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Trac N, Chen Z, Oh HS, Jones L, Huang Y, Giblin J, Gross M, Sta Maria NS, Jacobs RE, Chung EJ. MRI Detection of Lymph Node Metastasis through Molecular Targeting of C-C Chemokine Receptor Type 2 and Monocyte Hitchhiking. ACS NANO 2024; 18:2091-2104. [PMID: 38212302 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.3c09201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2024]
Abstract
Biopsy is the clinical standard for diagnosing lymph node (LN) metastasis, but it is invasive and poses significant risk to patient health. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been utilized as a noninvasive alternative but is limited by low sensitivity, with only ∼35% of LN metastases detected, as clinical contrast agents cannot discriminate between healthy and metastatic LNs due to nonspecific accumulation. Nanoparticles targeted to the C-C chemokine receptor 2 (CCR2), a biomarker highly expressed in metastatic LNs, have the potential to guide the delivery of contrast agents, improving the sensitivity of MRI. Additionally, cancer cells in metastatic LNs produce monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP1), which binds to CCR2+ inflammatory monocytes and stimulates their migration. Thus, the molecular targeting of CCR2 may enable nanoparticle hitchhiking onto monocytes, providing an additional mechanism for metastatic LN targeting and early detection. Hence, we developed micelles incorporating gadolinium (Gd) and peptides derived from the CCR2-binding motif of MCP1 (MCP1-Gd) and evaluated the potential of MCP1-Gd to detect LN metastasis. When incubated with migrating monocytes in vitro, MCP1-Gd transport across lymphatic endothelium increased 2-fold relative to nontargeting controls. After administration into mouse models with initial LN metastasis and recurrent LN metastasis, MCP1-Gd detected metastatic LNs by increasing MRI signal by 30-50% relative to healthy LNs. Furthermore, LN targeting was dependent on monocyte hitchhiking, as monocyte depletion decreased accumulation by >70%. Herein, we present a nanoparticle contrast agent for MRI detection of LN metastasis mediated by CCR2-targeting and demonstrate the potential of monocyte hitchhiking for enhanced nanoparticle delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noah Trac
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
| | - Zixi Chen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
| | - Hyun-Seok Oh
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
| | - Leila Jones
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
| | - Yi Huang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
| | - Joshua Giblin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
| | - Mitchell Gross
- Lawrence J. Ellison Institute for Transformative Medicine, Los Angeles, California 90064, United States
- Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90033, United States
| | - Naomi S Sta Maria
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute and Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90033, United States
| | - Russell E Jacobs
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute and Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90033, United States
| | - Eun Ji Chung
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
- Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90033, United States
- Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Department of Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
- Department of Medicine, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
- Department of Medicine, Eli and Edythe Broad Center for Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
- Division of Vascular Surgery and Endovascular Therapy, Department of Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
- Mork Family Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
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Patel N, Chin DD, Magee GA, Chung EJ. Therapeutic Response of miR-145 Micelles on Patient-Derived Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells. Front Digit Health 2022; 4:836579. [PMID: 35783597 PMCID: PMC9240309 DOI: 10.3389/fdgth.2022.836579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
During atherosclerosis, vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) undergo a phenotypic transition from a healthy contractile state into pathological phenotypes including a proliferative and migratory, synthetic phenotype and osteochondrogenic-like phenotype that exacerbate plaques. Thus, inhibiting the transition of healthy, quiescent VSMCs to atherogenic cell types has the potential to mitigate atherosclerosis. To that end, previously, we reported that delivery of microRNA-145 (miR-145, a potent gatekeeper of the contractile VSMC phenotype) using nanoparticle micelles limited atherosclerotic plaque growth in murine models of atherosclerosis. Building on this preclinical data and toward clinical application, in this study, we tested the therapeutic viability of miR-145 micelles on patient-derived VSMCs and evaluated their effects based on disease severity. We collected vascular tissues from 11 patients with healthy, moderate, or severe stages of atherosclerosis that were discarded following vascular surgery or organ transplant, and isolated VSMCs from these tissues. We found that with increasing disease severity, patient-derived VSMCs had decreasing levels of contractile markers (miR-145, ACTA2, MYH11) and increasing levels of synthetic markers (KLF4, KLF5, and ELK1). Treatment with miR-145 micelles showed that an increase in disease severity correlated with a more robust response to therapy in VSMCs. Notably, miR-145 micelle therapy rescued contractile marker expression to baseline contractile levels in VSMCs derived from the most severely diseased tissues. As such, we demonstrate the use of miR-145 micelles across different stages of atherosclerosis disease and present further evidence of the translatability of miR-145 micelle treatment for atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil Patel
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Deborah D. Chin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Gregory A. Magee
- Division of Vascular Surgery and Endovascular Therapy, Department of Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Eun Ji Chung
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Division of Vascular Surgery and Endovascular Therapy, Department of Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Mork Family Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Department of Medicine, Eli and Edythe Broad Center for Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Department of Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Department of Medicine, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- *Correspondence: Eun Ji Chung
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Chen J, Zhang X, Millican R, Sherwood J, Martin S, Jo H, Yoon YS, Brott BC, Jun HW. Recent advances in nanomaterials for therapy and diagnosis for atherosclerosis. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2021; 170:142-199. [PMID: 33428994 PMCID: PMC7981266 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2021.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Revised: 01/02/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease driven by lipid accumulation in arteries, leading to narrowing and thrombosis. It affects the heart, brain, and peripheral vessels and is the leading cause of mortality in the United States. Researchers have strived to design nanomaterials of various functions, ranging from non-invasive imaging contrast agents, targeted therapeutic delivery systems to multifunctional nanoagents able to target, diagnose, and treat atherosclerosis. Therefore, this review aims to summarize recent progress (2017-now) in the development of nanomaterials and their applications to improve atherosclerosis diagnosis and therapy during the preclinical and clinical stages of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Chen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Xixi Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | | | | | - Sean Martin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Hanjoong Jo
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States; Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Young-Sup Yoon
- Severance Biomedical Science Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea; Severance Biomedical Science Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Brigitta C Brott
- Division of Cardiovascular Disease, Department of Medicine, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Ho-Wook Jun
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States.
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Tripathy N, Wang J, Tung M, Conway C, Chung EJ. Transdermal Delivery of Kidney-Targeting Nanoparticles Using Dissolvable Microneedles. Cell Mol Bioeng 2020; 13:475-486. [PMID: 33184578 PMCID: PMC7596160 DOI: 10.1007/s12195-020-00622-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Chronic kidney disease (CKD) affects approximately 13% of the world's population and will lead to dialysis or kidney transplantation. Unfortunately, clinically available drugs for CKD show limited efficacy and toxic extrarenal side effects. Hence, there is a need to develop targeted delivery systems with enhanced kidney specificity that can also be combined with a patient-compliant administration route for such patients that need extended treatment. Towards this goal, kidney-targeted nanoparticles administered through transdermal microneedles (KNP/MN) is explored in this study. METHODS A KNP/MN patch was developed by incorporating folate-conjugated micelle nanoparticles into polyvinyl alcohol MN patches. Rhodamine B (RhB) was encapsulated into KNP as a model drug and evaluated for biocompatibility and binding with human renal epithelial cells. For MN, skin penetration efficiency was assessed using a Parafilm model, and penetration was imaged via scanning electron microscopy. In vivo, KNP/MN patches were applied on the backs of C57BL/6 wild type mice and biodistribution, organ morphology, and kidney function assessed. RESULTS KNP showed high biocompatibility and folate-dependent binding in vitro, validating KNP's targeting to folate receptors in vitro. Upon transdermal administration in vivo, KNP/MN patches dissolved within 30 min. At varying time points up to 48 h post-KNP/MN administration, higher accumulation of KNP was found in kidneys compared with MN that consisted of the non-targeting, control-NP. Histological evaluation demonstrated no signs of tissue damage, and kidney function markers, serum blood urea nitrogen and urine creatinine, were found to be within normal ranges, indicating preservation of kidney health. CONCLUSIONS Our studies show potential of KNP/MN patches as a non-invasive, self-administrable platform to direct therapies to the kidneys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nirmalya Tripathy
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - Jonathan Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - Madelynn Tung
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - Claire Conway
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - Eun Ji Chung
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA USA
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA USA
- Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA USA
- Division of Vascular Surgery and Endovascular Therapy, Department of Surgery, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA USA
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Vane EW, He S, Maibaum L, Nath A. Rapid Formation of Peptide/Lipid Coaggregates by the Amyloidogenic Seminal Peptide PAP 248-286. Biophys J 2020; 119:924-938. [PMID: 32814060 PMCID: PMC7474197 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2020.07.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2020] [Revised: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein/lipid coassembly is an understudied phenomenon that is important to the function of antimicrobial peptides as well as the pathological effects of amyloid. Here, we study the coassembly process of PAP248-286, a seminal peptide that displays both amyloid-forming and antimicrobial activity. PAP248-286 is a peptide fragment of prostatic acid phosphatase and has been reported to form amyloid fibrils, known as semen-derived enhancer of viral infection (SEVI), that enhance the viral infectivity of human immunodeficiency virus. We find that in addition to forming amyloid, PAP248-286 much more readily assembles with lipid vesicles into peptide/lipid coaggregates that resemble amyloid fibrils in some important ways but are a distinct species. The formation of these PAP248-286/lipid coaggregates, which we term "messicles," is controlled by the peptide:lipid (P:L) ratio and by the lipid composition. The optimal P:L ratio is around 1:10, and at least 70% anionic lipid is required for coaggregate formation. Once formed, messicles are not disrupted by subsequent changes in P:L ratio. We propose that messicles form through a polyvalent assembly mechanism, in which a critical surface density of PAP248-286 on liposomes enables peptide-mediated particle bridging into larger species. Even at ∼50-fold lower PAP248-286 concentrations, messicles form at least 10-fold faster than amyloid fibrils. It is therefore possible that some or all of the biological activities assigned to SEVI, the amyloid form of PAP248-286, could instead be attributed to a PAP248-286/lipid coaggregate. More broadly speaking, this work could provide a potential framework for the discovery and characterization of nonamyloid peptide/lipid coaggregates by other amyloid-forming proteins and antimicrobial peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleanor W Vane
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Biological Physics, Structure and Design Program, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Shushan He
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Lutz Maibaum
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Abhinav Nath
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Biological Physics, Structure and Design Program, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington.
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Trac NT, Chung EJ. Peptide-based targeting of immunosuppressive cells in cancer. Bioact Mater 2020; 5:92-101. [PMID: 31956738 PMCID: PMC6962647 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2020.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2019] [Revised: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer progression is marked by the infiltration of immunosuppressive cells, such as tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), regulatory T lymphocytes (Tregs), and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). These cells play a key role in abrogating the cytotoxic T lymphocyte-mediated (CTL) immune response, allowing tumor growth to proceed unabated. Furthermore, targeting these immunosuppressive cells through the use of peptides and peptide-based nanomedicine has shown promising results. Here we review the origins and functions of immunosuppressive cells in cancer progression, peptide-based systems used in their targeting, and explore future avenues of research regarding cancer immunotherapy. The success of these studies demonstrates the importance of the tumor immune microenvironment in the propagation of cancer and the potential of peptide-based nanomaterials as immunomodulatory agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noah T. Trac
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Eun Ji Chung
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center for Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Chin DD, Poon C, Trac N, Wang J, Cook J, Joo J, Jiang Z, Maria NSS, Jacobs RE, Chung EJ. Collagenase-Cleavable Peptide Amphiphile Micelles as a Novel Theranostic Strategy in Atherosclerosis. ADVANCED THERAPEUTICS 2020; 3:1900196. [PMID: 34295964 PMCID: PMC8294202 DOI: 10.1002/adtp.201900196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory disease characterized by plaques that can cause sudden myocardial infarction upon rupture. Such rupture-prone plaques have thin fibrous caps due to collagenase degradation, and a noninvasive diagnostic tool and targeted therapy that can identify and treat vulnerable plaques and may inhibit the onset of acute cardiac events. Toward this goal, monocyte-binding, collagenase-inhibiting, and gadolinium-modified peptide amphiphile micelles (MCG PAMs) are developed. Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) binds to C-C chemokine receptor-2 expressed on pathological cell types present within plaques. Through the peptide binding motif of MCP-1, MCG PAMs bind to monocytes and vascular smooth muscle cells in vitro. Moreover, using magnetic resonance imaging, MCG PAMs show enhanced targeting and successful detection of plaques in diseased mice in vivo and act as contrast agents for molecular imaging. Through the collagenase-cleaving peptide sequence of collagen [VPMS-MRGG], MCG PAMs can compete for collagenases that degrade the fibrous cap of plaques, providing therapy. MCG PAM-treated mice show increased fibrous cap thickness by 61% and 113% histologically compared to nontargeting micelle- or PBS-treated mice (p = 0.0075 and 0.001, respectively). Overall, this novel multimodal nanoparticle offers new theranostic opportunities for noninvasive diagnosis and treatment of atherosclerotic plaques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah D Chin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles USC 90089 CA, USA
| | - Christopher Poon
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles USC 90089 CA, USA
| | - Noah Trac
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles USC 90089 CA, USA
| | - Jonathan Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles USC 90089 CA, USA
| | - Jackson Cook
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles USC 90089 CA, USA
| | - Johan Joo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles USC 90089 CA, USA
| | - Zhangjingyi Jiang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles USC 90089 CA, USA
| | - Naomi Sulit Sta Maria
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Zilkha Neurogenetic, Institute and Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles 90033 CA, USA
| | - Russell E Jacobs
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Zilkha Neurogenetic, Institute and Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles 90033 CA, USA
| | - Eun Ji Chung
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles USC 90089 CA, USA
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Chin DD, Wang J, Mel de Fontenay M, Plotkin A, Magee GA, Chung EJ. Hydroxyapatite-binding micelles for the detection of vascular calcification in atherosclerosis. J Mater Chem B 2019; 7:6449-6457. [PMID: 31553027 PMCID: PMC6812598 DOI: 10.1039/c9tb01918a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Atherosclerosis is a chronic disease characterized by the formation of calcified, arterial plaques. Microcalcifications (5 μm to 100 μm), mainly composed of hydroxyapatite (HA, Ca5(PO4)3(OH)), develop in the fibrous caps of atherosclerotic plaques and can trigger plaque rupture due to the loss of compliance and elasticity. Ultimately, plaque rupture can cause arterial occlusion and embolization and result in ischemic events such as strokes and myocardial infarctions. Unfortunately, current imaging technologies used to detect calcifications are limited by low signal-to-noise ratio or use invasive procedures that pose risk of arterial dissection. To mitigate these drawbacks, in our study, we developed a novel, fluorescently-labeled peptide amphiphile micelle (PAM) that uses a 12 amino acid HA-binding peptide (HABP) [SVSVGMKPSPRP] to target and detect atherosclerotic calcification (HA PAM). Our results show HA PAMs can successfully target HA microcrystals with a strong binding affinity (KD = 6.26 ± 1.2 μM) in vitro. In addition, HA PAMs detected HA mineralization (HA PAM vs. non-targeting micelle, p≤ 0.001; HA PAM vs. scrambled HABP PAM, p≤ 0.01) formed by calcifying mouse aortic vascular smooth muscle cells (MOVAS). Moreover, HA PAMs successfully detected calcifications in atherosclerotic mouse models as well as in patient-derived arteries. Our studies show that HA PAMs show promise as calcium-targeting nanoparticles for the detection of calcifications in atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah D Chin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Jonathan Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Margot Mel de Fontenay
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Anastasia Plotkin
- Department of Surgery, Division of Vascular Surgery and Endovascular Therapy, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Gregory A Magee
- Department of Surgery, Division of Vascular Surgery and Endovascular Therapy, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Eun Ji Chung
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA. and Department of Surgery, Division of Vascular Surgery and Endovascular Therapy, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA and Eli and Edythe Broad Center for Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA and Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA and Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA and Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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