miR-155 functions downstream of angiotensin II receptor subtype 1 and calcineurin to regulate cardiac hypertrophy

MicroRNA-155 mediates endogenous angiotensin II type 1 receptor regulation: implications for innovative type 2 diabetes mellitus management

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a lifelong condition and a threat to human health. Thorough understanding of its pathogenesis is acutely needed in order to devise innovative, preventative, and potentially curative pharmacological interventions. MicroRNAs (miRNA), are small, non-coding, one-stranded RNA molecules, that can target and silence around 60% of all human genes through translational repression. MiR-155 is an ancient, evolutionarily well-conserved miRNA, with distinct expression profiles and multifunctionality, and a target repertoire of over 241 genes involved in numerous physiological and pathological processes including hematopoietic lineage differentiation, immunity, inflammation, viral infections, cancer, cardiovascular conditions, and particularly diabetes mellitus. MiR-155 Levels are progressively reduced in aging, obesity, sarcopenia, and T2DM. Thus, the loss of coordinated repression of multiple miR-155 targets acting as negative regulators, such as C/EBPβ, HDAC4, and SOCS1 impacts insulin signaling, deteriorating glucose homeostasis, and causing insulin resistance (IR). Moreover, deranged regulation of the renin angiotensin aldo-sterone system (RAAS) through loss of Angiotensin II Type 1 receptor downregulation, and negated repression of ETS-1, results in unopposed detrimental Angiotensin II effects, further promoting IR. Finally, loss of BACH1 and SOCS1 repression abolishes cytoprotective, anti-oxidant, anti-apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory cellular pathways, and promotes β-cell loss. In contrast to RAAS inhibitor treatments that further decrease already reduced miR-155 Levels, strategies to increase an ailing miR-155 production in T2DM, e.g., the use of metformin, mineralocorticoid receptor blockers (spironolactone, eplerenone, finerenone), and verapamil, alone or in various combinations, represent current treatment options. In the future, direct tissue delivery of miRNA analogs is likely.

Silencing of circCacna1c Inhibits ISO-Induced Cardiac Hypertrophy through miR-29b-2-5p/NFATc1 Axis

Pathological cardiac hypertrophy is one of the notable causes of heart failure. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) have been studied in association with cardiac hypertrophy; however, the mechanisms by which circRNAs regulate cardiac hypertrophy remain unclear. In this study, we identified a new circRNA, named circCacna1c, in cardiac hypertrophy. Adult male C57BL/6 mice and H9c2 cells were treated with isoprenaline hydrochloride (ISO) to establish a hypertrophy model. We found that circCacna1c was upregulated in ISO-induced hypertrophic heart tissue and H9c2 cells. Western blot and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction showed that silencing circCacna1c inhibited hypertrophic gene expression in ISO-induced H9c2 cells. Mechanistically, circCacna1c competitively bound to miR-29b-2-5p in a dual-luciferase reporter assay, which was downregulated in ISO-induced hypertrophic heart tissue and H9c2 cells. MiR-29b-2-5p inhibited the nuclear factor of activated T cells, cytoplasmic, calcineurin-dependent 1 (NFATc1) to control hypertrophic gene expression. After silencing circCacna1c, the expression of miR-29b-2-5p increased, which reduced hypertrophic gene expression by inhibiting NFATc1 expression. Together, these experiments indicate that circCacna1c promotes ISO-induced pathological hypertrophy through the miR-29b-2-5p/NFATc1 axis.

MicroRNA miR-27a-3p accelerates cardiac hypertrophy by targeting neuro-oncological ventral antigen 1

MiRNAs are a class of small non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) responsible for post-transcriptional regulation of target genes. Accumulating evidence indicates that miRNAs are implicated in the progression of cardiac hypertrophy. Therefore, understanding the molecular mechanisms how these miRNAs regulate cardiac hypertrophy is useful for diagnosis and monitoring of disease progression. In this study, to investigate the effect of miR-27a-3p, we established an in vitro cardiac hypertrophy model by treating H9c2 cardiomyocytes with angiotensin II (Ang II) and an in vivo model through the chronic infusion of Ang II into mice. As revealed by our experimental results, miR-27a-3p expression was significantly increased in clinical samples, animal and cell models of cardiac hypertrophy. Inhibiting miR-27a-3p mitigated cardiac hypertrophy phenotype induced by Ang II. Additionally, our work identified NOVA1 (neuro-oncological ventral antigen 1) as a downstream target of miR-27a-3p. miR-27a-3p overexpression reduced NOVA1 protein level and mRNA expression. Consistently, NOVA1 silencing promoted cardiac hypertrophy phenotype induced by Ang II. In summary, these results suggest that the upregulation of miR-27a-3p may serve as a diagnostic factor for cardiac hypertrophy, and miR-27a-3p upregulation promotes cardiac hypertrophy by targeting NOVA1.

MOTS-c and Exercise Restore Cardiac Function by Activating of NRG1-ErbB Signaling in Diabetic Rats

Pathologic cardiac remodeling and dysfunction are the most common complications of type 2 diabetes. Physical exercise is important in inhibiting myocardial pathologic remodeling and restoring cardiac function in diabetes. The mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c has exercise-like effects by improving insulin resistance, combatting hyperglycemia, and reducing lipid accumulation. We investigated the effects and transcriptomic profiling of MOTS-c and aerobic exercise on cardiac properties in a rat model of type 2 diabetes which was induced by feeding a high fat high sugar diet combined with an injection of a low dose of streptozotocin. Both aerobic exercise and MOTS-c treatment reduced abnormalities in cardiac structure and function. Transcriptomic function enrichment analysis revealed that MOTS-c had exercise-like effects on inflammation, myocardial apoptosis, angiogenesis and endothelial cell proliferation and migration, and showed that the NRG1-ErbB4 pathway might be an important component in both MOTS-c and exercise induced attenuation of cardiac dysfunction in diabetes. Moreover, our findings suggest that MOTS-c activates NRG1-ErbB4 signaling and mimics exercise-induced cardio-protection in diabetes.

MicroRNAs as monitoring markers for right-sided heart failure and congestive hepatopathy

The last decades showed a worrying increase in the evolution of cardiovascular diseases towards different stages of heart failure (HF), as a stigma of the western lifestyle. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), non-coding RNAs, which are approximately 22-nucleotide long, were shown to regulate gene expression at the post-transcriptional level and play a role in the pathogenesis and progression of HF. miRNAs research is of high interest nowadays, as these molecules display mechanisms of action that can influence the course of evolution of common chronic diseases, including HF. The potential of post-transcriptional regulation by miRNAs concerning the diagnosis, management, and therapy for HF represents a new promising approach in the accurate assessment of cardiovascular diseases. This review aims to assess the current knowledge of miRNAs in cardiovascular diseases, especially right-sided heart failure and hepatomegaly. Moreover, attention is focused on their role as potential molecular biomarkers and more promising aspects involving miRNAs as future therapeutic targets in the pathophysiology of HF.

Impact of Nutritional Epigenetics in Essential Hypertension: Targeting microRNAs in the Gut-Liver Axis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To review the current knowledge on interactions between dietary factors and microRNAs (miRNAs) in essential hypertension (EH) pathogenesis.

RECENT FINDINGS

There exists an integration of maintenance signals generated by genetic, epigenetic, immune, and environmental (e.g., dietary) factors that work to sustain balance in the gut-liver axis. It is well established that an imbalance in this complex, intertwined system substantially increases the risk for EH. As such, pertinent research has been taken to decipher how each signal operates in isolation and together in EH progression. Recent literature indicates that both macro- and micronutrients interrupt regulatory miRNA expressions and thus, alter multiple cellular processes that contribute to EH and its comorbidities. We highlight how carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, salt, and potassium modify miRNA signatures during EH. The disruption in miRNA expression can negatively impact communication systems such as over activating the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, modulating the vascular smooth muscle cell phenotype, and promoting angiogenesis to favor EH. We also delineate the prognostic value of miRNAs in EH and discuss the pros and cons of surgical vs dietary prophylactic approaches in EH prevention. We propose that dietary-dependent perturbation of the miRNA profile is one mechanism within the gut-liver axis that dictates EH development.

The Impact of microRNAs in Renin-Angiotensin-System-Induced Cardiac Remodelling

Current knowledge on the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) indicates its central role in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular remodelling via both hemodynamic alterations and direct growth and the proliferation effects of angiotensin II or aldosterone resulting in the hypertrophy of cardiomyocytes, the proliferation of fibroblasts, and inflammatory immune cell activation. The noncoding regulatory microRNAs has recently emerged as a completely novel approach to the study of the RAS. A growing number of microRNAs serve as mediators and/or regulators of RAS-induced cardiac remodelling by directly targeting RAS enzymes, receptors, signalling molecules, or inhibitors of signalling pathways. Specifically, microRNAs that directly modulate pro-hypertrophic, pro-fibrotic and pro-inflammatory signalling initiated by angiotensin II receptor type 1 (AT1R) stimulation are of particular relevance in mediating the cardiovascular effects of the RAS. The aim of this review is to summarize the current knowledge in the field that is still in the early stage of preclinical investigation with occasionally conflicting reports. Understanding the big picture of microRNAs not only aids in the improved understanding of cardiac response to injury but also leads to better therapeutic strategies utilizing microRNAs as biomarkers, therapeutic agents and pharmacological targets.

Inhibiting microRNA-155 attenuates atrial fibrillation by targeting CACNA1C

BACKGROUND

Reduction in L-type Ca²⁺ current (I_Ca,L) density is a hallmark of the electrical remodeling in atrial fibrillation (AF). The expression of miR-155, whose predicted target gene is the α1c subunit of the calcium channel (CACNA1C), was upregulated in atrial cardiomyocytes (aCMs) from patients with paroxysmal AF.The study is to determine miR-155 could target the gene expression of I_Ca,L and contribute to electrical remodeling in AF.

METHODS

The expression of miR-155 and CACNA1C was assessed in aCMs from patients with paroxysmal AF and healthy control. I_Ca,L properties were observed after miR-155 transfection in human induced pluripotent stem cell derived atrial cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-aCMs). Furthermore, an miR-155 transgene (Tg) and knock-out (KO) mouse model was generated to determine whether miR-155 was involved in I_Ca,L-related electrical remodeling in AF by targeting CACNA1C.

RESULTS

The expression level of miR-155 was increased, while the expression level of CACNA1C reduced in the aCMs of patients with AF. miR-155 transfection in hiPSC-aCMs produced changes in I_Ca,L properties qualitatively similar to those produced by AF. miR-155/Tg mice developed a shortened action potential duration and increased vulnerability to AF, which was associated with decreased I_Ca,L and attenuated by an miR-155 inhibitor. Finally, the genetic inhibition of miR-155 prevented AF induction in miR-155/KO mice with no changes in I_Ca,L properties.

CONCLUSIONS

The increased miR-155 expression in aCMs was sufficient for the reduction in the density of I_Ca,L and the underlying electronic remodeling. The inhibition of miR-155 prevented I_Ca,L-related electric remodeling in AF and might constitute a novel anti-AF approach targeting electrical remodeling.

The Protective Effect of Qishen Granule on Heart Failure after Myocardial Infarction through Regulation of Calcium Homeostasis

Qishen granule (QSG) is a frequently prescribed traditional Chinese medicine formula, which improves heart function in patients with heart failure (HF). However, the cardioprotective mechanisms of QSG have not been fully understood. The current study aimed to elucidate whether the effect of QSG is mediated by ameliorating cytoplasmic calcium (Ca²⁺) overload in cardiomyocytes. The HF rat model was induced by left anterior descending (LAD) artery ligation surgery. Rats were randomly divided into sham, model, QSG-low dosage (QSG-L) treatment, QSG-high dosage (QSG-H) treatment, and positive drug (diltiazem) treatment groups. 28 days after surgery, cardiac functions were assessed by echocardiography. Levels of norepinephrine (NE) and angiotensin II (AngII) in the plasma were evaluated. Expressions of critical proteins in the calcium signaling pathway, including cell membrane calcium channel CaV1.2, sarcoendoplasmic reticulum ATPase 2a (SERCA2a), calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase type II (CaMKII), and protein phosphatase calcineurin (CaN), were measured by Western blotting (WB) and immunohistochemistry (IHC). Echocardiography showed that left ventricular ejection fraction (EF) and fractional shortening (FS) value significantly decreased in the model group compared to the sham group, and illustrating heart function was severely impaired. Furthermore, levels of NE and AngII in the plasma were dramatically increased. Expressions of CaV1.2, CaMKII, and CaN in the cardiomyocytes were upregulated, and expressions of SERCA2a were downregulated in the model group. After treatment with QSG, both EF and FS values were increased. QSG significantly reduced levels of NE and AngII in the plasma. In particular, QSG prevented cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ overload by downregulating expression of CaV1.2 and upregulating expression of SERCA2a. Meanwhile, expressions of CaMKII and CaN were inhibited by QSG treatment. In conclusion, QSG could effectively promote heart function in HF rats by restoring cardiac Ca²⁺ homeostasis. These findings revealed novel therapeutic mechanisms of QSG and provided potential targets in the treatment of HF.

New role of TRPM4 channel in the cardiac excitation-contraction coupling in response to physiological and pathological hypertrophy in mouse

The transient receptor potential Melastatin 4 (TRPM4) channel is a calcium-activated non-selective cation channel expressed widely. In the heart, using a knock-out mouse model, the TRPM4 channel has been shown to be involved in multiple processes, including β-adrenergic regulation, cardiac conduction, action potential duration and hypertrophic adaptations. This channel was recently shown to be involved in stress-induced cardiac arrhythmias in a mouse model overexpressing TRPM4 in ventricular cardiomyocytes. However, the link between TRPM4 channel expression in ventricular cardiomyocytes, the hypertrophic response to stress and/or cellular arrhythmias has yet to be elucidated. In this present study, we induced pathological hypertrophy in response to myocardial infarction using a mouse model of Trpm4 gene invalidation, and demonstrate that TRPM4 is essential for survival. We also demonstrate that the TRPM4 is required to activate both the Akt and Calcineurin pathways. Finally, using two hypertrophy models, either a physiological response to endurance training or a pathological response to myocardial infarction, we show that TRPM4 plays a role in regulating transient calcium amplitudes and leads to the development of cellular arrhythmias potentially in cooperation with the Sodium-calcium exchange (NCX). Here, we report two functions of the TRPM4 channel: first its role in adaptive hypertrophy, and second its association with NCX could mediate transient calcium amplitudes which trigger cellular arrhythmias.

ACE-Triggered Hypertension Incites Stroke: Genetic, Molecular, and Therapeutic Aspects

Stroke is the second largest cause of death worldwide. Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) gene has emerged as an important player in the pathogenesis of hypertension and consequently stroke. It encodes ACE enzyme that converts the inactive decapeptide angiotensin I to active octapeptide, angiotensin II (Ang II). Dysregulation in the expression of ACE gene, on account of genetic variants or regulation by miRNAs, alters the levels of ACE in the circulation. Variable expression of ACE affects the levels of Ang II. Ang II acts through different signal transduction pathways via various tyrosine kinases (receptor/non-receptor) and protein serine/threonine kinases, initiating a downstream cascade of molecular events. In turn these activated molecular pathways might lead to hypertension and inflammation thereby resulting in cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases including stroke. In order to regulate the overexpression of ACE, many ACE inhibitors and blockers have been developed, some of which are still under clinical trials.

MicroRNAs in Cardiac Hypertrophy

Like other organs, the heart undergoes normal adaptive remodeling, such as cardiac hypertrophy, with age. This remodeling, however, is intensified under stress and pathological conditions. Cardiac remodeling could be beneficial for a short period of time, to maintain a normal cardiac output in times of need; however, chronic cardiac hypertrophy may lead to heart failure and death. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are known to have a role in the regulation of cardiac hypertrophy. This paper reviews recent advances in the field of miRNAs and cardiac hypertrophy, highlighting the latest findings for targeted genes and involved signaling pathways. By targeting pro-hypertrophic genes and signaling pathways, some of these miRNAs alleviate cardiac hypertrophy, while others enhance it. Therefore, miRNAs represent very promising potential pharmacotherapeutic targets for the management and treatment of cardiac hypertrophy.

Significance of non-coding circular RNAs and micro RNAs in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases

Heart failure, coronary artery disease and myocardial infarction are the most prominent cardiovascular diseases contributing significantly to death worldwide. In the majority of situations, except for surgical interventions and transplantation, there are no reliable therapeutic approaches available to address these health problem. Despite several advances that led to the development of biomarkers and therapies based on the renin–angiotensin system, adrenergic pathways, etc, more definitive and consistent biomarkers and specific target based molecular therapies are still being sought. Recent advances in the field of genomic research has helped in identifying non-coding RNAs, including circular RNAs, piRNAs, micro RNAs, and long non-coding RNAs, that play a significant role in the regulation of gene expression and function and have direct impact on pathophysiological mechanisms. This new knowledge is currently being explored with much hope for the development of novel treatments and biomarkers. Circular RNAs and micro RNAs have been described in myocardium and aortic valves and were shown to be involved in the regulation of pathophysiological processes that potentially contribute to cardiovascular diseases. Approximately 32 000 human exonic circular RNAs have been catalogued and their functions are still being ascertained. In the heart, circular RNAs were shown to bind micro RNAs in a specific manner and regulate the expression of transcription factors and stress response genes, and expression of these non-coding RNAs were found to change in conditions such as cardiac hypertrophy, heart failure and cardiac remodelling, reflecting their significance as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers. In this review, we address the present state of understanding on the biogenesis, regulation and pathophysiological roles of micro and circular RNAs in cardiovascular diseases, and on the potential future perspectives on their use as biomarkers and therapeutic agents.

Non-Coding RNA in the Pathogenesis, Progression and Treatment of Hypertension

Hypertension is a complex, multifactorial disease that involves the coexistence of multiple risk factors, environmental factors and physiological systems. The complexities extend to the treatment and management of hypertension, which are still the pursuit of many researchers. In the last two decades, various genes have emerged as possible biomarkers and have become the target for investigations of specialized drug design based on its risk factors and the primary cause. Owing to the growing technology of microarrays and next-generation sequencing, the non-protein-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) have increasingly gained attention, and their status of redundancy has flipped to importance in normal cellular processes, as well as in disease progression. The ncRNA molecules make up a significant portion of the human genome, and their role in diseases continues to be uncovered. Specifically, the cellular role of these ncRNAs has played a part in the pathogenesis of hypertension and its progression to heart failure. This review explores the function of the ncRNAs, their types and biology, the current update of their association with hypertension pathology and the potential new therapeutic regime for hypertension.

Role of MicroRNA in Endothelial Dysfunction and Hypertension

Purpose of Review

Hypertension is either a cause or a consequence of the endothelial dysfunction and a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD). In vitro and in vivo studies established that microRNAs (miRNAs) are decisive for endothelial cell gene expression and function in various pathological conditions associated with CVD.

This review provides an overview of the miRNA role in controlling the key connections between endothelial dysfunction and hypertension.

Recent Findings

Herein we summarize the present understanding of mechanisms underlying hypertension and its associated endothelial dysfunction as well as the miRNA role in endothelial cells with accent on the modulation of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-system, nitric oxide, oxidative stress and on the control of vascular inflammation and angiogenesis in relation to endothelial dysfunction in hypertension. In particular, latest insights in the identification of endothelial-specific microRNAs and their targets are added to the understanding of miRNA significance in hypertension.

Summary

This comprehensive knowledge of the role of miRNAs in endothelial dysfunction and hypertension and of molecular mechanisms proposed for miRNA actions may offer novel diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets for controlling hypertension-associated endothelial dysfunction and other cardiovascular complications.

The Epigenetic Machinery in Vascular Dysfunction and Hypertension

Hypertension (HT) is among the major components of the metabolic syndrome, i.e., obesity, dyslipidemia, and hyperglycemia/insulin resistance. It represents a significant health problem with foremost risks for chronic cardiovascular disease and a significant cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Therefore, it is not surprising that this disorder constitutes a serious public health concern. Although multiple studies have stressed the multifactorial nature of HT, the pathogenesis remains largely unknown. However, if we want to reduce the global prevalence of HT, restrain the number of deaths (currently 9.4 million/year in the world), and alleviate the socio-economic burden, a deeper insight into the mechanisms is urgently needed in order to define new meaningful therapeutic targets. Recently, the role of epigenetics in the development of various complex diseases has attracted much attention. In the present review, we provide a critical update on the available literature and ongoing research regarding the epigenetic modifications of genes involved in several pathways of elevated blood pressure, especially those linked to the vascular epithelium. This review also focuses on the role of microRNA (miRNA) in the regulation of gene expression associated with HT and of fetal programming mediating susceptibility to HT in adulthood.

MicroRNA as a Therapeutic Target in Cardiac Remodeling

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small RNA molecules that contain 18–25 nucleotides. The alterations in their expression level play crucial role in the development of many disorders including heart diseases. Myocardial remodeling is the final pathological consequence of a variety of myocardial diseases. miRNAs have central role in regulating pathogenesis of myocardial remodeling by modulating cardiac hypertrophy, cardiomyocytes injury, cardiac fibrosis, angiogenesis, and inflammatory response through multiple mechanisms. The balancing and tight regulation of different miRNAs is a key to drive the cellular events towards functional recovery and any fall in this leads to detrimental effect on cardiac function following various insults. In this review, we discuss the impact of alterations of miRNAs expression on cardiac hypertrophy, cardiomyocytes injury, cardiac fibrosis, angiogenesis, and inflammatory response. We have also described the targets (receptors, signaling molecules, transcription factors, etc.) of miRNAs on which they act to promote or attenuate cardiac remodeling processes in different type cells of cardiac tissues.

[Efficacy of ACEI in the treatment of hypertension and the effect of secondary prevention in patients complicated with coronary heart disease and stroke]

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the efficacy of ACEI drugs in the treatment of hypertension patients and the effect of two levels of prevention of hypertension complicated with coronary heart disease and stroke.

METHDOS

210 cases of hypertension patients in our hospital from January 2012 to December 2015 were randomly divided into experimental group and control group, 105 cases in each group. According to the conventional symptomatic treatment, the experimental group was given lisinopril treatment, while control group was given the captopril treatment. Changes of blood pressure parameters and the level of baPWV in two groups were observed before and after treatment coronary heart disease and stroke, recurrence rate and death rate were compared in these two groups.

RESULTS

No significant difference of SBP, DBP, PP and baPWV between two groups before treatment (P>0.05). The indexes of the two groups were significantly decreased after 1 months and 3 months, and the level of patients in the experimental group was lower than that of the control group (P<0.05). The recurrence rate in the experimental group was lower than those in the control group (P<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

ACEI drugs in the treatment of hypertension can effectively reduce the level of blood pressure, improve arterial elasticity function, reduce the recurrence rate and mortality rate of coronary heart disease and stroke. The effect of antihypertensive and two levels of prevention of hypertension complicated with coronary heart disease and stroke of lisinopril is positive.

[Efficacy of ACEI in the treatment of hypertension and the effect of secondary prevention in patients complicated with coronary heart disease and stroke]

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the efficacy of ACEI drugs in the treatment of hypertension patients and the effect of two levels of prevention of hypertension complicated with coronary heart disease and stroke.

METHDOS

210 cases of hypertension patients in our hospital from January 2012 to December 2015 were randomly divided into experimental group and control group, 105 cases in each group. According to the conventional symptomatic treatment, the experimental group was given lisinopril treatment, while control group was given the captopril treatment. Changes of blood pressure parameters and the level of baPWV in two groups were observed before and after treatment coronary heart disease and stroke, recurrence rate and death rate were compared in these two groups.

RESULTS

No significant difference of SBP, DBP, PP and baPWV between two groups before treatment (P>0.05). The indexes of the two groups were significantly decreased after 1 months and 3 months, and the level of patients in the experimental group was lower than that of the control group (P<0.05). The recurrence rate in the experimental group was lower than those in the control group (P<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

ACEI drugs in the treatment of hypertension can effectively reduce the level of blood pressure, improve arterial elasticity function, reduce the recurrence rate and mortality rate of coronary heart disease and stroke. The effect of antihypertensive and two levels of prevention of hypertension complicated with coronary heart disease and stroke of lisinopril is positive.

miRNAs as potential therapeutic targets and diagnostic biomarkers for cardiovascular disease with a particular focus on WO2010091204

INTRODUCTION

A number of miRNAs have been reported to be critically involved in the regulation of cardiovascular disease (CVDs). Therefore, the development of potent analogues/inhibitors for miRNAs have thus become a key focus in the present drug discovery. In this review, we discuss the basic research and clinical use of miRNAs as the early diagnosis and therapeutic targets for CVD. We have also focused on the efficiency of therapeutically targeting miR-499, which is considered as one of the most promising molecules for treating CVDs. Areas covered: In this review, we have discussed the patents and patent applications related to miRNAs detected in CVD patients published in recent years. This review also covers the expression pattern of miR-499, as well as it highlights functions of its inhibitors in CVD. We used Google and Pubmed search engines to find relevant patents. Expert opinion: Although a massive number of miRNAs are patented as CVD biomarkers, further work is absolutely required to evaluate the reliable diagnostic values and therapeutic potential of these candidates. Overall, targeting miRNAs is definitely a promising strategy to be investigated for diagnosis and treatment of CVDs in future, however, the delivery system and off-targets effects are still a difficult challenge need to be elucidated.

microRNA in Cardiovascular Aging and Age-Related Cardiovascular Diseases

Over the last decades, life expectancy has significantly increased although several chronic diseases persist in the population, with aging as the leading risk factor. Despite improvements in diagnosis and treatment, many elderlies suffer from cardiovascular problems that are much more frequent in an older, more fragile organism. In the long term, age-related cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) contribute to the decline of quality of life and ability to perform normal activities of daily living. microRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of small non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression at the posttranscriptional level in both physiological and pathological conditions. In this review, we will focus on the role of miRNAs in aging and age-related CVDs as heart failure, hypertension, atherosclerosis, atrial fibrillation, and diabetes mellitus. miRNAs are key regulators of complex biological mechanisms, representing an exciting potential therapeutic target in CVDs. Moreover, one major challenge in geriatric medicine is to find reliable biomarkers for diagnosis, prognosis, and prediction of the response to specific drugs. miRNAs represent a very promising tool due to their stability in the circulation and unique signature in CVDs. However, further studies are needed to investigate their translational potential in the real clinical practice.

The role of microRNAs in heart failure

MicroRNAs are small non-coding RNA molecules that regulate gene expression by inhibiting mRNA translation and/or inducing mRNA degradation. In the past decade, many in vitro and in vivo studies have explored the involvement of microRNAs in various cardiovascular diseases. In this paper, studies focused upon the target genes and functionality of miRNAs in the pathophysiological processes of heart failure are reviewed. The selected miRNAs are categorized according to the biological relevance of their target genes in relation to four cardiovascular pathologies, namely angiogenesis, cardiac hypertrophy, fibrosis and apoptosis. This review illustrates the involvement of miRNAs in different biological signaling pathways and provides an overview of current understanding of the roles of miRNAs in cardiovascular health and diseases. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Genetic and epigenetic control of heart failure - edited by Jun Ren & Megan Yingmei Zhang.