Enzyme-treated Ecklonia cava extract inhibits adipogenesis through the downregulation of C/EBPα in 3T3-L1 adipocytes

Lysine 2-hydroxyisobutyrylation levels determined adipogenesis and fat accumulation in adipose tissue in pigs

BACKGROUND

Excessive backfat deposition lowering carcass grade is a major concern in the pig industry, especially in most breeds of obese type pigs. The mechanisms involved in adipogenesis and fat accumulation in pigs remain unclear. Lysine 2-hydroxyisobutyrylation (Khib), is a novel protein post-translational modification (PTM), which play an important role in transcription, energy metabolism and metastasis of cancer cells, but its role in adipogenesis and fat accumulation has not been shown.

RESULTS

In this study, we first analyzed the modification levels of acetylation (Kac), Khib, crotonylation (Kcr) and succinylation (Ksu) of fibro-adipogenic progenitors (FAPs), myogenic precursors (Myo) and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) with varied differentiation potential, and found that only Khib modification in FAPs was significantly higher than that in MSCs. Consistently, in parallel with its regulatory enzymes lysine acetyltransferase 5 (KAT5) and histone deacetylase 2 (HDAC2) protein levels, the Khib levels increased quadratically (P < 0.01) during adipogenic differentiation of FAPs. KAT5 knockdown in FAPs inhibited adipogenic differentiation, while HDAC2 knockdown enhanced adipogenic differentiation. We also demonstrated that Khib modification favored to adipogenic differentiation and fat accumulation by comparing Khib levels in FAPs and backfat tissues both derived from obese-type pigs (Laiwu pigs) and lean-type pigs (Duroc pigs), respectively. Accordingly, the expression patterns of KAT5 and HDAC2 matched well to the degree of backfat accumulation in obese- and lean-type pigs.

CONCLUSIONS

From the perspective of protein translational modification, we are the first to reveal the role of Khib in adipogenesis and fat deposition in pigs, and provided new clues for the improvement of fat accumulation and distribution as expected via genetic selection and nutritional strategy in obese-type pigs.

Brown Algae Dictyopteris divaricata Attenuates Adipogenesis by Modulating Adipocyte Differentiation and Promoting Lipolysis through Heme Oxygenase-1 Activation in 3T3-L1 Cells

The present study aims to explore the probable anti-adipogenesis effect of Dictyopteris divaricata (D. divaricata) in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes by regulating heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). The extract of D. divaricata retarded lipid accretion and decreased triglyceride (TG) content in 3T3-L1 adipocytes but increased free glycerol levels. Treatment with the extract inhibited lipogenesis by inhibiting protein expressions of fatty acid synthase (FAS) and lipoprotein lipase (LPL), whereas lipolysis increased by activating phosphorylation of hormone-sensitive lipase (p-HSL) and AMP-activated protein kinase (p-AMPK). The extract inhibited adipocyte differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes through down-regulating adipogenic transcription factors, including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) and CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein α (C/EBPα), and sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP1). This is attributed to the triggering of Wnt/β-catenin signaling. In addition, this study found that treatment with the extract activated HO-1 expression. Pharmacological approaches revealed that treatment with Zinc Protoporphyrin (ZnPP), an HO-1 inhibitor, resulted in an increase in lipid accumulation and a decrease in free glycerol levels. Finally, three adipogenic transcription factors, such as PPARγ, C/EBPα, and SREBP1, restored their expression in the presence of ZnPP. Analysis of chemical constituents revealed that the extract of D. divaricata is rich in 1,4-benzenediol, 7-tetradecenal, fucosterol, and n-hexadecanoic acid, which are known to have multiple pharmacological properties.

Interaction of Garcinia cambogia (Gaertn.) Desr. and Drugs as a Possible Mechanism of Liver Injury: The Case of Montelukast

Overweight and obesity prevalence has increased worldwide. Apart from conventional approaches, people also resort to botanical supplements for reducing body weight, although several adverse events have been associated with these products. In this context, the present study aimed at evaluating the toxicity of Garcinia cambogia-based products and shedding light on the mechanisms involved. The suspected hepatotoxic reactions related to G. cambogia-containing products collected within the Italian Phytovigilance System (IPS) were examined. Then, an in vitro study was performed to evaluate the possible mechanisms responsible for the liver toxicity, focusing on the modulation of oxidative stress and Nrf2 expression. From March 2002 to March 2022, the IPS collected eight reports of hepatic adverse reactions related to G. cambogia, which exclusively involved women and were mostly severe. The causality assessment was probable in three cases, while it was possible in five. In the in vitro experiments, a low cytotoxicity of G. cambogia was observed. However, its combination with montelukast greatly reduced cell viability, increased the intracellular ROS levels, and affected the cytoplasmic Nrf2 expression, thus suggesting an impairment of the antioxidant and cytoprotective defenses. Overall, our results support the safety concerns about G. cambogia-containing supplements and shed light on the possible mechanisms underpinning its hepatotoxicity.

Roles of Marine Macroalgae or Seaweeds and Their Bioactive Compounds in Combating Overweight, Obesity and Diabetes: A Comprehensive Review

Obesity and diabetes are matters of serious concern in the health sector due to their rapid increase in prevalence over the last three decades. Obesity is a severe metabolic problem that results in energy imbalance that is persistent over a long period of time, and it is characterized by insulin resistance, suggesting a strong association with type 2 diabetes (T2D). The available therapies for these diseases have side effects and some still need to be approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and they are expensive for underdeveloped countries. Hence, the need for natural anti-obesity and anti-diabetic drugs has increased in recent years due to their lower costs and having virtually no or negligible side effects. This review thoroughly examined the anti-obesity and anti-diabetic effects of various marine macroalgae or seaweeds and their bioactive compounds in different experimental settings. According to the findings of this review, seaweeds and their bioactive compounds have been shown to have strong potential to alleviate obesity and diabetes in both in vitro and in vivo or animal-model studies. However, the number of clinical trials in this regard is limited. Hence, further studies investigating the effects of marine algal extracts and their bioactive compounds in clinical settings are required for developing anti-obesity and anti-diabetic medicines with better efficacy but lower or no side effects.

Dieckol: a brown algal phlorotannin with biological potential

Dieckol [C36H22O18], is a naturally occurring phlorotannin found in some brown algal species. Dieckol is gaining more attention in the scientific community for its potential biological activities. It has been exhibited a broad spectrum of therapeutic functions including anti-bacterial, anti-cancer, anti-oxidant, anti-aging, anti-diabetic, neuroprotective, and other medicinal applications. Distinct emphasis has been given to extraction, purification, and biomedical applications of dieckol. This critical review comprises of in vitro, in vivo, and in silico biological properties of dieckol. An attempt has been made to evaluate the effectiveness, therapeutical application, and mechanism of dieckol against various diseases. The pharmacological significance, current status and the dosage of multifunctional dieckol and its mechanisms have been discussed in this review. Dieckol plays an important role in apoptosis induction via inhibiting the PI3K, AKT, mTOR and FAK signaling molecules. Dieckol remarkably inhibited the lipid accumulation in high fat diet induced animal models. Dieckol, a multifaceted compound will be beneficial in attenuating the action of various diseases and it could be a potential pharmaceutical and nutraceutical compound. Therefore, the combined effects of dieckol with existing drugs and natural compounds will be studied in future to optimize its benefits. Besides limited information on the toxicological action and dosage administration of dieckol on the human was reported to date. Overall, dieckol is a prospective health-promoting compound for the development of a novel drug against numerous diseases.

Effects of brown seaweed polyphenols, a class of phlorotannins, on metabolic disorders via regulation of fat function

It is well known that fat dysfunction is the main driver of development of metabolic disorders. Changes in diet and lifestyle are particularly important to reverse the current global rise in obesity-related metabolic disorders. Seaweed has been consumed for thousands of years, and it is rich in bioactive compounds, especially unique polyphenols. The aim of the present review is to summarize the effects of different seaweed polyphenols on fat function in metabolic disorders and the related mechanisms. Seaweed polyphenols activate white adipose tissue to "brown" or "beige" adipose tissue to enhance energy consumption. In addition, the amelioration of fat factor imbalance and inflammatory response is also considered as an important reason for the regulation of lipid function with seaweed polyphenols. The present review provides an important basis for using seaweed polyphenols as potential dietary supplements to prevent metabolic disorders.

Antioxidant activity and laxative effects of tannin-enriched extract of Ecklonia cava in loperamide-induced constipation of SD rats

To investigate the role of tannin-enriched extracts of Ecklonia cava (TEE) on the regulation of oxidative balance and laxative activity in chronic constipation, we investigated alterations after exposure to TEE, on constipation phenotypes, muscarinic cholinergic regulation, and oxidative stress responses in the transverse colons of SD rats with loperamide (Lop)-induced constipation. This extract contains high levels of total condensed tannin content (326.5 mg/g), and exhibited high inhibitory activity against 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radicals. TEE treatment induced significant improvements in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, superoxide dismutase (SOD) expression and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) phosphorylation in primary smooth muscles of rat intestine cells (pRISMCs) and transverse colon of constipation model. Also, Lop+TEE treated groups showed alleviated outcomes for the following: most stool parameters, gastrointestinal transit, and intestine length were remarkably recovered; a similar recovery pattern was observed in the histopathological structure, mucin secretion, water channel expression and gastrointestinal hormones secretion in the transverse colon; expressions of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors M2/M3 (mAChR M2/M3) and their mediators on muscarinic cholinergic regulation were significantly recovered. Taken together, these results provide the first evidence that TEE stimulates oxidative stress modulation and muscarinic cholinergic regulation when exerting its laxative effects in chronic constipation models.

Pharmacological Properties of a Traditional Korean Formula Bojungchiseup-tang on 3T3-L1 Preadipocytes and High-Fat Diet-Induced Obesity Mouse Model

The global obesity epidemic has nearly doubled since 1980, and this increasing prevalence is threatening public health. It has been reported that natural products could contain potential functional ingredients that may assist in preventing obesity. Bojungchiseub-tang (BJT), mentioned in the Donguibogam as an herbal medication for the treatment of edema, a symptom of obesity, consists of eleven medicinal herbs. However, the pharmacological activity of BJT has not been investigated. The present study was designed to investigate the putative effect of BJT on the adipogenesis of 3T3-L1 cells and the weight gain of high-fat diet (HFD-) fed C57BL/6 mice. Oil Red O staining was conducted to examine the amount of lipids in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Male C57BL/6 mice were divided into three groups: standard diet group (control, CON), 45% HFD group (HFD), and HFD supplemented with 10% of BJT (BJT). The expression levels of genes and proteins related to adipogenesis in cells, WAT, and liver were analyzed by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and western blot, respectively. We found that BJT treatment significantly decreased the protein and mRNA levels of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein α (C/EBPα), and sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP1) in a dose-dependent manner in differentiated 3T3-L1 cells. Similar to the results of the in vitro experiment, BJT suppressed HFD-induced weight gain in an obese mouse model. In addition, BJT effectively reduced the HFD-induced epididymal adipose tissue weight/body weight index. BJT also downregulated the mRNA levels of PPARγ, C/EBPα, and SREBP1 in the epididymal adipose and liver tissue of HFD-fed obese mice. These findings suggest that BJT induces weight loss by affecting adipogenic transcription factors.

Bioactive Properties of Marine Phenolics

Phenolic compounds from marine organisms are far less studied than those from terrestrial sources since their structural diversity and variability require powerful analytical tools. However, both their biological relevance and potential properties make them an attractive group deserving increasing scientific interest. The use of efficient extraction and, in some cases, purification techniques can provide novel bioactives useful for food, nutraceutical, cosmeceutical and pharmaceutical applications. The bioactivity of marine phenolics is the consequence of their enzyme inhibitory effect and antimicrobial, antiviral, anticancer, antidiabetic, antioxidant, or anti-inflammatory activities. This review presents a survey of the major types of phenolic compounds found in marine sources, as well as their reputed effect in relation to the occurrence of dietary and lifestyle-related diseases, notably type 2 diabetes mellitus, obesity, metabolic syndrome, cancer and Alzheimer's disease. In addition, the influence of marine phenolics on gut microbiota and other pathologies is also addressed.

Phlorotannins as HIV Vpu inhibitors, an in silico virtual screening study of marine natural products

The importance of new effective treatment methodologies for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is undeniable for the medical society. Viral protein U (Vpu), one of the disparaged accessory proteins of HIV, is responsible for the dissemination of viral particles, and HIV mutants lacking Vpu protein have remarkably reduced pathogenicity. Here, we explored the marine natural products to find the leading structures which can potentially inhibit the activity of Vpu in silico. To fulfill this goal, we set up a virtual screening based on molecular docking to evaluate the binding capacity of different marine products to Vpu. For validation, we used molecular dynamics simulation and monitored the root mean square deviation value and binding interactions. The results were intriguing when we realized that the hit compounds (phlorotannins) had previously been identified as reverse transcriptase and HIV protease inhibitors. This research inaugurates a new road to combat HIV by multifaceted mode of action of these marine natural products without putting the normal cells in jeopardy (with their safe toxicological profile).

Eckol Alleviates Intestinal Dysfunction during Suckling-to-Weaning Transition via Modulation of PDX1 and HBEGF

Maintaining intestinal health in livestock is critical during the weaning period. The precise mechanisms of intestinal dysfunction during this period are not fully understood, although these can be alleviated by phlorotannins, including eckol. This question was addressed by evaluating the changes in gene expression and intestinal function after eckol treatment during suckling-to-weaning transition. The biological roles of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in intestinal development were investigated by assessing intestinal wound healing and barrier functions, as well as the associated signaling pathways and oxidative stress levels. We identified 890 DEGs in the intestine, whose expression was altered by eckol treatment, including pancreatic and duodenal homeobox (PDX)1, which directly regulate heparin-binding epidermal growth factor-like growth factor (HBEGF) expression in order to preserve intestinal barrier functions and promote wound healing through phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT and P38 signaling. Additionally, eckol alleviated H₂O₂-induced oxidative stress through PI3K/AKT, P38, and 5’-AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling, improved growth, and reduced oxidative stress and intestinal permeability in pigs during the weaning period. Eckol modulates intestinal barrier functions, wound healing, and oxidative stress through PDX/HBEGF, and improves growth during the suckling-to-weaning transition. These findings suggest that eckol can be used as a feed supplement in order to preserve the intestinal functions in pigs and other livestock during this process.

Molecular cloning, characterisation, and expression patterns of pigeon CCAAT/enhancer binding protein-α and -β genes

1. CCAAT/enhancer binding proteins (C/EBPs), as a family of transcription factors, consists of six functionally and structurally related proteins which share a conserved basic leucine zipper (bZIP) DNA-binding domain. The aim of this study was to clone the full-length coding sequences (CDS) of C/EBP-α and -β genes, and determine the abundance of these two genes in various tissues of white king pigeon (C. livia). 2. The complete cDNA sequences of C/EBP-α and -β genes were cloned from pigeons by using PCR combined with rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE). The sequences were bioinformatically analysed, and the tissue distribution determined by quantitative real-time RT-PCR (qRT-PCR). 3. The results showed that the full-length cDNA sequences of pigeon C/EBP-α and -β genes were 2,807bp and 1,778bp, respectively. The open reading frames of C/EBP-α (978 bp) and -β (987bp) encoded 325 amino acids and 328 amino acids, respectively. The pigeon C/EBP-α and C/EBP-β proteins were predicted to have a conserved basic leucine zipper (bZIP) domain, which is a common structure feature of the C/EBP family. Multiple sequence alignments indicated that pigeon C/EBP-α and -β shared more than 90% amino-acid identity with their corresponding homologues in other avian species. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that these two proteins were highly conserved across different species and evolutionary processes. QRT-PCR results indicated that the pigeon C/EBP-α and -β mRNA transcripts were expressed in all investigated organs. The mRNA expression levels of pigeon C/EBP-α in descending order, were in spleen, heart, liver, lung, kidney and muscle. The pigeon C/EBP-β gene had the most abundant expression in lung, followed by the kidney, with minimal expression detected in muscle. 4. This study investigated the full-length cDNA sequences, genetic characteristics and tissue distribution of pigeon C/EBP-α and -β genes and found that they may have functions in various tissues of pigeon. This provides a foundation for further study for regulatory mechanisms of these two genes in birds.

The Antiobesity Effects of Buginawa in 3T3-L1 Preadipocytes and in a Mouse Model of High-Fat Diet-Induced Obesity

There has been a remarkable interest in finding lipid inhibitors from natural products to replace synthetic compounds, and a variety of oriental medicinal herbs are reported to have biological activity with regard to lipid inhibition. Buginawa (Bugi) is a novel combined formula that contains twelve medicinal herbs with potential for weight loss induction. We hypothesized that Bugi may have antiobesity effects in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes and in a high-fat diet- (HFD-) induced mouse model. In this study, 3T3-L1 cells were treated with varied concentrations of Bugi (62.5, 125, or 250 μg/mL). Bugi treatment inhibited adipocyte differentiation by suppressing adipogenic transcription genes, including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ protein (PPARγ), CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein α (C/EBPα), sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP1), and CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein β (C/EBPβ). Mice were fed a normal diet or an HFD for 11 weeks, and Bugi was simultaneously administered at 50 or 100 mg/kg. Bugi administration significantly reduced body weight gain and white adipose tissue (WAT) weight and effectively inhibited lipid droplet accumulation in epididymal white adipose tissue (eWAT) and liver tissue. Further, Bugi treatment suppressed mRNA levels of PPARγ, C/EBPα, and SREBP1 in eWAT and liver tissue. Our findings demonstrate that Bugi could be an effective candidate for preventing obesity and related metabolic disorders.

Characterizing Eckol as a Therapeutic Aid: A Systematic Review

The marine biosphere is a treasure trove of natural bioactive secondary metabolites and the richest source of structurally diverse and unique compounds, such as phlorotannins and halo-compounds, with high therapeutic potential. Eckol is a precursor compound representing the dibenzo-1,4-dioxin class of phlorotannins abundant in the Ecklonia species, which are marine brown algae having a ubiquitous distribution. In search of compounds having biological activity from macro algae during the past three decades, this particular compound has attracted massive attention for its multiple therapeutic properties and health benefits. Although several varieties of marine algae, seaweed, and phlorotannins have already been well scrutinized, eckol deserves a place of its own because of the therapeutic properties it possesses. The relevant information about this particular compound has not yet been collected in one place; therefore, this review focuses on its biological applications, including its potential health benefits and possible applications to restrain diseases leading to good health. The facts compiled in this review could contribute to novel insights into the functions of eckol and potentially enable its use in different uninvestigated fields.

Therapeutic Effect of Ecklonia cava Extract in Letrozole-Induced Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Rats

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is an endocrinal disorder that afflicts mainly women of childbearing age. The symptoms of PCOS are irregular menstrual cycles, weight gain, subfertility and infertility. However, because the etiology is unclear, management and treatment methods for PCOS are not well established. Recently, natural substances have been used for PCOS therapy. Ecklonia cava (E. cava) is a well-known natural substance that attenuates the effects of inflammation, allergies, and cancer. In this study, we investigated the effects of E. cava extract in rats with PCOS. When rats with letrozole-induced PCOS were exposed to the E. cava extract, the regular estrus cycle was restored, similar to that in placebo rats. Hormone levels, including the levels of testosterone, estrogen, luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), and anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH), were restored to their normal states. Histological analysis revealed that the polycystic ovary symptoms were significantly decreased in the E. cava-treated rats and were comparable to those of normal ovaries. At the transcriptional and translational levels, Ar, and Esr2 levels were markedly increased in the E. cava-treated rats with PCOS compared with the rats with letrozole-induced PCOS. These results suggest that the E. cava extract inhibits the symptoms of PCOS by restoring imbalanced hormonal levels and irregular ovarian cycles in letrozole-induced female rats.

Investigation of the Lipid-Lowering Effect of Vitamin C Through GSK-3β/β-Catenin Signaling in Zebrafish

Vitamin C (VC) is an essential nutrient for most fish species because of the absence of L-gulonolactone oxidase in the bodies of fish. VC plays a significant role in maintaining the physiological functions and in improving the growth performance, immunity, and survival of fish. In this study, zebrafish (Danio rerio) were treated with 8.2, 509.6, and 1007.5 mg/kg VC diets for 2 weeks, and the muscle samples were collected for gene expression analysis and biochemical index analysis. The results indicated that 509.6 and 1007.5 mg/kg VC diets inhibited glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) expression and induced the expression of β-catenin in the muscle of zebrafish. The mRNA expression of CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein α (C/EBPα) and fatty acid synthase (FAS), FAS activity, and the content of glycerol and triglyceride (TG) were decreased in the muscle by 509.6 and 1007.5 mg/kg VC diets. In addition, GSK-3β RNA interference was observed in zebrafish fed with 8.2 and 1007.5 mg/kg VC diets. It was found that GSK-3β RNA interference induced the mRNA expression of β-catenin but decreased the mRNA expression of C/EBPα and FAS, FAS activity, as well as the content of glycerol and TG in the muscle of zebrafish. In ZF4 cells, the mRNA expression of GSK-3β, C/EBPα, and FAS was decreased, but β-catenin expression was increased by 0.1 and 0.5 mmol/L VC treatments in vitro. The glycerol and TG content, and FAS activity in ZF4 cells were decreased by 0.1 and 0.5 mmol/L VC treatments. Moreover, the result of western blot indicated that the protein expression level of GSK-3β was significantly decreased and that of β-catenin was significantly increased in ZF4 cells treated with 0.1 and 0.5 mmol/L VC. The results from in vivo and in vitro studies corroborated that VC exerted the lipid-lowering effect through GSK-3β/β-catenin signaling in zebrafish.

Combination of Garcinia cambogia Extract and Pear Pomace Extract Additively Suppresses Adipogenesis and Enhances Lipolysis in 3T3-L1 Cells

Background:

Inhibition of adipogenesis has been a therapeutic target for reducing obesity and obesity-related disorders such as diabetes, hypertension, atherosclerosis, and cancer. For decades, anti-adipogenic potential of many herbal extracts has been investigated. One example is Garcinia cambogia extract (GE) containing (-)-hydroxycitric acid as an active ingredient. GE is currently marketed as a weight loss supplement, used alone or with other ingredients. Pear pomace extract (PE), another natural product, has been also shown to have anti-adipogenic activity in a recent report.

Objective:

It was tested if the mixture of PE and GE (MIX) would produce more effective anti-adipogenic activity than PE or GE alone.

Materials and Methods:

Differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocyte was induced by adding insulin, dexamethasone, and isobutylmethylxanthine and lipid accumulation was measured by Oil Red O staining. Cellular markers for adipogenesis and lipolysis such as CCAAT/enhancer binding protein (C/EBP-α), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ), fatty acid synthase (FAS), and hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) was measured using immunocytochemistry.

Results:

MIX, compared to PE or GE alone, showed greater inhibition of lipid accumulation. Furthermore, MIX reduced the expression of adipogenesis-related factors C/EBP-α, PPAR-γ, and FAS more than PE or GE alone did. In contrast, the expression of HSL the enzyme required for lipolysis was further enhanced in MIX-treated adipocytes compared to the PE or GE alone treated groups.

Conclusions:

Anti-adipogenic effect of PE and GE appears synergistic, and the MIX may be a useful therapeutic combination for the treatment of obesity and obesity-related diseases.

SUMMARY

PE and GE efficiently inhibited adipocyte differentiation by suppressing the expression of adipogenic transcription factor CEBP-α and PPAR-γ.

PE and GE significantly decreased the expression of adipogenic enzyme FAS.

PE and GE increased the expression of lipid degrading enzyme HSL.

Mixture of PE and GE exhibited additive or moderately synergistic effect on adipocyte differentiation and lipid accumulation.

Abbreviations used: CEBP-a: CCAT/enhancer binding protein alpha, CI: Combination Index, FAS: Fatty acid synthase, GE: Garcinia cambogia extract, HSL: Hormone sensitive lipase, PE: Pear pomace extract, PPAR-γ: Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma.

Anti-obesity effects of pectinase and cellulase enzyme‑treated Ecklonia cava extract in high‑fat diet‑fed C57BL/6N mice

The present study investigated the anti‑obesity effects of enzyme‑treated Ecklonia cava extract (EEc) in C57BL/6N mice with high‑fat diet (HFD)‑induced obesity. The EEc was separated and purified with the digestive enzymes pectinase (Rapidase X‑Press L) and cellulase (Rohament CL) and its effects on the progression of HFD‑induced obesity were examined over 10 weeks. The mice were divided into 6 groups (n=10/group) as follows: Normal diet group, HFD group, mice fed a HFD with 25 mg/kg/day Garcinia cambogia extract and mice fed a HFD with 5, 25 or 150 mg/kg/day EEc (EHD groups). Changes in body weight, fat, serum lipid levels and lipogenic enzyme levels were determined. The body weight and liver weight were increased in the HFD group compared with those in the ND group, which was significantly reduced by EEc supplementation. In addition, significant reductions in epididymal, perirenal and mesenteric white adipose tissues were present in the EHD groups and all three EHD groups exhibited decreases in insulin, leptin and glutamate pyruvate transaminase levels compared with those in the HFD group. In addition, EEc treatment significantly decreased the serum and hepatic triglyceride levels compared with those in the HFD group. However, the levels of high‑density lipoprotein cholesterol/total cholesterol ration increased significantly in EHD‑25 and ‑150 groups compared with those in the HFD group. Changes in adipogenic and lipogenic protein expression in the liver was assessed by western blot analysis. The EHD‑25 and -150 groups exhibited reduced levels of CCAAT/enhancer‑binding protein α and peroxisome proliferator activated receptor γ. However, the phosphorylation ratios of AMP‑activated protein kinase and acetyl‑CoA carboxylase were significantly increased in the liver tissue obtained from the EHD (5, ‑25 and ‑150 mg/kg/day) groups compared with those in the HFD group. EEc supplementation reduced levels of sterol regulatory element‑binding protein‑1c, adipose fatty acid‑binding protein, fatty acid synthase and leptin, while it significantly increased glucose transporter type 4 and adiponectin protein levels in the liver tissues of all three EHD groups compared with those in the HFD group. Taken together, these results suggest that EEc exerts anti‑obesity effects by reducing body weight and the serum and hepatic levels of obesity‑associated factors. Thus, EEc supplementation reduces HFD‑induced obesity in C57BL/6N mice and has the potential to prevent obesity and subsequent metabolic disorders.

Enzymatic extract from Ecklonia cava: Acute and subchronic oral toxicity and genotoxicity studies

Ecklonia cava (EC) is known to have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and anticancer properties. Despite its wide use and beneficial properties, comprehensive toxicological information regarding EC extract is currently limited. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate acute toxicity, subchronic toxicity, and genotoxicity of enzymatic EC extract according to test guidelines published by Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. The acute oral LD50 values of this EC extract administered to rats and dogs were estimated to be more than 3000 mg/kg BW. In an oral 13-week toxicity study, changes in body weights of rats exposed to the EC extract up to 3000 mg/kg BW were found to be normal. In addition, repeated doses of EC extract failed to influence any systematic parameters of treatment-related toxic symptoms such as food/water consumption, mortality, urinalysis, hematology, serum biochemistry, organ weight, or histopathology. These results indicated that the no-observed-adverse-effect level for the EC extract was 3000 mg/kg/day for male and female rats. Data obtained from Ames test, chromosome aberration assay, and micronucleus assay indicated that EC extract was not mutagenic or clastogenic. Taken together, these results support the safety of enzymatic EC extract as a potential therapeutic for human consumption against various diseases.

A Herbal Formula HT051, a Combination of Pueraria lobata and Rehmannia glutinosa, Prevents Postmenopausal Obesity in Ovariectomized Rats

Menopause is strongly associated with an increased risk of metabolic dysfunctions due to the decline in estrogen. Here, we hypothesized that dietary HT051, containing the roots of Pueraria lobata and Rehmannia glutinosa, has beneficial effects on ovariectomized (OVX) rats by regulating lipid metabolism. Forty-eight female Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into 4 groups: sham-operated (Sham), OVX, OVX with low-dose HT051 supplementation, and OVX with high-dose HT051 supplementation. The rats were fed with a modified AIN-93G diet or an HT051-containing modified AIN-93G diet for 8 weeks. Body weight, fat mass, and serum levels of total cholesterol, triglyceride, glucose, alanine transaminase, and aspartate transaminase decreased in HT051-fed OVX rats. Dietary HT051 supplementation significantly decreased the mRNA expression of lipogenesis-related genes, including sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1c and fatty acid synthase, and increased the mRNA expression of β-oxidation-related genes, including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor and carnitine palmitoyl transferase 1 in the liver of OVX rats. Moreover, the expression of genes involved in adipogenesis and inflammation was significantly lower in the adipose tissue of OVX rats fed with HT051 than in the OVX group. These findings suggest that HT051 may be a potential natural alternative for the management of postmenopausal metabolic dysfunctions.

Recent advances in pharmacological research on Ecklonia species: a review

The genus Ecklonia (Lessoniaceae, Phaeophyceae), commonly called kelp (brown algae), is abundant on the coasts of Japan and Korea. During the past few decades, Ecklonia species have received tremendous attention for their wide range of therapeutic properties and multiple health benefits, such as great nutritional value and being rich in vitamins, minerals, dietary fiber, proteins, and polysaccharides. Several novel functional ingredients with diversified biological activities have been isolated and possess antimicrobial, antiviral, hepatoprotective, cardioprotective, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, anticarcinogenic, immunomodulatory, hypolipidemic, anti-diabetic, and antioxidant therapeutic properties. The present review discusses the phytochemical, pharmacological, therapeutic, nutritional, and health benefits of different species of genus Ecklonia, as well as their use in the prevention of disease and maintenance of good health.