number of inconsistencies in the literature, and important questions remain regarding the conditions under which stress effects emerge as well as basic questions about how stress impacts different phases of memory. In this meta-analysis, we examined 113 independent studies in humans with 6,216 participants that explored effects of stress on encoding, postencoding, retrieval, or postreactivation phases of episodic memory. The results indicated that when stress occurred prior to or during encoding it impaired memory, unless both the delay between the stressor and encoding was very short and the study materials were directly related to the stressor, in which case stress improved encoding. In contrast, postencoding stress improved memory unless the stressor occurred in a different physical context than the study materials. When stress occurred just prior to or during retrieval, memory was impaired, and these effects were larger for emotionally valenced materials than neutral materials. Although stress consistently increased cortisol, the magnitude of the cortisol response was not related to the effects of stress on memory. Nonetheless, the effects of stress on memory were generally reduced in magnitude for women taking hormonal contraceptives. These analyses indicate that stress disrupts some episodic memory processes while enhancing others, and that the effects of stress are modulated by a number of critical factors. These results provide important constraints on current theories of stress and memory, and point to new questions for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record
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