1
|
Wiley K, Berger P, Friehs MA, Mandryk RL. Measuring the Reliability of a Gamified Stroop Task: Quantitative Experiment. JMIR Serious Games 2024; 12:e50315. [PMID: 38598265 PMCID: PMC11043929 DOI: 10.2196/50315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Revised: 11/29/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Few gamified cognitive tasks are subjected to rigorous examination of psychometric properties, despite their use in experimental and clinical settings. Even small manipulations to cognitive tasks require extensive research to understand their effects. OBJECTIVE This study aims to investigate how game elements can affect the reliability of scores on a Stroop task. We specifically investigated performance consistency within and across sessions. METHODS We created 2 versions of the Stroop task, with and without game elements, and then tested each task with participants at 2 time points. The gamified task used points and feedback as game elements. In this paper, we report on the reliability of the gamified Stroop task in terms of internal consistency and test-retest reliability, compared with the control task. We used a permutation approach to evaluate internal consistency. For test-retest reliability, we calculated the Pearson correlation and intraclass correlation coefficients between each time point. We also descriptively compared the reliability of scores on a trial-by-trial basis, considering the different trial types. RESULTS At the first time point, the Stroop effect was reduced in the game condition, indicating an increase in performance. Participants in the game condition had faster reaction times (P=.005) and lower error rates (P=.04) than those in the basic task condition. Furthermore, the game condition led to higher measures of internal consistency at both time points for reaction times and error rates, which indicates a more consistent response pattern. For reaction time in the basic task condition, at time 1, rSpearman-Brown=0.78, 95% CI 0.64-0.89. At time 2, rSpearman-Brown=0.64, 95% CI 0.40-0.81. For reaction time, in the game condition, at time 1, rSpearman-Brown=0.83, 95% CI 0.71-0.91. At time 2, rSpearman-Brown=0.76, 95% CI 0.60-0.88. Similarly, for error rates in the basic task condition, at time 1, rSpearman-Brown=0.76, 95% CI 0.62-0.87. At time 2, rSpearman-Brown=0.74, 95% CI 0.58-0.86. For error rates in the game condition, at time 1, rSpearman-Brown=0.76, 95% CI 0.62-0.87. At time 2, rSpearman-Brown=0.74, 95% CI 0.58-0.86. Test-retest reliability analysis revealed a distinctive performance pattern depending on the trial type, which may be reflective of motivational differences between task versions. In short, especially in the incongruent trials where cognitive conflict occurs, performance in the game condition reaches peak consistency after 100 trials, whereas performance consistency drops after 50 trials for the basic version and only catches up to the game after 250 trials. CONCLUSIONS Even subtle gamification can impact task performance albeit not only in terms of a direct difference in performance between conditions. People playing the game reach peak performance sooner, and their performance is more consistent within and across sessions. We advocate for a closer examination of the impact of game elements on performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katelyn Wiley
- Department of Computer Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Phaedra Berger
- Department of Computer Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Maximilian Achim Friehs
- Faculty of Behavioural, Management and Social Sciences, University of Twente, Enschede, Netherlands
- School of Psychology, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- Max-Planck-Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Regan Lee Mandryk
- Department of Computer Science, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Claydon J, James WRG, Clarke ADF, Hunt AR. The role of framing, agency and uncertainty in a focus-divide dilemma. Mem Cognit 2024; 52:574-594. [PMID: 37922110 PMCID: PMC11021327 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-023-01484-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/13/2023] [Indexed: 11/05/2023]
Abstract
How to prioritise multiple objectives is a common dilemma of daily life. A simple and effective decision rule is to focus resources when the tasks are difficult, and divide when tasks are easy. Nonetheless, in experimental paradigms of this dilemma, participants make highly variable and suboptimal strategic decisions when asked to allocate resources to two competing goals that vary in difficulty. We developed a new version in which participants had to choose where to park a fire truck between houses of varying distances apart. Unlike in the previous versions of the dilemma, participants approached the optimal strategy in this task. Three key differences between the fire truck version and previous versions of the task were investigated: (1) Framing (whether the objectives are familiar or abstract), by comparing a group who placed cartoon trucks between houses to a group performing the same task with abstract shapes; (2) Agency (how much of the task is under the participants' direct control), by comparing groups who controlled the movement of the truck to those who did not; (3) Uncertainty, by adding variability to the driving speed of the truck to make success or failure on a given trial more difficult to predict. Framing and agency did not influence strategic decisions. When adding variability to outcomes, however, decisions shifted away from optimal. The results suggest choices become more variable when the outcome is less certain, consistent with exploration of response alternatives triggered by an inability to predict success.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Justin Claydon
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, AB24 3UB, UK.
| | - Warren R G James
- School of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
| | | | - Amelia R Hunt
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, AB24 3UB, UK
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Khaleghi A, Narimani A, Aghaei Z, Khorrami Banaraki A, Hassani-Abharian P. A Smartphone-Gamified Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy Augmented With Biofeedback for Ailurophobia: Development and Evaluation Study. JMIR Serious Games 2024; 12:e34535. [PMID: 38446522 PMCID: PMC10955409 DOI: 10.2196/34535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Revised: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/07/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND To the best of our knowledge, no specialized research has been conducted to address ailurophobia (fear of cats) in Iran or globally. This has driven our project, along with the prevalence of ailurophobia and the absence of a gamified virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) that incorporates affordable and easily accessible biofeedback (BF) tools. We hypothesize that a gamified VRET augmented with BF will yield more positive effects than a similar device lacking BF. OBJECTIVE This study primarily focuses on the development and preliminary evaluation of a smartphone-gamified VRET integrated with BF, targeting animal phobia, with a specific case study on ailurophobia. The secondary objectives are using affordable and readily available BF found in devices such as smart bands and smartwatches and creating a mobile virtual reality gamified app to improve patients' adherence to treatments while simultaneously enhancing the app's accessibility, scalability, and outreach. METHODS Evaluations encompassed 3 methods. First, we identified the tool's potential positive effects on phobia interventions, exploring 4 effects: intrinsic motivation, simulation of fearful situations, management of stressful circumstances without therapists' presence and mitigation of catastrophic thoughts, and preliminary effects on ailurophobia treatment. Participants were divided into BF and non-BF groups. Second, we gathered user preferences and opinions about the treatment. Third, we conducted heuristic evaluations using 44 heuristics from existing system usability scales assessing user interfaces, virtual reality platforms, and video games' playability. To interpret the data, mean scores; ANOVA, single factor; and ANOVA, 2-factor with replication were used. A total of 29 individuals were identified, of which 10 met the eligibility criteria or were accessible. RESULTS The smartphone-gamified VRET augmented with BF exhibited better results on the identified effects compared with the non-BF version and contributed to normalizing encounters with cats. Moreover, 41 of the 44 heuristics achieved a percentage above 62%, indicating its potential as a therapeutic product and its ability to enhance patient adherence to treatments. Patient preferences on the treatment and its strengths and weaknesses were provided for further improvement. CONCLUSIONS The tool has the potential to evolve into a comprehensive solution by incorporating various types of cats and their behaviors, simulating environments in which they are commonly found, and enhancing its appeal through an increased sense of adventure without inducing unrealistic fears. By adapting fear elements, the game can be tailored to treat various animal phobias. Phobia-focused games should avoid action and combat scenarios to prevent reinforcement of fear responses. After rigorous evaluation, further exploration is required to provide remote use beyond clinical settings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ali Khaleghi
- Iranian Light Source Facility, Institute for Research in Fundamental Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Abbas Narimani
- Department of Computer Engineering, Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin, Iran
| | - Zahra Aghaei
- Department of Computer Engineering, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran
| | - Anahita Khorrami Banaraki
- Brain and Cognition Clinic, Institute for Cognitive Science Studies, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Cognitive Psychology and Rehabilitation, Institute for Cognitive Science Studies, Tehran, Iran
| | - Peyman Hassani-Abharian
- Brain and Cognition Clinic, Institute for Cognitive Science Studies, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Cognitive Psychology and Rehabilitation, Institute for Cognitive Science Studies, Tehran, Iran
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Walle A, Druey MD, Hübner R. Learned cognitive control counteracts value-driven attentional capture. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2023; 87:2048-2067. [PMID: 36763140 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-023-01792-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
Abstract
Stimuli formerly associated with monetary reward capture our attention, even if this attraction is contrary to current goals (so-called value-driven attentional capture [VDAC], see Anderson (Ann N Y Acad Sci 1369:24-39, 2016), for a review). Despite the growing literature to this topic, little is known about the boundary conditions for the occurrence of VDAC. In three experiments, we investigated the role of response conflicts and spatial uncertainty regarding the target location during the training and test phase for the emergence of value-driven effects. Thus, we varied the occurrence of a response conflict, search components, and the type of task in both phases. In the training, value-driven effects were rather observed if the location of the value-associated target was not predictable and a response conflict was present. Value-driven effects also only occurred, if participants have not learned to deal with a response conflict, yet. However, the introduction of a response conflict during learning of the color-value association seemed to prevent attention to be distracted by this feature in a subsequent test. The study provides new insights not only into the boundary conditions of the learning of value associations, but also into the learning of cognitive control.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Annabelle Walle
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, 78457, Konstanz, Germany.
| | - Michel D Druey
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, 78457, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Ronald Hübner
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, 78457, Konstanz, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Jeong JH, Ju J, Kim S, Choi JS, Cho YS. Value-driven attention and associative learning models: a computational simulation analysis. Psychon Bull Rev 2023; 30:1689-1706. [PMID: 37145388 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-023-02296-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Value-driven attentional capture (VDAC) refers to a phenomenon by which stimulus features associated with greater reward value attract more attention than those associated with smaller reward value. To date, the majority of VDAC research has revealed that the relationship between reward history and attentional allocation follows associative learning rules. Accordingly, a mathematical implementation of associative learning models and multiple comparison between them can elucidate the underlying process and properties of VDAC. In this study, we implemented the Rescorla-Wagner, Mackintosh (Mac), Schumajuk-Pearce-Hall (SPH), and Esber-Haselgrove (EH) models to determine whether different models predict different outcomes when critical parameters in VDAC were adjusted. Simulation results were compared with experimental data from a series of VDAC studies by fitting two key model parameters, associative strength (V) and associability (α), using the Bayesian information criterion as a loss function. The results showed that SPH-V and EH- α outperformed other implementations of phenomena related to VDAC, such as expected value, training session, switching (or inertia), and uncertainty. Although V of models were sufficient to simulate VDAC when the expected value was the main manipulation of the experiment, α of models could predict additional aspects of VDAC, including uncertainty and resistance to extinction. In summary, associative learning models concur with the crucial aspects of behavioral data from VDAC experiments and elucidate underlying dynamics including novel predictions that need to be verified.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ji Hoon Jeong
- School of Psychology, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, Korea
| | - Jangkyu Ju
- School of Psychology, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, Korea
| | - Sunghyun Kim
- School of Psychology, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, Korea
| | - June-Seek Choi
- School of Psychology, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, Korea
| | - Yang Seok Cho
- School of Psychology, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Gallen CL, Schachtner JN, Anguera-Singla R, Anguera JA, Gazzaley A. Influence of game features on attention in adults. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1123306. [PMID: 37228349 PMCID: PMC10203248 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1123306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction The incorporation of game features into cognitive tasks can inform us about the influence of reward and motivation on attention. Continuous performance tasks (CPTs), designed to assess attention abilities, are examples of cognitive tasks that have been targeted for the addition of game features. However, previous results have been mixed regarding how game elements affect attention abilities and task performance. Methods Here, we studied if there were factors that predict which individuals exhibit changes in attention from game features added to a CPT. Participants (N = 94, aged 21-71) played a traditional CPT and a game CPT with identical mechanics, but featured engaging game elements (aesthetics, storyline, competition, feedback, and reward). Results We first found corroborating evidence that game features have mixed effects on attention performance: most attention metrics of interest exhibited no overall difference between the traditional and game CPT, while game elements reduced performance for a few metrics. Importantly, we also found that specific behavioral and demographic profiles predicted individual differences in performance on the game CPT compared to the traditional CPT. Those with more attention difficulties (ADHD symptoms), more reward responsiveness, and younger adults performed better on the game CPT while, conversely, those with fewer ADHD symptoms, less reward responsiveness, and older adults performed better on the traditional CPT. Discussion These findings provide insights into how game features can influence attention in different individuals and have important implications for the use of game elements in cognitive tasks and training interventions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Courtney L. Gallen
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
- Neuroscape Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Jessica N. Schachtner
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
- Neuroscape Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
- Department of Psychology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Roger Anguera-Singla
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
- Neuroscape Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Joaquin A. Anguera
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
- Neuroscape Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Adam Gazzaley
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
- Neuroscape Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
- Department of Physiology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Sussman RF, Sekuler R. Feeling rushed? Perceived time pressure impacts executive function and stress. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2022; 229:103702. [PMID: 35985154 PMCID: PMC9506568 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Revised: 07/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Executive function (EF) is critical to everyday life, but it can be undermined by adverse psychological states like stress and negative affect. For example, inadequate time to perform a task is a common stressor that can disrupt EF. Although the impact of actual time pressure on EF has been established, little is known about how self-generated, perceived time pressure (PTP) affects EF in the absence of objective time limits. We chose Eriksen’s Flanker task as an index of cognitive inhibition, a key component of EF, and we varied the interval between successive trials, the inter-trial interval (ITI), to proxy PTP. This manipulation strongly impacted task performance: shrinking the ITI to increase PTP diminished cognitive inhibition and increased both stress and negative affect. Subsequently lengthening the ITI to decrease PTP reversed nearly all of these effects, except stress, which persisted. Multilevel linear regression modeling revealed that ITI and stress predicted inhibition, and exploratory mediation modeling suggested that stress mediates the relationship between ITI and inhibition. These findings validate perceived time pressure as an empirical stressor and demonstrate EF’s sensitivity to changes in PTP.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rachel F Sussman
- Department of Psychology and Program in Neuroscience, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA, USA.
| | - Robert Sekuler
- Volen Center for Complex Systems and Department of Psychology, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Martins PSR, Barbosa-Pereira D, Valgas-Costa M, Mansur-Alves M. Item analysis of the Child Neuropsychological Assessment Test (TENI): Classical test theory and item response theory. APPLIED NEUROPSYCHOLOGY. CHILD 2022; 11:339-349. [PMID: 33211976 DOI: 10.1080/21622965.2020.1846128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to analyze the psychometric properties of the Brazilian version of the Test de Evaluación Neuropsicologica Infantil (TENI) using classical test theory (CTT), item response theory (IRT), and differential item functioning (DIF) models. The visuospatial working memory, focused attention, and matrix reasoning subtasks were analyzed. A total of 553 children, aged between 3 and 9 years of age, from eight public and private schools from the urban area of Belo Horizonte were assessed. In general, all subtasks can be treated essentially as unidimensional. Items' discrimination and difficulties increased in the order of presentation, as they were planned, using CTT and IRT. Items with DIF were found in all tasks, with higher probabilities of answering items correctly for boys and for private school children. Our results corroborated the partial use of some TENI subtasks as a promising digital instrument for non-verbal neuropsychological assessment for children.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pedro S R Martins
- Department of Psychology, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | | | | | - Marcela Mansur-Alves
- Department of Psychology, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Wang P, Fang Y, Qi JY, Li HJ. FISHERMAN: A Serious Game for Executive Function Assessment of Older Adults. Assessment 2022:10731911221105648. [PMID: 35762827 DOI: 10.1177/10731911221105648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Executive functions (EFs) are essential for daily living activities but decline with age. Convenient assessment and timely intervention have particular significance for older adults. However, the traditional laboratory tasks of EFs are typically monotonous and inconvenient. The current study aimed to develop an interesting and convenient supplementary tool to assess EFs for older adults. According to the theory of EFs, we developed a serious game, FISHERMAN, to assess EFs. The game includes three subgames, Cautious Fisherman, Agile Fisherman, and Wise Fisherman, targeting core components of inhibition, shifting, and working memory, respectively. The current study aims to verify the reliability and validity of the game. One hundred and eight healthy older adults participated in this study and were tested through the FISHERMAN game and a battery of cognitive tests. The results show that the FISHERMAN game has high internal consistency reliability and good construct validity as well as criterion-related validity, suggesting that the game design is valid and can be used in EFs assessment for older adults. Future studies are warranted to establish the norm of the FISHERMAN game in older adults and investigate whether the FISHERMAN game can be generalized to other populations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ping Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yuan Fang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jing-Yi Qi
- CAS Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Hui-Jie Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Yu G, Liu C, Liu X, Wang A, Zhang M. Reward reduces the fission illusion in the sound-induced flash illusion. Perception 2022; 51:388-402. [DOI: 10.1177/03010066221093479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Pairing a single visual stimulus with multiple auditory stimuli will lead to the illusory perception of multiple visual stimuli, which is known as sound-induced flash illusion (SIFI). The present study adopted the classic SIFI paradigm to investigate whether value-associated tasks could affect the SIFI. By adjusting the sequence of reward and nonreward conditions, we also examined the effect of reward history on SIFI. The results showed that the fission illusion was reduced when associated with momentary reward, demonstrating significantly higher accuracy and discriminability than the nonreward condition. However, the fusion illusion was not affected by the momentary reward, and the explanation was that the fusion illusion was not as stable as the fission illusion and disappeared across different trials and conditions. Moreover, the robustness of reward history in the present study was not as strong as previous studies have suggested, indicating that the effect of sound on the perceptual representation of visual stimuli is strong and robust to reward history. These findings demonstrated that the reward could reduce the SIFI and broaden the existing dichotomy of SIFI. New evidence for the operation of value-driven attention mechanisms is also provided, suggesting that the underlying value-driven attention operates across multiple sensory systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gaoxin Yu
- Department of Psychology, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Chunmei Liu
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Constructive Laboratory for Big Data of Psychology and Cognitive Science, Yancheng Teachers University, Yancheng, China
| | - Xiaole Liu
- Department of Psychology, Research Center for Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Aijun Wang
- Department of Psychology, Research Center for Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, China; Laboratory, Graduate School of Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering In Health Systems, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
| | - Ming Zhang
- Department of Psychology, Research Center for Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, China; Laboratory, Graduate School of Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering In Health Systems, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Willis C, Powell-Rudy T, Colley K, Prasad J. Examining the Use of Game-Based Assessments for Hiring Autistic Job Seekers. J Intell 2021; 9:jintelligence9040053. [PMID: 34842751 PMCID: PMC8628896 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence9040053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Revised: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Although people with autism are protected under the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, there is little theoretical or practical effort to determine whether traditional pre-employment assessments unfairly impact autistic job seekers. Due to the lack of emphasis on social communication, game-based assessments (GBAs) may offer a way of assessing candidate ability without disadvantaging autistic candidates. A total of 263 autistic job seekers took one of two game-based assessment packages designed to measure cognitive ability. After comparing their results to 323 college-graduate job seekers in the general population, we found that performance on the GBAs was generally similar in both populations, although some small differences were detected. Implications for hiring decisions are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Colin Willis
- HireVue, Inc., South Jordan, UT 84095, USA
- Correspondence:
| | | | - Kelsie Colley
- Department of Psychology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA; (K.C.); (J.P.)
| | - Joshua Prasad
- Department of Psychology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA; (K.C.); (J.P.)
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Anderson BA, Kim H, Kim AJ, Liao MR, Mrkonja L, Clement A, Grégoire L. The past, present, and future of selection history. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 130:326-350. [PMID: 34499927 PMCID: PMC8511179 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The last ten years of attention research have witnessed a revolution, replacing a theoretical dichotomy (top-down vs. bottom-up control) with a trichotomy (biased by current goals, physical salience, and selection history). This third new mechanism of attentional control, selection history, is multifaceted. Some aspects of selection history must be learned over time whereas others reflect much more transient influences. A variety of different learning experiences can shape the attention system, including reward, aversive outcomes, past experience searching for a target, target‒non-target relations, and more. In this review, we provide an overview of the historical forces that led to the proposal of selection history as a distinct mechanism of attentional control. We then propose a formal definition of selection history, with concrete criteria, and identify different components of experience-driven attention that fit within this definition. The bulk of the review is devoted to exploring how these different components relate to one another. We conclude by proposing an integrative account of selection history centered on underlying themes that emerge from our review.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brian A Anderson
- Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, United States.
| | - Haena Kim
- Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, United States
| | - Andy J Kim
- Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, United States
| | - Ming-Ray Liao
- Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, United States
| | - Lana Mrkonja
- Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, United States
| | - Andrew Clement
- Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, United States
| | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Wiley K, Robinson R, Mandryk RL. The Making and Evaluation of Digital Games Used for the Assessment of Attention: Systematic Review. JMIR Serious Games 2021; 9:e26449. [PMID: 34383674 PMCID: PMC8386381 DOI: 10.2196/26449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Revised: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Serious games are now widely used in many contexts, including psychological research and clinical use. One area of growing interest is that of cognitive assessment, which seeks to measure different cognitive functions such as memory, attention, and perception. Measuring these functions at both the population and individual levels can inform research and indicate health issues. Attention is an important function to assess, as an accurate measure of attention can help diagnose many common disorders, such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and dementia. However, using games to assess attention poses unique problems, as games inherently manipulate attention through elements such as sound effects, graphics, and rewards, and research on adding game elements to assessments (ie, gamification) has shown mixed results. The process for developing cognitive tasks is robust, with high psychometric standards that must be met before these tasks are used for assessment. Although games offer more diverse approaches for assessment, there is no standard for how they should be developed or evaluated. Objective To better understand the field and provide guidance to interdisciplinary researchers, we aim to answer the question: How are digital games used for the cognitive assessment of attention made and measured? Methods We searched several databases for papers that described a digital game used to assess attention that could be deployed remotely without specialized hardware. We used Rayyan, a systematic review software, to screen the records before conducting a systematic review. Results The initial database search returned 49,365 papers. Our screening process resulted in a total of 74 papers that used a digital game to measure cognitive functions related to attention. Across the studies in our review, we found three approaches to making assessment games: gamifying cognitive tasks, creating custom games based on theories of cognition, and exploring potential assessment properties of commercial games. With regard to measuring the assessment properties of these games (eg, how accurately they assess attention), we found three approaches: comparison to a traditional cognitive task, comparison to a clinical diagnosis, and comparison to knowledge of cognition; however, most studies in our review did not evaluate the game’s properties (eg, if participants enjoyed the game). Conclusions Our review provides an overview of how games used for the assessment of attention are developed and evaluated. We further identified three barriers to advancing the field: reliance on assumptions, lack of evaluation, and lack of integration and standardization. We then recommend the best practices to address these barriers. Our review can act as a resource to help guide the field toward more standardized approaches and rigorous evaluation required for the widespread adoption of assessment games.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katelyn Wiley
- Department of Computer Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Raquel Robinson
- Department of Computer Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Regan L Mandryk
- Department of Computer Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Khaleghi A, Aghaei Z, Mahdavi MA. A Gamification Framework for Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: Qualitative Study. JMIR Serious Games 2021; 9:e21900. [PMID: 33819164 PMCID: PMC8170558 DOI: 10.2196/21900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Revised: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cognitive tasks designed to measure or train cognition are often repetitive and presented in a monotonous manner, features that lead to participant boredom and disengagement. In this situation, participants do not put forth their best effort to do these tasks well. As a result, neuropsychologists cannot draw accurate conclusions about the data collected, and intervention effects are reduced. It is assumed that greater engagement and motivation will manifest as improved data quality. Gamification, the use of game elements in nongame settings, has been heralded as a potential mechanism for increasing participant engagement in cognitive tasks. Some studies have reported a positive effect of gamification on participant performance, although most studies have shown mixed results. One reason for these contrasting findings is that most studies have applied poor and heterogeneous design techniques to gamify cognitive tasks. Therefore, an appropriate gamification design framework is needed in these tasks. Objective This study aimed to propose a framework to guide the design of gamification in cognitive tasks. Methods We employed a design science research (DSR) approach to provide a framework for gamifying cognitive assessments and training by synthesizing current gamification design frameworks and gamification works in cognitive assessment and training, as well as incorporating field experiences. The prototypes of the framework were iteratively evaluated with 17 relevant experts. Results We proposed a framework consisting of 7 phases: (1) preparation; (2) knowing users; (3) exploring existing tools for assessing or training a targeted cognitive context and determining the suitability of game-up and mapping techniques; (4) ideation; (5) prototyping using the Objects, Mechanics, Dynamics, Emotions (OMDE) design guideline; (6) development; and (7) disseminating and monitoring. Conclusions We found that (1) an intermediate design framework is needed to gamify cognitive tasks, which means that game elements should be selected by considering current cognitive assessment or training context characteristics since game elements may impose an irrelevant cognitive load that, in turn, can jeopardize data quality; (2) in addition to developing a new gamified cognitive task from scratch, 2 gamification techniques are widely used (first, adding game elements to an existing cognitive task and second, mapping an existing game to a cognitive function or impairment to assess or train it); and (3) further research is required to investigate the interplay of cognitive processes and game mechanics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ali Khaleghi
- Department of Computer Engineering, Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin, Iran
| | - Zahra Aghaei
- Department of Computer Engineering, Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin, Iran
| | - Mohammad Amin Mahdavi
- Department of Computer Engineering, Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin, Iran
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Vogt A, Albus P, Seufert T. Learning in Virtual Reality: Bridging the Motivation Gap by Adding Annotations. Front Psychol 2021; 12:645032. [PMID: 33841282 PMCID: PMC8024467 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.645032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 03/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
One challenge while learning scientific concepts is to select relevant information and to integrate different representations of the learning content into one coherent mental model. Virtual reality learning environments (VRLEs) offer new possibilities to support learners and foster learning processes. Whether learning in VR is successful, however, depends to a large extent on the design of the VRLE and the learners themselves. Hence, adding supportive elements in VRLEs, such as annotations, might facilitate the learning process by guiding attention and supporting the selection of relevant information. Additionally, the mapping of pictorial and verbal information is eased by these annotations. The beneficial effect of annotations is highly dependent on learners' intrinsic motivation as intrinsic motivation while learning also affects the information selection and visual search patterns. In our experimental study (N = 61), we compared two conditions: learning in a VRLE with or without annotations. We measured the learning outcome on three different levels (knowledge, comprehension, and application). Additionally, we investigated intrinsic motivation as a moderator for the effect of annotations on learning outcome. We found no significant main effect of annotations on learning outcome. The moderating effect of intrinsic motivation for annotations on the overall learning outcome was significant. Our results imply that learners are either intrinsically motivated or need additional support by annotations as these support the selection of relevant information in the VRLE and therefore enable them to learn successfully. Which type or quantity of annotations supports learning processes best needs to be explored in future research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Vogt
- Department Learning and Instruction, Institute of Psychology and Education, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Patrick Albus
- Department Learning and Instruction, Institute of Psychology and Education, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Tina Seufert
- Department Learning and Instruction, Institute of Psychology and Education, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Abstract
The majority of previous studies on the value modulation of attention have shown that the magnitude of value-driven attentional bias correlates with the strength of reward association. However, relatively little is known about how uncertainty affects value-based attentional bias. We investigated whether attentional capture by previously rewarded stimuli is modulated by the uncertainty of the learned value without the influence of the strength of reward association. Participants were instructed to identify the line orientation in the target color circle. Importantly, each target color was associated with a different level of uncertainty by tuning the variation in reward delivery (Experiment 1) or reward magnitude (Experiment 2). Attentional interference for uncertainty-related distractors was greater than that for certainty distractors in Experiments 1 and 2. In addition, uncertainty-induced attentional bias disappeared earlier than attentional bias for certainty. The study demonstrated that uncertainty modulates value-based attentional capture in terms of strength and persistence, even when the effect of expected value remains constant.
Collapse
|
17
|
Friehs MA, Dechant M, Vedress S, Frings C, Mandryk RL. Effective Gamification of the Stop-Signal Task: Two Controlled Laboratory Experiments. JMIR Serious Games 2020; 8:e17810. [PMID: 32897233 PMCID: PMC7509611 DOI: 10.2196/17810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Revised: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background A lack of ability to inhibit prepotent responses, or more generally a lack of impulse control, is associated with several disorders such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and schizophrenia as well as general damage to the prefrontal cortex. A stop-signal task (SST) is a reliable and established measure of response inhibition. However, using the SST as an objective assessment in diagnostic or research-focused settings places significant stress on participants as the task itself requires concentration and cognitive effort and is not particularly engaging. This can lead to decreased motivation to follow task instructions and poor data quality, which can affect assessment efficacy and might increase drop-out rates. Gamification—the application of game-based elements in nongame settings—has shown to improve engaged attention to a cognitive task, thus increasing participant motivation and data quality. Objective This study aims to design a gamified SST that improves participants’ engagement and validate this gamified SST against a standard SST. Methods We described the design of our gamified SST and reported on 2 separate studies that aim to validate the gamified SST relative to a standard SST. In study 1, a within-subject design was used to compare the performance of the SST and a stop-signal game (SSG). In study 2, we added eye tracking to the procedure to determine if overt attention was affected and aimed to replicate the findings from study 1 in a between-subjects design. Furthermore, in both studies, flow and motivational experiences were measured. Results In contrast, the behavioral performance was comparable between the tasks (P<.87; BF01=2.87), and the experience of flow and intrinsic motivation were rated higher in the SSG group, although this difference was not significant. Conclusions Overall, our findings provide evidence that the gamification of SST is possible and that the SSG is enjoyed more. Thus, when participant engagement is critical, we recommend using the SSG instead of the SST.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Martin Dechant
- Human-Computer-Interaction Lab, Department of Computer Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Sarah Vedress
- Human-Computer-Interaction Lab, Department of Computer Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Christian Frings
- Department of Cognitive Psychology and Methodology, Trier University, Trier, Germany
| | - Regan Lee Mandryk
- Human-Computer-Interaction Lab, Department of Computer Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Abstract
While the factors that contribute to individuals feeling a sense agency over a stimulus have been extensively studied, the cognitive effects of a sense of agency over a stimulus are little known. Here, we conducted three experiments examining whether attentional selection is biased towards controllable stimuli. In all three experiments, participants moved four circle stimuli, one of which was under their control. A search target then appeared on one of the stimuli. In Experiment 1, the target was always on the controlled stimulus, but we manipulated the degree of control the participant had. In Experiment 2, the controlled stimulus was the target on 50% of the trials. In Experiment 3, we used a central arrow cue to tell participants which arrow key to press (rather than using a free choice task) and made the controlled stimulus the target on 25% of the trials, making it nonpredictive of the target's location. Across the three experiments we found that visual selection was biased towards controllable stimuli. This attentional bias was larger when participants had full, rather than partial, control over the stimulus, indicating that sense of agency leads one to prioritize objects under their control. The fact that agency influenced attention when the controlled object contained the target in 100%, 50%, and 25% of trials, and occurred even when participants needed to monitor the center of the display in order to know which arrow key to press, suggests that its influence does not depend on task relevance or volitional decision-making.
Collapse
|
19
|
Visual working memory deficits in undergraduates with a history of mild traumatic brain injury. Atten Percept Psychophys 2020; 81:2597-2603. [PMID: 31218600 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-019-01774-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
We investigated whether a history of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI), or concussion, has any effect on visual working memory (WM) performance. In most cases, cognitive performance is thought to return to premorbid levels soon after injury, without further medical intervention. We tested this assumption in undergraduates, among whom a history of mTBI is prevalent. Notably, participants with a history of mTBI performed worse than their colleagues with no such history. Experiment 1 was based on a change detection paradigm in which we manipulated visual WM set size from one to three items, which revealed a significant deficit at set size 3. In Experiment 2 we investigated whether feedback could rescue WM performance in the mTBI group, and found that it failed. In Experiment 3 we manipulated WM maintenance duration (set size 3, 500-1,500 ms) to investigate a maintenance-related deficit. Across all durations, the mTBI group was impaired. In Experiment 4 we tested whether retrieval demands contributed to WM deficits and showed a consistent deficit across recognition and recall probes. In short, even years after an mTBI, undergraduates perform differently on visual WM tasks than their peers with no such history. Given the prevalence of mTBI, these data may benefit other researchers who see high variability in their data. Clearly, further studies will be needed to determine the breadth of the cognitive deficits in those with a history of mTBI and to identify relevant factors that contribute to positive cognitive outcomes.
Collapse
|
20
|
Abstract
While numerous studies have provided evidence for selection history as a robust influence on attentional allocation, it is unclear precisely which behavioral factors can result in this form of attentional bias. In the current study, we focus on “learned prioritization” as an underlying mechanism of selection history and its effects on selective attention. We conducted two experiments, each starting with a training phase to ensure that participants learned different stimulus priorities. This was accomplished via a visual search task in which a specific color was consistently more relevant when presented together with another given color. In Experiment 1, one color was always prioritized over another color and inferior to a third color, such that each color had an equal overall priority by the end of the training session. In Experiment 2, the three different colors had unequal priorities at the end of the training session. A subsequent testing phase in which participants had to search for a shape-defined target showed that only stimuli with unequal overall priorities (Experiment 2) affected attentional selection, with increased reaction times when a distractor was presented in a previously high-priority compared with a low-priority color. These results demonstrate that adopting an attentional set where certain stimuli are prioritized over others can result in a lingering attentional bias and further suggest that selection history does not equally operate on all previously selected stimuli. Finally, we propose that findings in value-driven attention studies where high-value and low-value signaling stimuli differentially capture attention may be a result of learned prioritization rather than reward.
Collapse
|
21
|
James WRG, Reuther J, Angus E, Clarke ADF, Hunt AR. Inefficient Eye Movements: Gamification Improves Task Execution, But Not Fixation Strategy. Vision (Basel) 2019; 3:E48. [PMID: 31735849 PMCID: PMC6802810 DOI: 10.3390/vision3030048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2019] [Revised: 09/09/2019] [Accepted: 09/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Decisions about where to fixate are highly variable and often inefficient. In the current study, we investigated whether such decisions would improve with increased motivation. Participants had to detect a discrimination target, which would appear in one of two boxes, but only after they chose a location to fixate. The distance between boxes determines which location to fixate to maximise the probability of being able to see the target: participants should fixate between the two boxes when they are close together, and on one of the two boxes when they are far apart. We "gamified" this task, giving participants easy-to-track rewards that were contingent on discrimination accuracy. Their decisions and performance were compared to previous results that were gathered in the absence of this additional motivation. We used a Bayesian beta regression model to estimate the size of the effect and associated variance. The results demonstrate that discrimination accuracy does indeed improve in the presence of performance-related rewards. However, there was no difference in eye movement strategy between the two groups, suggesting this improvement in accuracy was not due to the participants making more optimal eye movement decisions. Instead, the motivation encouraged participants to expend more effort on other aspects of the task, such as paying more attention to the boxes and making fewer response errors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Warren R. G. James
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 3FX, UK; (W.R.G.J.); (J.R.); (E.A.)
| | - Josephine Reuther
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 3FX, UK; (W.R.G.J.); (J.R.); (E.A.)
| | - Ellen Angus
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 3FX, UK; (W.R.G.J.); (J.R.); (E.A.)
| | | | - Amelia R. Hunt
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 3FX, UK; (W.R.G.J.); (J.R.); (E.A.)
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Assessing the role of accuracy-based feedback in value-driven attentional capture. Atten Percept Psychophys 2019; 80:822-828. [PMID: 29468496 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-018-1494-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Despite being physically nonsalient and task-irrelevant, objects rendered in a color that once signaled monetary reward reflexively capture attention during visual search, a phenomenon known as value-driven attentional capture (VDAC). However, it remains a subject of empirical controversy whether learned reward associations are necessary to driving subsequent attentional capture: VDAC-like effects have been observed when accuracy-based feedback alone was used during the VDAC training phase, resulting in attentional capture by objects that were never associated with monetary reward; perplexingly, the presence of these VDAC-like effects in the literature conflicts with those of a number of control studies in which no such capture has been observed, leaving the issue currently unresolved. In this Registered Report, we present new empirical evidence of attentional capture by unrewarded former targets following limited accuracy-based training. We proposed to replicate these results in an independent sample and to test an empirically derived hypothesis concerning a methodological difference between the studies that have shown VDAC-like effects with accuracy-based feedback and those that have not. In short, we found no evidence that this methodological difference accounts for the inconsistencies in the literature, but our replication efforts were overwhelmingly successful, thus reinvigorating debate about the role that selection history may play in value-driven attentional capture.
Collapse
|
23
|
Kim AJ, Anderson BA. Neural correlates of attentional capture by stimuli previously associated with social reward. Cogn Neurosci 2019; 11:5-15. [PMID: 30784353 DOI: 10.1080/17588928.2019.1585338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Our attention is strongly influenced by reward learning. Stimuli previously associated with monetary reward have been shown to automatically capture attention in both behavioral and neurophysiological studies. Stimuli previously associated with positive social feedback similarly capture attention; however, it is unknown whether such social facilitation of attention relies on similar or dissociable neural systems. Here, we used the value-driven attentional capture paradigm in an fMRI study to identify the neural correlates of attention to stimuli previously associated with social reward. The results reveal learning-dependent priority signals in the contralateral visual cortex, posterior parietal cortex, and caudate tail, similar to studies using monetary reward. An additional priority signal was consistently evident in the right middle frontal gyrus (MFG). Our findings support the notion of a common neural mechanism for directing attention on the basis of selection history that generalizes across different types of reward.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andy J Kim
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Brian A Anderson
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Adam KCS, Vogel EK. Improvements to visual working memory performance with practice and feedback. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0203279. [PMID: 30161210 PMCID: PMC6117037 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0203279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Accepted: 08/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Visual working memory capacity is estimated to be around 3-4 items, but on some trials participants fail to correctly report even a single item from the memory array. Such failures of working memory performance are surprisingly common, and participants have poor self-awareness of them. Previous work has shown that behavioral feedback can reduce the frequency of working memory failures, but the benefits of feedback disappeared immediately after it was taken away. Here, we tested whether extended practice with or without trial-by-trial feedback would lead to persistent improvements in working memory performance. Participants were assigned to one of four groups: (1) Working memory practice with feedback (2) Working memory practice without feedback (3) Crossword puzzle active control (4) No-contact control. Consistent with previous work, simple practice with a visual working memory task robustly improved working memory performance across practice sessions. However, we found only partial support for the efficacy of feedback in improving working memory performance. Practicing with feedback improved working memory performance relative to a no-feedback group for some practice sessions. However, the feedback benefits did not persist across all training sessions and did not transfer to a final test session without the feedback. Thus, the benefits of performance feedback did not persist over time. Further, we found only stimulus-specific transfer of visual working memory practice benefits. We also found that participants' metaknowledge improved with practice, but that receiving feedback about task accuracy actually slightly harmed the accuracy of concurrent metaknowledge ratings. Finally, we discuss important design considerations for future work in this area (e.g. power, expectations, and "spacing effects"). For example, we found that achieved statistical power to detect a between-groups effect declined with practice. This finding has potentially critical implications for any study using a 1-session study to calculate power for a planned multi-session study.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten C. S. Adam
- Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
- Institute for Mind and Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Edward K. Vogel
- Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
- Institute for Mind and Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
- Grossman Institute for Neuroscience, Quantitative Biology, and Human Behavior, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Confident failures: Lapses of working memory reveal a metacognitive blind spot. Atten Percept Psychophys 2018; 79:1506-1523. [PMID: 28470554 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-017-1331-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Working memory performance fluctuates dramatically from trial to trial. On many trials, performance is no better than chance. Here, we assessed participants' awareness of working memory failures. We used a whole-report visual working memory task to quantify both trial-by-trial performance and trial-by-trial subjective ratings of inattention to the task. In Experiment 1 (N = 41), participants were probed for task-unrelated thoughts immediately following 20% of trials. In Experiment 2 (N = 30), participants gave a rating of their attentional state following 25% of trials. Finally, in Experiments 3a (N = 44) and 3b (N = 34), participants reported confidence of every response using a simple mouse-click judgment. Attention-state ratings and off-task thoughts predicted the number of items correctly identified on each trial, replicating previous findings that subjective measures of attention state predict working memory performance. However, participants correctly identified failures on only around 28% of failure trials. Across experiments, participants' metacognitive judgments reliably predicted variation in working memory performance but consistently and severely underestimated the extent of failures. Further, individual differences in metacognitive accuracy correlated with overall working memory performance, suggesting that metacognitive monitoring may be key to working memory success.
Collapse
|
26
|
Abstract
Fluctuations in attentional control can lead to failures of working memory (WM), in which the subject is no better than chance at reporting items from a recent display. In three experiments, we used a whole-report measure of visual WM to examine the impact of feedback on the rate of failures. In each experiment, subjects remembered an array of colored items across a blank delay, and then reported the identity of items using a whole-report procedure. In Experiment 1, we gave subjects simple feedback about the number of items they correctly identified at the end of each trial. In Experiment 2, we gave subjects additional information about the cumulative number of items correctly identified within each block. Finally, in Experiment 3, we gave subjects weighted feedback in which poor trials resulted in lost points and consistent successful performance received "streak" points. Surprisingly, simple feedback (Exp. 1) was ineffective at improving average performance or decreasing the rate of poor-performance trials. Simple cumulative feedback (Exp. 2) modestly decreased poor-performance trials (by 7 %). Weighted feedback produced the greatest benefits, decreasing the frequency of poor-performance trials by 28 % relative to baseline performance. This set of results demonstrates the usefulness of whole-report WM measures for investigating the effects of feedback on WM performance. Further, we showed that only a feedback structure that specifically discouraged lapses using negative feedback led to large reductions in WM failures.
Collapse
|
27
|
Lumsden J, Skinner A, Coyle D, Lawrence N, Munafo M. Attrition from Web-Based Cognitive Testing: A Repeated Measures Comparison of Gamification Techniques. J Med Internet Res 2017; 19:e395. [PMID: 29167090 PMCID: PMC5719230 DOI: 10.2196/jmir.8473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2017] [Revised: 09/25/2017] [Accepted: 10/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The prospect of assessing cognition longitudinally and remotely is attractive to researchers, health practitioners, and pharmaceutical companies alike. However, such repeated testing regimes place a considerable burden on participants, and with cognitive tasks typically being regarded as effortful and unengaging, these studies may experience high levels of participant attrition. One potential solution is to gamify these tasks to make them more engaging: increasing participant willingness to take part and reducing attrition. However, such an approach must balance task validity with the introduction of entertaining gamelike elements. OBJECTIVE This study aims to investigate the effects of gamelike features on participant attrition using a between-subjects, longitudinal Web-based testing study. METHODS We used three variants of a common cognitive task, the Stop Signal Task (SST), with a single gamelike feature in each: one variant where points were rewarded for performing optimally; another where the task was given a graphical theme; and a third variant, which was a standard SST and served as a control condition. Participants completed four compulsory test sessions over 4 consecutive days before entering a 6-day voluntary testing period where they faced a daily decision to either drop out or continue taking part. Participants were paid for each session they completed. RESULTS A total of 482 participants signed up to take part in the study, with 265 completing the requisite four consecutive test sessions. No evidence of an effect of gamification on attrition was observed. A log-rank test showed no evidence of a difference in dropout rates between task variants (χ22=3.0, P=.22), and a one-way analysis of variance of the mean number of sessions completed per participant in each variant also showed no evidence of a difference (F2,262=1.534, P=.21, partial η2=0.012). CONCLUSIONS Our findings raise doubts about the ability of gamification to reduce attrition from longitudinal cognitive testing studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jim Lumsden
- UK Centre for Tobacco and Alcohol Studies, School of Experimental Psychology, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
- The MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Andy Skinner
- UK Centre for Tobacco and Alcohol Studies, School of Experimental Psychology, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
- The MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - David Coyle
- School of Computer Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Natalia Lawrence
- School of Psychology, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Marcus Munafo
- UK Centre for Tobacco and Alcohol Studies, School of Experimental Psychology, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
- The MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Funny money: the attentional role of monetary feedback detached from expected value. Atten Percept Psychophys 2017; 78:2199-212. [PMID: 27245703 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-016-1147-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Stimuli associated with monetary reward can become powerful cues that effectively capture visual attention. We examined whether such value-driven attentional capture can be induced with monetary feedback in the absence of an expected cash payout. To this end, we implemented images of U.S. dollar bills as reward feedback. Participants knew in advance that they would not receive any money based on their performance. Our reward stimuli-$5 and $20 bill images-were thus dissociated from any practical utility. Strikingly, we observed a reliable attentional capture effect for the mere images of bills. Moreover, this finding generalized to Monopoly money. In two control experiments, we found no evidence in favor of nominal or symbolic monetary value. Hence, we claim that bill images are special monetary representations, such that there are strong associations between the defining visual features of bills and reward, probably due to a lifelong learning history. Together, we show that the motivation to earn cash plays a minor role when it comes to monetary rewards, while bill-defining visual features seem to be sufficient. These findings have the potential to influence human factor applications, such as gamification, and can be extended to novel value systems, such as the electronic cash Bitcoin being developed for use in mobile banking. Finally, our procedure represents a proof of concept on how images of money can be used to conserve expenditures in the experimental context.
Collapse
|
29
|
Abstract
Learned value is known to bias visual search toward valued stimuli. However, some uncertainty exists regarding the stage of visual processing that is modulated by learned value. Here, we directly tested the effect of learned value on preattentive processing using temporal order judgments. Across four experiments, we imbued some stimuli with high value and some with low value, using a nonmonetary reward task. In Experiment 1, we replicated the value-driven distraction effect, validating our nonmonetary reward task. Experiment 2 showed that high-value stimuli, but not low-value stimuli, exhibit a prior-entry effect. Experiment 3, which reversed the temporal order judgment task (i.e., reporting which stimulus came second), showed no prior-entry effect, indicating that although a response bias may be present for high-value stimuli, they are still reported as appearing earlier. However, Experiment 4, using a simultaneity judgment task, showed no shift in temporal perception. Overall, our results support the conclusion that learned value biases perceptual decisions about valued stimuli without speeding preattentive stimulus processing.
Collapse
|
30
|
Abstract
Findings from an increasingly large number of studies have been used to argue that attentional capture can be dependent on the learned value of a stimulus, or value-driven. However, under certain circumstances attention can be biased to select stimuli that previously served as targets, independent of reward history. Value-driven attentional capture, as studied using the training phase-test phase design introduced by Anderson and colleagues, is widely presumed to reflect the combined influence of learned value and selection history. However, the degree to which attentional capture is at all dependent on value learning in this paradigm has recently been questioned. Support for value-dependence can be provided through one of two means: (1) greater attentional capture by prior targets following rewarded training than following unrewarded training, and (2) greater attentional capture by prior targets previously associated with high compared to low value. Using a variant of the original value-driven attentional capture paradigm, Sha and Jiang (Attention, Perception, and Psychophysics, 78, 403-414, 2016) failed to find evidence of either, and raised criticisms regarding the adequacy of evidence provided by prior studies using this particular paradigm. To address this disparity, here we provided a stringent test of the value-dependence hypothesis using the traditional value-driven attentional capture paradigm. With a sufficiently large sample size, value-dependence was observed based on both criteria, with no evidence of attentional capture without rewards during training. Our findings support the validity of the traditional value-driven attentional capture paradigm in measuring what its name purports to measure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brian A Anderson
- Department of Psychology, Texas A&M University, 4235 TAMU, College Station, TX, 77843-4235, USA.
| | - Madeline Halpern
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Varghese L, Mathias SR, Bensussen S, Chou K, Goldberg HR, Sun Y, Sekuler R, Shinn-Cunningham BG. Bi-directional audiovisual influences on temporal modulation discrimination. THE JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2017; 141:2474. [PMID: 28464677 DOI: 10.1121/1.4979470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Cross-modal interactions of auditory and visual temporal modulation were examined in a game-like experimental framework. Participants observed an audiovisual stimulus (an animated, sound-emitting fish) whose sound intensity and/or visual size oscillated sinusoidally at either 6 or 7 Hz. Participants made speeded judgments about the modulation rate in either the auditory or visual modality while doing their best to ignore information from the other modality. Modulation rate in the task-irrelevant modality matched the modulation rate in the task-relevant modality (congruent conditions), was at the other rate (incongruent conditions), or had no modulation (unmodulated conditions). Both performance accuracy and parameter estimates from drift-diffusion decision modeling indicated that (1) the presence of temporal modulation in both modalities, regardless of whether modulations were matched or mismatched in rate, resulted in audiovisual interactions; (2) congruence in audiovisual temporal modulation resulted in more reliable information processing; and (3) the effects of congruence appeared to be stronger when judging visual modulation rates (i.e., audition influencing vision), than when judging auditory modulation rates (i.e., vision influencing audition). The results demonstrate that audiovisual interactions from temporal modulations are bi-directional in nature, but with potential asymmetries in the size of the effect in each direction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leonard Varghese
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, USA
| | - Samuel R Mathias
- Neurocognition, Neurocomputation and Neurogenetics (n3) Division, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA
| | - Seth Bensussen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, USA
| | - Kenny Chou
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, USA
| | - Hannah R Goldberg
- Center for Computational Neuroscience and Neural Technology, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, USA
| | - Yile Sun
- Department of Psychology, Brandeis University, Waltham, Massachusetts 02453, USA
| | - Robert Sekuler
- Volen Center for Complex Systems, Brandeis University, Waltham, Massachusetts 02453, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
32
|
Adam T. Biggs. How Many Bullets Do You Need? Contrasting and Comparing Behavioral Outcomes and Cognitive Abilities When Using a Semiautomatic Versus Automatic Firearm. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.5406/amerjpsyc.130.4.0439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
|
33
|
Abstract
Recent research reported that task-irrelevant colors captured attention if these colors previously served as search targets and received high monetary reward. We showed that both monetary reward and value-independent mechanisms influenced selective attention. Participants searched for two potential target colors among distractor colors in the training phase. Subsequently, they searched for a shape singleton in a testing phase. Experiment 1 found that participants were slower in the testing phase if a distractor of a previous target color was present rather than absent. Such slowing was observed even when no monetary reward was used during training. Experiment 2 associated monetary rewards with the target colors during the training phase. Participants were faster finding the target associated with higher monetary reward. However, reward training did not yield value-dependent attentional capture in the testing phase. Attentional capture by the previous target colors was not significantly greater for the previously high-reward color than the previously low or no-reward color. These findings revealed both the power and limitations of monetary reward on attention. Although monetary reward can increase attentional priority for the high-reward target during training, subsequent attentional capture effects may not be reward-based, but reflect, in part, attentional capture by previous targets.
Collapse
|
34
|
Lumsden J, Edwards EA, Lawrence NS, Coyle D, Munafò MR. Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy. JMIR Serious Games 2016; 4:e11. [PMID: 27421244 PMCID: PMC4967181 DOI: 10.2196/games.5888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2016] [Revised: 06/16/2016] [Accepted: 06/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cognitive tasks are typically viewed as effortful, frustrating, and repetitive, which often leads to participant disengagement. This, in turn, may negatively impact data quality and/or reduce intervention effects. However, gamification may provide a possible solution. If game design features can be incorporated into cognitive tasks without undermining their scientific value, then data quality, intervention effects, and participant engagement may be improved. Objectives This systematic review aims to explore and evaluate the ways in which gamification has already been used for cognitive training and assessment purposes. We hope to answer 3 questions: (1) Why have researchers opted to use gamification? (2) What domains has gamification been applied in? (3) How successful has gamification been in cognitive research thus far? Methods We systematically searched several Web-based databases, searching the titles, abstracts, and keywords of database entries using the search strategy (gamif* OR game OR games) AND (cognit* OR engag* OR behavi* OR health* OR attention OR motiv*). Searches included papers published in English between January 2007 and October 2015. Results Our review identified 33 relevant studies, covering 31 gamified cognitive tasks used across a range of disorders and cognitive domains. We identified 7 reasons for researchers opting to gamify their cognitive training and testing. We found that working memory and general executive functions were common targets for both gamified assessment and training. Gamified tests were typically validated successfully, although mixed-domain measurement was a problem. Gamified training appears to be highly engaging and does boost participant motivation, but mixed effects of gamification on task performance were reported. Conclusions Heterogeneous study designs and typically small sample sizes highlight the need for further research in both gamified training and testing. Nevertheless, careful application of gamification can provide a way to develop engaging and yet scientifically valid cognitive assessments, and it is likely worthwhile to continue to develop gamified cognitive tasks in the future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jim Lumsden
- UK Centre for Tobacco and Alcohol Studies, School of Experimental Psychology, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Lumsden J, Skinner A, Woods AT, Lawrence NS, Munafò M. The effects of gamelike features and test location on cognitive test performance and participant enjoyment. PeerJ 2016; 4:e2184. [PMID: 27441120 PMCID: PMC4941792 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.2184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2016] [Accepted: 06/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Computerised cognitive assessments are a vital tool in the behavioural sciences, but participants often view them as effortful and unengaging. One potential solution is to add gamelike elements to these tasks in order to make them more intrinsically enjoyable, and some researchers have posited that a more engaging task might produce higher quality data. This assumption, however, remains largely untested. We investigated the effects of gamelike features and test location on the data and enjoyment ratings from a simple cognitive task. We tested three gamified variants of the Go-No-Go task, delivered both in the laboratory and online. In the first version of the task participants were rewarded with points for performing optimally. The second version of the task was framed as a cowboy shootout. The third version was a standard Go-No-Go task, used as a control condition. We compared reaction time, accuracy and subjective measures of enjoyment and engagement between task variants and study location. We found points to be a highly suitable game mechanic for gamified cognitive testing because they did not disrupt the validity of the data collected but increased participant enjoyment. However, we found no evidence that gamelike features could increase engagement to the point where participant performance improved. We also found that while participants enjoyed the cowboy themed task, the difficulty of categorising the gamelike stimuli adversely affected participant performance, increasing No-Go error rates by 28% compared to the non-game control. Responses collected online vs. in the laboratory had slightly longer reaction times but were otherwise very similar, supporting other findings that online crowdsourcing is an acceptable method of data collection for this type of research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jim Lumsden
- MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit (IEU), University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom; School of Experimental Psychology, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Andy Skinner
- MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit (IEU), University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom; School of Experimental Psychology, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Andy T Woods
- School of Experimental Psychology, University of Bristol , Bristol , United Kingdom
| | - Natalia S Lawrence
- School of Psychology, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter , Exeter , United Kingdom
| | - Marcus Munafò
- MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit (IEU), University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom; School of Experimental Psychology, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Abstract
It is now well established that the visual attention system is shaped by reward learning. When visual features are associated with a reward outcome, they acquire high priority and can automatically capture visual attention. To date, evidence for value-driven attentional capture has been limited entirely to the visual system. In the present study, I demonstrate that previously reward-associated sounds also capture attention, interfering more strongly with the performance of a visual task. This finding suggests that value-driven attention reflects a broad principle of information processing that can be extended to other sensory modalities and that value-driven attention can bias cross-modal stimulus competition.
Collapse
|
37
|
Goldberg H, Sun Y, Hickey TJ, Shinn-Cunningham B, Sekuler R. Policing Fish at Boston's Museum of Science: Studying Audiovisual Interaction in the Wild. Iperception 2015; 6:2041669515599332. [PMID: 27433321 PMCID: PMC4934652 DOI: 10.1177/2041669515599332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Boston's Museum of Science supports researchers whose projects advance science and provide educational opportunities to the Museum's visitors. For our project, 60 visitors to the Museum played “Fish Police!!,” a video game that examines audiovisual integration, including the ability to ignore irrelevant sensory information. Players, who ranged in age from 6 to 82 years, made speeded responses to computer-generated fish that swam rapidly across a tablet display. Responses were to be based solely on the rate (6 or 8 Hz) at which a fish's size modulated, sinusoidally growing and shrinking. Accompanying each fish was a task-irrelevant broadband sound, amplitude modulated at either 6 or 8 Hz. The rates of visual and auditory modulation were either Congruent (both 6 Hz or 8 Hz) or Incongruent (6 and 8 or 8 and 6 Hz). Despite being instructed to ignore the sound, players of all ages responded more accurately and faster when a fish's auditory and visual signatures were Congruent. In a controlled laboratory setting, a related task produced comparable results, demonstrating the robustness of the audiovisual interaction reported here. Some suggestions are made for conducting research in public settings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Yile Sun
- Psychology, Brandeis University, Waltham, USA
| | | | | | - Robert Sekuler
- Volen Center for Complex Systems, Brandeis University, Waltham, USA
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Biggs AT, Cain MS, Mitroff SR. Cognitive Training Can Reduce Civilian Casualties in a Simulated Shooting Environment. Psychol Sci 2015; 26:1164-76. [DOI: 10.1177/0956797615579274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2014] [Accepted: 03/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Shooting a firearm involves a complex series of cognitive abilities. For example, locating an item or a person of interest requires visual search, and firing the weapon (or withholding a trigger squeeze) involves response execution (or inhibition). The present study used a simulated shooting environment to establish a relationship between a particular cognitive ability and a critical shooting error—response inhibition and firing on civilians, respectively. Individual-difference measures demonstrated, perhaps counterintuitively, that simulated civilian casualties were not related to motor impulsivity (i.e., an itchy trigger finger) but rather to an individual’s cognitive ability to withhold an already initiated response (i.e., an itchy brain). Furthermore, active-response-inhibition training reduced simulated civilian casualties, which revealed a causal relationship. This study therefore illustrates the potential of using cognitive training to possibly improve shooting performance, which might ultimately provide insight for military and law-enforcement personnel.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Matthew S. Cain
- U.S. Army Natick Soldier Research, Development, & Engineering Center, Natick, Massachusetts
| | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Biggs AT, Adamo SH, Mitroff SR. Mo' Money, Mo' Problems: Monetary Motivation Can Exacerbate the Attentional Blink. Perception 2015; 44:410-22. [DOI: 10.1068/p7916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The attentional blink (AB) is a compelling psychological phenomenon wherein observers are less likely to identify a second target (T2) when it appears approximately 200 ms after a first target (T1) in a rapidly presented stream of items. The present investigation examined how monetary motivation could impact the AB when participants were differentially motivated to identify T1 versus T2. Participants completed one of three conditions where the only difference across conditions was a motivational manipulation: a standard AB task (control condition), a motivated condition with T1 worth double the points of T2, or a motivated condition with T1 worth half the points of T2 (points in the motivated conditions were linked to a possible monetary bonus). Motivation had an expected influence on overall performance as both motivated conditions had higher overall T1 accuracy relative to the control condition. More specific to the question at hand, the AB was exacerbated (ie T2 performance was worse shortly after T1) when T1 was worth more than T2. This finding suggests that participants overallocated attentional resources to T1 processing at the expense of T2 processing, and it supports current theories of the AB.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adam T Biggs
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Stephen H Adamo
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Stephen R Mitroff
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Sali AW, Anderson BA, Yantis S. The role of reward prediction in the control of attention. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 2014; 40:1654-64. [PMID: 24955700 PMCID: PMC4313538 DOI: 10.1037/a0037267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Previously rewarded stimuli involuntarily capture attention. The learning mechanisms underlying this value-driven attentional capture remain less understood. We tested whether theories of prediction-based associative reward learning explain the conditions under which reward feedback leads to value-based modulations of attentional priority. Across 4 experiments, we manipulated whether stimulus features served as unique predictors of reward outcomes. Participants received monetary rewards for correctly identifying a color-defined target in an initial search task (training phase) and then immediately completed a second, unrewarded visual search task in which color was irrelevant (test phase). In Experiments 1-3, monetary reward followed correct target selection during training, but critically, no target-defining features carried uniquely predictive information about reward outcomes. Under these conditions, we found no evidence of attentional capture by the previous target colors in the subsequent test phase. Conversely, when target colors in the training phase of Experiment 4 carried uniquely predictive information about reward magnitude, we observed significant attentional capture by the previously rewarded color. Our findings show that value-based attentional priority only develops for stimulus features that carry uniquely predictive information about reward, ruling out a purely motivational account and suggesting that mechanisms of reward prediction play an important role in shaping attentional priorities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony W Sali
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University
| | - Brian A Anderson
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University
| | - Steven Yantis
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University
| |
Collapse
|