Transferrin-conjugated doxorubicin-loaded lipid-coated nanoparticles for the targeting and therapy of lung cancer

Harnessing cells to improve transport of nanomedicines

Efficient tumour treatment is hampered by the poor selectivity of anticancer drugs, resulting in scarce tumour accumulation and undesired off-target effects. Nano-sized drug-delivery systems in the form of nanoparticles (NPs) have been proposed to improve drug distribution to solid tumours, by virtue of their ability of passive and active tumour targeting. Despite these advantages, literature studies indicated that less than 1% of the administered NPs can successfully reach the tumour mass, highlighting the necessity for more efficient drug transporters in cancer treatment. Living cells, such as blood cells, circulating immune cells, platelets, and stem cells, are often found as an infiltrating component in most solid tumours, because of their ability to naturally circumvent immune recognition, bypass biological barriers, and reach inaccessible tissues through innate tropism and active motility. Therefore, the tumour-homing ability of these cells can be harnessed to design living cell carriers able to improve the transport of drugs and NPs to tumours. Albeit promising, this approach is still in its beginnings and suffers from difficult scalability, high cost, and poor reproducibility. In this review, we present an overview of the most common cell transporters of drugs and NPs, and we discuss how different cell types interact with biological barriers to deliver cargoes of various natures to tumours. Finally, we analyse the different techniques used to load drugs or NPs in living cells and discuss their advantages and disadvantages.

Transferrin-Conjugated Nanostructured Lipid Carriers for Targeting Artemisone to Melanoma Cells

We report a successful formulation of Artemisone (ATM) in transferrin (Tf)-conjugated nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), achieving nearly a five-times increase in cell toxicity. The escalating cost of new drug discoveries led to the repurposing of approved drugs for new indications. This study incorporated Artemisone, an antimalarial drug, into a nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) and tested for possible anticancer effects. The aim was to develop NLCs, and transferrin-conjugated NLCs (NLC-Tf) encapsulating Artemisone to enhance its delivery and anticancer activity. NLC formulations were prepared using high-pressure homogenization followed by ultrasonication and were characterized by particle size, zeta potential, and PDI. The conjugation of (Tf) to (NLC) was confirmed using IR, and the anticancer activity was tested using MTS assay. All formulations were in the nanometer size range (140-167 nm) with different zeta potential values. IR spectroscopy confirmed the successful conjugation of transferrin to NLC. Upon testing the formulations on melanoma cell lines using MTS assay, there was a significant decrease in viability and an increase in the encapsulated ATM-Tf toxicity compared to positive control ATM. The NLCs presented a promising potential carrier for delivering ATM to melanoma cells, and further conjugation with Tf significantly improved the ATM cytotoxicity.

Lipid Nanoparticles in Lung Cancer Therapy

This manuscript explores the use of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) in addressing the pivotal challenges of lung cancer treatment, including drug delivery inefficacy and multi-drug resistance. LNPs have significantly advanced targeted therapy by improving the precision and reducing the systemic toxicity of chemotherapeutics such as doxorubicin and paclitaxel. This manuscript details the design and benefits of various LNP systems, including solid lipid-polymer hybrids, which offer controlled release and enhanced drug encapsulation. Despite achievements in reducing tumor size and enhancing survival, challenges such as manufacturing complexity, biocompatibility, and variable clinical outcomes persist. Future directions are aimed at refining targeting capabilities, expanding combinatorial therapies, and integrating advanced manufacturing techniques to tailor treatments to individual patient profiles, thus promising to transform lung cancer therapy through interdisciplinary collaboration and regulatory innovation.

Nose to Brain Delivery of Transferrin conjugated PLGA nanoparticles for clonidine

The present work focuses on the development of surface modified transferrin PLGA nanoparticles loaded with clonidine for nose to brain delivery. The CLD-Tf-PLGA-NPs were developed using double emulsification, followed by solvent evaporation and characterization. Particle size, PDI and Zeta potential of the nanoparticles was 199.5 ± 1.36 nm, 0.291, -17.4 ± 6.29 mV respectively with EE% 86.2 ± 2.12 %, and DL%, 7.8 ± 0.48 %. TEM, SEM and FTIR analysis were carried out to confirm the size and transferrin coating over the surface of nanoparticles. In-vitro drug release profile were studied in PBS (pH 7.4) and SNF (pH 5.5) for 72 h and highest release was observed in PBS 89.54 ± 3.17 %. Cellular assays were conducted on Neuro-2a cells to check the cytotoxicity and uptake of Tf-modified PLGA nanoparticles and the cell viability% was obtained to be 61.85 ± 4.48 % even at maximum concentration (40Cmax) with uptake of approximately 97 %. Histopathological studies were also performed to identify the cytotoxicity on nasal epithelium along with in-vivo biodistribution and pharmacodynamics studies to assess the concentration of drug in the mice brain and behavioural responses after intranasal delivery of surface modified nanoparticles. The results showed significant increase in concentration of drug in brain and behavioural improvements in mice (p < 0.05).

Recent progress of targeted nanocarriers in diagnostic, therapeutic, and theranostic applications in colorectal cancer

Cancer at the lower end of the digestive tract, colorectal cancer (CRC), starts with asymptomatic polyps, which can be diagnosed as cancer at a later stage. It is the fourth leading cause of malignancy-associated mortality worldwide. Despite progress in conventional treatment strategies, the possibility to overcome the mortality and morbidity issues with the enhancement of the lifespan of CRC patients is limited. With the advent of nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems, a promising revolution has been made in diagnosis, treatment, and theranostic purposes for cancer management. Herein, we reviewed the progress of miniaturized nanocarriers, such as liposomes, niosomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, micelles, and polymeric nanoparticles, employed in passive and active targeting and their role in theranostic applications in CRC. With this novel scope, the diagnosis and treatment of CRC have proceeded to the forefront of innovation, where specific characteristics of the nanocarriers, such as processability, flexibility in developing precise architecture, improved circulation, site-specific delivery, and rapid response, facilitate the management of cancer patients. Furthermore, surface-engineered technologies for the nanocarriers could involve receptor-mediated deliveries towards the overexpressed receptors on the CRC microenvironment. Moreover, the potential of clinical translation of these targeted miniaturized formulations as well as the possible limitations and barriers that could impact this translation into clinical practice were highlighted. The advancement of these newest developments in clinical research and progress into the commercialization stage gives hope for a better tomorrow.

Stimuli-responsive self-assembled polymer nanoparticles for the oral delivery of antibodies

Currently, commercially available antibody therapies must be delivered via parenteral administration. Oral delivery of antibodies could increase patient compliance and improve quality of life, however there is currently no viable system for delivering antibodies orally. In this work, a self-assembled, pH-responsive nanoparticle delivery system was developed to load and deliver antibodies via the oral route. The nanoparticles were synthesized via nanoprecipitation using the pH-responsive copolymers based on poly(methacrylic acid-co-methyl methacrylate)-block-poly(ethylene glycol). The reversibly hydrophobic nature of this polymer allowed it to function as an antibody delivery system via self-assembly. Characteristics of the polymer, including monomer ratios and molecular weight, as well as parameters of the nanoprecipitation process were optimized using Design of Experiments to achieve nanoparticles with desired size, polydispersity, loading efficiency, and release characteristics. Ultimately, the synthesized and optimized nanoparticles exhibited a hydrodynamic size within a range that avoids premature clearance, a low polydispersity index, and high IgG loading efficiency. In in vitro antibody release studies at physiologically relevant pH values, the nanoparticles exhibit promising release profiles. The nanoparticles presented in this work show potential as oral delivery vehicles for therapeutic antibodies.

Elevated expression of receptors for EGF, PDGF, transferrin and folate within murine and human lupus nephritis kidneys

OBJECTIVE

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic autoimmune disease where the body's immune system targets cells and tissue in numerous organs, including the kidneys. Lupus nephritis (LN) is a highly heterogeneous disease, and diagnosis is difficult because clinical manifestations vary widely among patients. Comprehensive proteomic studies reported recently in LN have identified several urinary proteins which are also cell-surface receptors. If indeed these receptor proteins are also hyper-expressed within the kidneys, ligands to these receptors may be useful for drug targeting.

METHODS

scRNA sequence data analysis and immunohistochemistry were performed on LN kidneys for expression of four implicated receptors, EGFR, FOL2R2, PDGF-RB, and TFRC.

RESULTS

In reported scRNA sequencing studies from 21 LN patients and 3 healthy control renal biopsies or renal-infiltrating immune cells from 24 LN biopsies, EGFR, FOLR2, PDGF-Rb, and TFRC were all hyper expressed within LN kidneys in comparison to healthy kidneys, either within resident renal cells or infiltrating leukocytes. Immunohistochemistry staining of murine lupus renal biopsies from lupus mice revealed EGFR, FOLR2, TFRC and PDGF-RB were elevated in LN kidneys. Immunohistochemistry staining of human Class II, Class III, and Class IV kidney tissue sections revealed EGFR, TFRC, and PDGF-RB were significantly elevated in proliferative LN kidneys.

CONCLUSION

These findings underscore the potential of EGFR, TFRC, FOLR2, and PDGF-RB as promising receptors for potential drug-targeting in LN.

Folate decorated lipid chitosan hybrid nanoparticles of 5-fluorouracil for enhanced anticancer efficacy against colon cancer

The study aimed to develop folate decorated lipid chitosan hybrid nanoparticles for targeted delivery of 5-fluorouracil in colon cancer by utilizing the overexpressed folate receptors on the surface of HT-29 and HCT 116 cancer cell lines. The developed formulations were prepared by the ionic gelation method with slight modifications. The developed formulations exhibited spherical morphology, smaller particle size (158 to 225 nm), zeta potential (32.24 to 35.95 mV), PDI (0.19 to 0.35), and high encapsulation efficiency (85.3 % to 94.2 %) with optimal physicochemical characteristics. The in vitro release showed a biphasic release pattern with an initial burst release followed by a sustained release for 48 h. Moreover, the in vitro cell line study revealed that FA-CLPN-2 exhibited an enhanced cellular uptake and greater cytotoxic effect in HT-29 and HCT 116 cell lines compared to non-targeted CLPN-2 and free drug solution due to the folate receptor facilitated endocytosis process. The in vivo toxicity study revealed the safety and biocompatibility of the developed formulations in biological systems. The stability study demonstrates the stability of the developed formulations. Overall, these results suggest that the folate decorated lipid chitosan hybrid nanoparticles could be used as a potential delivery system for tumor-targeted therapy with reduced side effects.

Development and In Vitro Characterization of Transferrin-Decorated Nanoemulsion Utilizing Hydrophobic Ion Pairing for Targeted Cellular Uptake

Purpose

The aim of this study was to develop transferrin-conjugated nanoemulsions utilizing hydrophobic ion pairing for a targeted cellular uptake.

Methods

In the lipophilic phase of nanoemulsion composed of 60% oleic acid, 30% Capmul MCM EP and 10% Span 85, 1% cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) and 3% phosphatidic acid (PA) were incorporated. After emulsification, the resulting droplets were decorated with human protein transferrin via hydrophobic ion pairing with PA and characterized regarding droplet size and zeta potential. Subsequently, cellular uptake of transferrin-conjugated nanoemulsion was investigated on Caco-2 and HeLa cell lines and determined by flow cytometry, cell lysis method and live cell imaging using confocal laser scanning microscopy.

Results

The nanoemulsion showed a droplet size of 123.03 ± 2.1 nm and zeta potential of − 54.5 mV that changed because of the surface decoration with transferrin to 182.7 ± 0.2 and + 30.2 mV, respectively. Within the uptake studies utilizing flow cytometry, transferrin-conjugated nanoemulsion showed a 5.2-fold higher uptake in Caco-2 cells and twofold improvement in case of HeLa cells compared with unmodified formulation. The outcome was confirmed visually via live cell imaging.

Conclusion

According to the results, transferrin-conjugated nanoemulsion might be considered as a promising drug delivery system for a selective receptor-mediated drug delivery.

Alpha-Mangostin-Loaded Transferrin-Conjugated Lipid-Polymer Hybrid Nanoparticles: Development and Characterization for Tumor-Targeted Delivery

Alpha-mangostin, a natural xanthone mainly extracted from the pericarp of Garcinia mangostana, has been shown to have promising anticancer properties in many types of cancer. However, the therapeutic potential of α-mangostin has been limited so far due to its poor aqueous solubility and low oral bioavailability, which limited its biopharmaceutical applications. Furthermore, α-mangostin failed to specifically reach tumors at a therapeutic concentration due and rapid elimination in vivo. We hypothesized that this drawback could be overcome by loading the drug within a delivery system conjugated to transferrin (Tf), whose receptors are overexpressed on many cancer cells and would enhance the specific delivery of α-mangostin to cancer cells, thereby enhancing its therapeutic efficacy. The objectives of this study were therefore to prepare and characterize transferrin-conjugated lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPHN) entrapping α-mangostin, as well as to evaluate their therapeutic efficacy in vitro. We successfully prepared α-mangostin loaded LPHN using a one-step nanoprecipitation method with high drug entrapment efficiency. The conjugation of Tf to the LPHN was achieved by using the thiol-maleimide "click" reaction, leading to an increase in the particle hydrodynamic size of Tf-LPHN compared to that of unconjugated (control) LPHN (Ctrl-LPHN). Both Tf-LPHN and Ctrl-LPHN were bearing negative surface charges. Tf-LPHN and Ctrl-LPHN exhibited a sustained release of α-mangostin at pH 7.4, following an initial burst release, unlike rapid release of drug solution. The entrapment of α-mangostin in the LPHN led to an increase in α-mangostin uptake by cancer cells, and thus improved its antiproliferative activity compared to that observed with the drug solution. In conclusion, α-mangostin entrapped in the Tf-LPHN is therefore a highly promising therapeutic system that should be further optimized as therapeutic tools for cancer treatment.

Recent Advances in the Surface Functionalization of PLGA-Based Nanomedicines

Therapeutics are habitually characterized by short plasma half-lives and little affinity for targeted cells. To overcome these challenges, nanoparticulate systems have entered into the disease arena. Poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) is one of the most relevant biocompatible materials to construct drug nanocarriers. Understanding the physical chemistry of this copolymer and current knowledge of its biological fate will help in engineering efficient PLGA-based nanomedicines. Surface modification of the nanoparticle structure has been proposed as a required functionalization to optimize the performance in biological systems and to localize the PLGA colloid into the site of action. In this review, a background is provided on the properties and biodegradation of the copolymer. Methods to formulate PLGA nanoparticles, as well as their in vitro performance and in vivo fate, are briefly discussed. In addition, a special focus is placed on the analysis of current research in the use of surface modification strategies to engineer PLGA nanoparticles, i.e., PEGylation and the use of PEG alternatives, surfactants and lipids to improve in vitro and in vivo stability and to create hydrophilic shells or stealth protection for the nanoparticle. Finally, an update on the use of ligands to decorate the surface of PLGA nanomedicines is included in the review.

Biomedical Applications of Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Spheroids

Lung malignancies accounted for 11% of cancers worldwide in 2020 and remained the leading cause of cancer deaths. About 80% of lung cancers belong to non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), which is characterized by extremely high clonal and morphological heterogeneity of tumors and development of multidrug resistance. The improvement of current therapeutic strategies includes several directions. First, increasing knowledge in cancer biology results in better understanding of the mechanisms underlying malignant transformation, alterations in signal transduction, and crosstalk between cancer cells and the tumor microenvironment, including immune cells. In turn, it leads to the discovery of important molecular targets in cancer development, which might be affected pharmaceutically. The second direction focuses on the screening of novel drug candidates, synthetic or from natural sources. Finally, "personalization" of a therapeutic strategy enables maximal damage to the tumor of a patient. The personalization of treatment can be based on the drug screening performed using patient-derived tumor xenografts or in vitro patient-derived cell models. 3D multicellular cancer spheroids, generated from cancer cell lines or tumor-isolated cells, seem to be a helpful tool for the improvement of current NSCLC therapies. Spheroids are used as a tumor-mimicking in vitro model for screening of novel drugs, analysis of intercellular interactions, and oncogenic cell signaling. Moreover, several studies with tumor-derived spheroids suggest this model for the choice of "personalized" therapy. Here we aim to give an overview of the different applications of NSCLC spheroids and discuss the potential contribution of the spheroid model to the development of anticancer strategies.

Probing Transferrin Receptor Overexpression in Gastric Cancer Mice Models

Exposure to carcinogenic chemicals, Helicobacter pylori infection, and high dietary salt are the risk factors associated with gastric cancer. Mice models of gastric cancer are key to understanding the cancer mechanism, to discerning the role played by different factors, and to determining therapeutic effects of different treatments. The goal has been to find targets which are only expressed with cancer so that they can be targeted specifically without harming normal cells. One such target could be the transferrin receptor, a glycoprotein receptor that is expressed many-folds on rapidly growing cells due to the greater demand of iron. In this study, gastric cancer was developed in mice (BALB/c) with human cancer-associated risk factors by feeding them with tumor-inducing concentration of methyl nitrosourea, dietary salt, and H. pylori along with normal feed and water. Three strategies were adopted to induce gastric cancer; (1) use of N-methyl-N-nitrosourea (MNU) with high dietary salt (NaCl), (2) infection with H. pylori (isolated from human gastric tissue), and (3) use of MNU along with high concentration of NaCl after H. pylori infection. Mice were dissected after induction, and histological study of gastric tissue was done with Hematoxylin and Eosin staining. A diagnostic probe comprising transferrin conjugated with cadmium sulfide quantum dots was prepared and characterized. It was used to study the transferrin receptor overexpression in gastric tissue of cancer-induced mice relative to the normal mice. Mice of group 3 showed the highest rate of the cancer incidence ratio (96%) along with a high expression of transferrin receptors among the three groups. Histochemical studies showed that different types of gastric cancer depend upon the cancer-induction conditions. The mouse model of group 3 has the potential to be used in the future to study the therapeutic effects of cancer medicines, and overexpression of transferrin receptors could be identified through the designed probe to be used as diagnostics.

Dual-targeting SERS-encoded graphene oxide nanocarrier for intracellular co-delivery of doxorubicin and 9-aminoacridine with enhanced combination therapy

A graphene oxide (GO)-based nanocarrier that imparts tumor-selective delivery of dual-drug with enhanced therapeutic index, is introduced. GO is conjugated with Au@Ag and Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles, which facilitates it with SERS tracking and magnetic targeting abilities, followed by the covalent binding of the anti-HER2 antibody, thus allowing it to both actively and passively target SKBR3 cells, human breast cancer cells expressed with HER2. Intracellular drug delivery behaviors are probed using SERS spectroscopy in a spatiotemporal manner, which demonstrates that nanocarriers are internalized into the lysosomes and release the drug in response to the acidic microenvironment. The nanocarriers loaded with dual-drug possess increased cancer cytotoxicity in comparison to those loaded with a single drug. Attractively, the enhanced cytotoxicity against cancer cells is achieved with relatively low concentrations of the drug, which is demonstrated to be involved in the drug adsorption status. These results may give us the new prospects to design GO-based delivery systems with rational drug dosages, thus achieving optimal therapeutic response of the multi-drug with increased tumor selectivity and reduced side effects.

Small extracellular vesicles in cancer

Extracellular vesicles (EV) are lipid-bilayer enclosed vesicles in submicron size that are released from cells. A variety of molecules, including proteins, DNA fragments, RNAs, lipids, and metabolites can be selectively encapsulated into EVs and delivered to nearby and distant recipient cells. In tumors, through such intercellular communication, EVs can regulate initiation, growth, metastasis and invasion of tumors. Recent studies have found that EVs exhibit specific expression patterns which mimic the parental cell, providing a fingerprint for early cancer diagnosis and prognosis as well as monitoring responses to treatment. Accordingly, various EV isolation and detection technologies have been developed for research and diagnostic purposes. Moreover, natural and engineered EVs have also been used as drug delivery nanocarriers, cancer vaccines, cell surface modulators, therapeutic agents and therapeutic targets. Overall, EVs are under intense investigation as they hold promise for pathophysiological and translational discoveries. This comprehensive review examines the latest EV research trends over the last five years, encompassing their roles in cancer pathophysiology, diagnostics and therapeutics. This review aims to examine the full spectrum of tumor-EV studies and provide a comprehensive foundation to enhance the field. The topics which are discussed and scrutinized in this review encompass isolation techniques and how these issues need to be overcome for EV-based diagnostics, EVs and their roles in cancer biology, biomarkers for diagnosis and monitoring, EVs as vaccines, therapeutic targets, and EVs as drug delivery systems. We will also examine the challenges involved in EV research and promote a framework for catalyzing scientific discovery and innovation for tumor-EV-focused research.

Development and characterization of inhalable transferrin functionalized amodiaquine nanoparticles - Efficacy in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC) treatment

New drug discovery and development processes encounter significant challenges including requirement of huge investments and lengthy time frames especially in cancer research field. Repurposing of old drugs against cancer provides a possible alternative while associated scale-up complexities with production of nanoparticles at industrial scale could be overcome by using a scalable nanoparticle technique. We previously described use of polymeric nanoparticles for inhaled delivery of amodiaquine (AQ) for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) treatment. In this study, targeting potential of transferrin ligand conjugated inhalable AQ-loaded nanoparticles (Tf-AMQ NPs) was investigated against NSCLC. Tf-AMQ NP (liquid formulation) demonstrated an aerodynamic diameter of 4.4 ± 0.1 µm and fine particle fraction of 83.2 ± 3.0%, representing AQ deposition in the respirable region of airways. Cytotoxicity studies in NSCLC cell line with overexpressed transferrin receptors shown significant reduction in IC₅₀ values with Tf-decorated AQ-loaded nanoparticles compared to AQ or non-targeted NPs, along with significant apoptosis induction (caspase assay) and reduced % colony growth in A549 and H1299 cells with Tf-AMQ NP. Furthermore, 3D spheroid studies (~7-fold reduction in spheroid volume compared to AMQ NPs) explained efficiency of conjugated nanoparticles in penetrating tumor core, and growth inhibition. AQ's autophagy inhibition ability significantly increased with nanoparticle encapsulation and transferrin conjugation. In conclusion, amodiaquine can be an assuring candidate for repurposing to consider for NSCLC treatment while delivering inhalable transferrin conjugated nanoparticles developed using a scalable HPH process to the target site, thus reducing the dose, side effects.

Cell membrane-derived vesicles for delivery of therapeutic agents

Cell membranes have recently emerged as a new source of materials for molecular delivery systems. Cell membranes have been extruded or sonicated to make nanoscale vesicles. Unlike synthetic lipid or polymeric nanoparticles, cell membrane-derived vesicles have a unique multicomponent feature, comprising lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. Because cell membrane-derived vesicles contain the intrinsic functionalities and signaling networks of their parent cells, they can overcome various obstacles encountered in vivo. Moreover, the different natural combinations of membranes from various cell sources expand the range of cell membrane-derived vesicles, creating an entirely new category of drug-delivery systems. Cell membrane-derived vesicles can carry therapeutic agents within their interior or can coat the surfaces of drug-loaded core nanoparticles. Cell membranes typically come from single cell sources, including red blood cells, platelets, immune cells, stem cells, and cancer cells. However, recent studies have reported hybrid sources from two different types of cells. This review will summarize approaches for manufacturing cell membrane-derived vesicles and treatment applications of various types of cell membrane-derived drug-delivery systems, and discuss challenges and future directions.

Exemestane encapsulated polymer-lipid hybrid nanoparticles for improved efficacy against breast cancer: optimization,in vitrocharacterization and cell culture studies

Polymer-lipid hybrid nanoparticles (PLHNPs) are novel nanoplatforms for the effective delivery of a lipophilic drug in the management of a variety of solid tumors. The present work was designed to develop exemestane (EXE) encapsulated D-alpha-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol succinate (TPGS) based PLHNPs (EXE-TPGS-PLHNPs) for controlled delivery of EXE for breast cancer management. EXE-TPGS-PLHNPs were formulated by single-step nano-precipitation technique and statistically optimized by a 3³Box-Behnken design using Design expert^®software. The polycaprolactone (PCL;X₁), phospholipon 90 G (PL-90G;X₂), and surfactant (X₃) were selected as independent factors while particles size (PS;Y₁), polydispersity index (PDI;Y₂), and %entrapment efficiency (%EE;Y₃) were chosen as dependent factors. The average PS, PDI, and %EE of the optimized EXE-TPGS-PLHNPs was observed to be 136.37 ± 3.27 nm, 0.110 ± 0.013, and 88.56 ± 2.15% respectively. The physical state of entrapped EXE was further validated by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, and powder x-ray diffraction that revealed complete encapsulation of EXE in the hybrid matrix of PLHNPs with no sign of significant interaction between drug and excipients.In vitrorelease study in simulated gastrointestinal fluids revealed initial fast release for 2 h after that controlled release profile up to 24 h of study. Moreover, optimized EXE-TPGS-PLHNPs exhibited excellent stability in gastrointestinal fluids as well as colloidal stability in different storage concentrations. Furthermore, EXE-TPGS-PLHNPs exhibited distinctively higher cellular uptake and time and dose-dependent cytotoxicity against MCF-7 breast tumor cells compared to EXE-PLHNPs without TPGS and free EXE. The obtained results suggested that EXE-TPGS-PLHNPs can be a promising platform for the controlled delivery of EXE for the effective treatment of breast cancer.

Afatinib-loaded inhalable PLGA nanoparticles for localized therapy of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC)-development and in-vitro efficacy

Afatinib (AFA) is a potent aniline-quinazoline derivative, approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2013, as a first-line treatment for metastatic non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). However, its clinical application is highly limited by its poor solubility, and consequently low bioavailability. We hypothesize that loading of AFA into biodegradable PLGA nanoparticles for localized inhalational drug delivery will be instrumental in improving therapeutic outcomes in NSCLC patients. Formulated AFA nanoparticles (AFA-NP) were evaluated for physicochemical properties (particle size: 180.2 ± 15.6 nm, zeta potential: - 23.1 ± 0.2 mV, % entrapment efficiency: 34.4 ± 2.3%), formulation stability, in-vitro aerosol deposition behavior, and anticancer efficacy. Stability studies revealed the physicochemical stability of AFA-NP. Moreover, AFA-NP exhibited excellent inhalable properties (mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD): 4.7 ± 0.1 μm; fine particle fraction (FPF): 77.8 ± 4.3%), indicating efficient particle deposition in deep lung regions. With respect to in-vitro drug release, AFA-NP showed sustained drug release with cumulative release of 56.8 ± 6.4% after 48 h. Cytotoxic studies revealed that encapsulation of AFA into PLGA nanoparticles significantly enhanced its cytotoxic potential in KRAS-mutated NSCLC cell lines (A549, H460). Cellular uptake studies revealed enhanced internalization of coumarin-loaded nanoparticles compared to plain coumarin in A549. In addition, 3D tumor spheroid studies demonstrated superior efficacy of AFA-NP in tumor penetration and growth inhibition. To conclude, we have established in-vitro efficacy of afatinib-loaded PLGA nanoparticles as inhalable NSCLC therapy, which will be of great significance when designing preclinical and clinical studies. Graphical abstract.

Multifunctional PLGA nanoparticles combining transferrin-targetability and pH-stimuli sensitivity enhanced doxorubicin intracellular delivery and in vitro antineoplastic activity in MDR tumor cells

Targeted delivery aims to enhance cellular uptake and improve therapeutic outcome with higher disease specificity. The expression of transferrin receptor (TfR) is upregulated on tumor cells, which make the protein Tf and its receptor vastly relevant when applied to targeting strategies. Here, we proposed Tf-decorated pH-sensitive PLGA nanoparticles containing the chemosensitizer poloxamer as a carrier for doxorubicin delivery to tumor cells (Tf-DOX-PLGA-NPs), aiming at alleviating multidrug resistance (MDR). We performed a range of in vitro studies to assess whether targeted NPs have the ability to improve DOX antitumor potential on resistant NCI/ADR-RES cells. All evaluations of the Tf-decorated NPs were performed comparatively to the nontargeted counterparts, aiming to evidence the real role of NP surface functionalization, along with the benefits of pH-sensitivity and poloxamer, in the improvement of antiproliferative activity and reversal of MDR. Tf-DOX-PLGA-NPs induced higher number of apoptotic events and ROS generation, along with cell cycle arrest. Moreover, they were efficiently internalized by NCI/ADR-RES cells, increasing DOX intracellular accumulation, which supports the greater cell killing ability of these targeted NPs with respect to MDR cells. Altogether, these findings supported the effectiveness of the Tf-surface modification of DOX-PLGA-NPs for an improved antiproliferative activity. Therefore, our pH-responsive Tf-inspired NPs are a promising smart drug delivery system to overcome MDR effect at some extent, enhancing the efficacy of DOX antitumor therapy.

The impact of molecular tumor profiling on the design strategies for targeting myeloid leukemia and EGFR/CD44-positive solid tumors

Nanomedicine has emerged as a novel cancer treatment and diagnostic modality, whose design constantly evolves towards increasing the safety and efficacy of the chemotherapeutic and diagnostic protocols. Molecular diagnostics, which create a great amount of data related to the unique molecular signatures of each tumor subtype, have emerged as an important tool for detailed profiling of tumors. They provide an opportunity to develop targeting agents for early detection and diagnosis, and to select the most effective combinatorial treatment options. Alongside, the design of the nanoscale carriers needs to cope with novel trends of molecular screening. Also, multiple targeting ligands needed for robust and specific interactions with the targeted cell populations have to be introduced, which should result in substantial improvements in safety and efficacy of the cancer treatment. This article will focus on novel design strategies for nanoscale drug delivery systems, based on the unique molecular signatures of myeloid leukemia and EGFR/CD44-positive solid tumors, and the impact of novel discoveries in molecular tumor profiles on future chemotherapeutic protocols.

Onco-Receptors Targeting in Lung Cancer via Application of Surface-Modified and Hybrid Nanoparticles: A Cross-Disciplinary Review

Lung cancer is among the most prevalent and leading causes of death worldwide. The major reason for high mortality is the late diagnosis of the disease, and in most cases, lung cancer is diagnosed at fourth stage in which the cancer has metastasized to almost all vital organs. The other reason for higher mortality is the uptake of the chemotherapeutic agents by the healthy cells, which in turn increases the chances of cytotoxicity to the healthy body cells. The complex pathophysiology of lung cancer provides various pathways to target the cancerous cells. In this regard, upregulated onco-receptors on the cell surface of tumor including epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), integrins, transferrin receptor (TFR), folate receptor (FR), cluster of differentiation 44 (CD44) receptor, etc. could be exploited for the inhibition of pathways and tumor-specific drug targeting. Further, cancer borne immunological targets like T-lymphocytes, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), and dendritic cells could serve as a target site to modulate tumor activity through targeting various surface-expressed receptors or interfering with immune cell-specific pathways. Hence, novel approaches are required for both the diagnosis and treatment of lung cancers. In this context, several researchers have employed various targeted delivery approaches to overcome the problems allied with the conventional diagnosis of and therapy methods used against lung cancer. Nanoparticles are cell nonspecific in biological systems, and may cause unwanted deleterious effects in the body. Therefore, nanodrug delivery systems (NDDSs) need further advancement to overcome the problem of toxicity in the treatment of lung cancer. Moreover, the route of nanomedicines’ delivery to lungs plays a vital role in localizing the drug concentration to target the lung cancer. Surface-modified nanoparticles and hybrid nanoparticles have a wide range of applications in the field of theranostics. This cross-disciplinary review summarizes the current knowledge of the pathways implicated in the different classes of lung cancer with an emphasis on the clinical implications of the increasing number of actionable molecular targets. Furthermore, it focuses specifically on the significance and emerging role of surface functionalized and hybrid nanomaterials as drug delivery systems through citing recent examples targeted at lung cancer treatment.

Lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles in cancer therapy: current overview and future directions

Cancer remains one of the leading cause of death worldwide. Current therapies are still ineffective in completely eradicating the disease. In the last two decades, the use of nanodelivery systems has emerged as an effective way to potentiate the therapeutic properties of anti-cancer drugs by improving their solubility and stability, prolong drug half-lives in plasma, minimize drug’s toxicity by reducing its off-target distribution, and promote drugs’ accumulation at the desired target site. Liposomes and polymer nanoparticles are the most studied and have demonstrated to be the most effective delivery systems for anti-cancer drugs. However, both liposomes and polymeric nanoparticles suffer from limitations, including high instability, rapid drug release, limited drug loading capacity, low biocompatibility and lack of suitability for large-scale production. To overcome these limitations, lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPHNPs) have been developed to merge the advantages of both lipid- and polymer-based nanocarriers, such as high biocompatibility and stability, improved drug loading and controlled release, as well as increased drug half-lives and therapeutic efficacy. This review provides an overview on the synthesis, properties and application of LPHNPs for cancer therapy.

Cytotoxicity of targeted PLGA nanoparticles: a systematic review

Recent advances in nanotechnology have contributed tremendously to the development and revolutionizing of drug delivery systems in the field of nanomedicine. In particular, targeting nanoparticles based on biodegradable poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) polymers have gained much interest. However, PLGA nanoparticles remain of concern for their effectiveness against cancer cells and their toxicity to normal cells. The aim of this systematic review is to identify a promising targeting PLGA nanoformulation based on the comparison study of their cytotoxicity potency in different cell lines. A literature search was conducted through the databases of Google Scholar, PubMed, ScienceDirect, Scopus and SpringerLink. The sources studied were published between 2009 and 2019, and a variety of keywords were utilized. In total, 81 manuscripts that met the inclusion and exclusion criteria were selected for analysis based on their cytotoxicity, size, zeta potential, year of publication, type of ligand, active compounds and cell line used. The half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) for cytotoxicity was the main measurement in this data extraction, and the SI units were standardized to μg mL-1 for a better view of comparison. This systematic review also identified that cytotoxicity potency was inversely proportional to nanoparticle size. The PLGA nanoparticles predominantly exhibited a size of less than 300 nm and absolute zeta potential ∼20 mV. In conclusion, more comprehensive and critical appraisals of pharmacokinetic, pharmacokinetic, toxicokinetic, in vivo and in vitro tests are required for the investigation of the full value of targeting PLGA nanoparticles for cancer treatment.

Distinct Proteins in Protein Corona of Nanoparticles Represent a Promising Venue for Endogenous Targeting - Part II: In vitro and in vivo Kinetics Study

Introduction

Nanoparticles (NPs), upon introduction to the biological systems, become wrapped by serum and cellular proteins constituting the protein corona (PC). This PC contributes largely to the NPs’ interaction with the biological systems and their subsequent functions. On the one hand, PC can decrease the efficiency of targeting by directing the NPs to the reticuloendothelial system (RES) or by masking the active targeting moieties and decreasing their ability to bind to their target receptors. On the other hand, some components of PC have offered hopes for achieving endogenous targeting.

Methods

In this study, we aimed at the investigation of the role of the PC in determining the behavior of cRGDyk peptide-unconjugated and -conjugated NPs (uNPs and cNPs) exhibiting different physicochemical properties and their interaction with melanoma on in vitro and in vivo levels. Mathematical modeling has been utilized to understand the kinetics of the interaction of NPs with the tumor cells and different organs, respectively.

Results

Endocytosis and exocytosis were reported to occur simultaneously for the utilized NPs. The balance was largely dependent on the NPs’ physicochemical properties and the role of the PC. In addition, distinct proteins present in the PC (illustrated in the results of the PC analysis in part I) have also determined the patterns of the NPs’ distribution in different organs and tissues of the vascular system, the RES system and the target tumot tissue. Vitronectin (VN) was found to mediate higher accumulation in integrin receptor-expressing melanoma cells, while complement 3 protein (C3) and clusterin (CLU), as an opsonin and dysopsonin, respectively, regulated the balance between the RES uptake and blood circulation.

Discussion

PC, if properly modulated by tuning NPs’ physicochemical properties, can serve as a potential venue for optimum utilization of NPs in cancer therapy.

Targeted drug therapy in nonsmall cell lung cancer: clinical significance and possible solutions-part II (role of nanocarriers)

INTRODUCTION

Nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounts for 80-85% of the cases of lung cancer. The conventional therapeutic effective dosage forms used to treat NSCLC are associated with rigid administration schedules, adverse effects, and may be associated with acquired resistance to therapy. Nanocarriers may provide a suitable alternative to regular formulations to overcome inherent drawbacks and provide better treatment modalities for the patient.

AREAS COVERED

The article explores the application of drug loaded nanocarriers for lung cancer treatment. Drug-loaded nanocarriers can be modified to achieve controlled delivery at the desired tumor infested site. The type of nanocarriers employed are diverse based on polymers, liposomes, metals and a combination of two or more different base materials (hybrids). These may be designed for systemic delivery or local delivery to the lung compartment (via inhalation).

EXPERT OPINION

Nanocarriers can improve pharmacokinetics of the drug payload by improving its delivery to the desired location and can reduce associated systemic toxicities. Through nanocarriers, a wide variety of therapeutics can be administered and targeted to the cancerous site. Some examples of the utilities of nanocarriers are codelivery of drugs, gene delivery, and delivery of other biologics. Overall, the nanocarriers have promising potential in improving therapeutic efficacy of drugs used in NSCLC.

Utilization of Polymer-Lipid Hybrid Nanoparticles for Targeted Anti-Cancer Therapy

Cancer represents one of the most dangerous diseases, with 1.8 million deaths worldwide. Despite remarkable advances in conventional therapies, these treatments are not effective to completely eradicate cancer. Nanotechnology offers potential cancer treatment based on formulations of several nanoparticles (NPs). Liposomes and polymeric nanoparticle are the most investigated and effective drug delivery systems (DDS) for cancer treatment. Liposomes represent potential DDS due to their distinct properties, including high-drug entrapment efficacy, biocompatibility, low cost, and scalability. However, their use is restricted by susceptibility to lipid peroxidation, instability, burst release of drugs, and the limited surface modification. Similarly, polymeric nanoparticles show several chemical modifications with polymers, good stability, and controlled release, but their drawbacks for biological applications include limited drug loading, polymer toxicity, and difficulties in scaling up. Therefore, polymeric nanoparticles and liposomes are combined to form polymer-lipid hybrid nanoparticles (PLHNPs), with the positive attributes of both components such as high biocompatibility and stability, improved drug payload, controlled drug release, longer circulation time, and superior in vivo efficacy. In this review, we have focused on the prominent strategies used to develop tumor targeting PLHNPs and discuss their advantages and unique properties contributing to an ideal DDS.

Polymer-hybrid nanoparticles: Current advances in biomedical applications

The unique properties of polymer-hybrid nanosystems enable them to play an important role in different fields such as biomedical applications. Hybrid materials, which are formed by polymer and inorganic- or organic-base systems, have been the focus of many recently published studies whose results have shown outstanding improvements in drug targeting. The development of hybrid polymer materials can avoid the synthesis of new molecules, which is an overall expensive process that can take several years to get to the proper elaboration and approval. Thus, the combination of properties in a single hybrid system can have several advantages over non-hybrid platforms, such as improvements in circulation time, structural disintegration, high stability, premature release, low encapsulation rate and unspecific release kinetics. Thus, the aim of the present review is to outline a rapid and well-oriented scenario concerning the knowledge about polymer-hybrid nanoparticles use in biomedical platforms. Furthermore, the ultimate methodologies adopted in synthesis processes, as well as in applications in vitro/in vivo, are the focus of this review.

Inhaled nanoparticles-An updated review

We are providing an update to our previously published review paper on inhaled nanoparticles, thus updating with the most recent reports in the literature. The field of nanotechnology may hold the promise of significant improvements in the health and well-being of patients, as well as in manufacturing technologies. The knowledge of the impact of nanomaterials on public health is limited so far. This paper reviews the unique size-controlled properties of nanomaterials, their disposition in the body after inhalation, and the factors influencing the fate of inhaled nanomaterials. The physiology of the lungs makes it an ideal target organ for non-invasive local and systemic drug delivery, especially for protein and poorly water-soluble drugs that have low oral bioavailability via oral administration. More recently, inhaled nanoparticles have been reported to improve therapeutic efficacies and decrease undesirable side effects via pulmonary delivery. The potential application of pulmonary drug delivery of nanoparticles to the lungs, specifically in context of published results reported on nanomaterials in environmental epidemiology and toxicology is reviewed in this paper. This article presents updated delivery systems, process technologies, and potential of inhaled nanoparticles for local and systemic therapies administered to the lungs. The authors acknowledge the contributions of Wei Yang in our 2008 paper published in this journal.

Efficient Gene Therapy of Pancreatic Cancer via a Peptide Nucleic Acid (PNA)-Loaded Layered Double Hydroxides (LDH) Nanoplatform

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is one of the deadliest malignant tumors with extremely poor prognosis due to the later stage diagnosis when surgical resection is no longer applicable. Alternatively, the traditional gene therapy which drives pancreatic cancer cells into an inactive state and inhibiting the proliferation and metastasis, presents potentials to safely inhibit pancreatic cancer progression, but unfortunately has received limited success to date. Here, an efficient gene therapy of pancreatic cancer is shown via a peptide nucleic acid (PNA)-loaded layered double hydroxides (LDHs) nanoplatform. Compared with the traditional DNA- or RNA-based gene therapies, the gene therapy using PNA features great advantages in recognizing and hybridizing with the target mutant sequences to form PNA-DNA hybrids with significantly enhanced stability due to the absence of electrostatic repulsion, and the constrained flexibility of the polyamide backbone. Moreover, ultrasmall LDHs are engineered to load PNA and the obtained PNA-loaded LDH platform (LDHs/PNA) is capable of efficiently and selectively targeting the intranuclear mutant sequences thanks to the proton sponge effect. Treatments with LDHs/PNA demonstrate markedly inhibited growth of pancreatic cancer xenografts via a cancer cell proliferation suppression mechanism. The results demonstrate the great potentials of LDHs/PNA as a highly promising gene therapy agent for PDAC.

Anthraquinone: a promising scaffold for the discovery and development of therapeutic agents in cancer therapy

Cancer, characterized by uncontrolled malignant neoplasm, is a leading cause of death in both advanced and emerging countries. Although, ample drugs are accessible in the market to intervene with tumor progression, none are totally effective and safe. Natural anthraquinone (AQ) equivalents such as emodin, aloe-emodin, alchemix and many synthetic analogs extend their antitumor activity on different targets including telomerase, topoisomerases, kinases, matrix metalloproteinases, DNA and different phases of cell lines. Nano drug delivery strategies are advanced tools which deliver drugs into tumor cells with minimum drug leakage to normal cells. This review delineates the way AQ derivatives are binding on these targets by abolishing tumor cells to produce anticancer activity and purview of nanoformulations related to AQ analogs.

Lipid-chitosan hybrid nanoparticles for controlled delivery of cisplatin

Lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPHNP) are delivery systems for controlled drug delivery at tumor sites. The superior biocompatible properties of lipids and structural advantages of polymers can be obtained using this system for controlled drug delivery. In this study, cisplatin-loaded lipid-chitosan hybrid nanoparticles were formulated by the single step ionic gelation method based on ionic interaction of positively charged chitosan and negatively charged lipid. Formulations with various chitosan to lipid ratios were investigated to obtain the optimal particle size, encapsulation efficiency, and controlled release pattern. Transmission electron microscope and dynamic light scattering analysis demonstrated a size range of 181–245 nm and a zeta potential range of 20–30 mV. The stability of the formulation was demonstrated by thermal studies. Cytotoxicity and cellular interaction of cisplatin-loaded LPHNP were investigated using in vitro cell-based assays using the A2780 ovarian carcinoma cell line. The pharmacokinetics study in rabbits supported a controlled delivery of cisplatin with enhanced mean residence time and half-life. These studies suggest that cisplatin loaded LPHNP have promise as a platform for controlled delivery of cisplatin in cancer therapy.

Utilization of green formulation technique and efficacy estimation on cell line studies for dual anticancer drug therapy with niosomes

The aim of the present study was to prepare niosome formulations for the simultaneous encapsulation, dual drug therapy, of two anticancer drugs by the ecological probe sonication method. Poloxamer and sorbitan monostearate were used as surface active agents in niosomes, and the water soluble doxorubicin and poorly-water soluble paclitaxel were used as anticancer drugs. Thorough physicochemical analysis were performed for the niosomes, and their cytotoxicity and activity were evaluated on MCF-7 and PC3-MM2 cancer cell lines. Prepared niosomes were small in size with sizes ranging from 137 nm to 893 nm, and entrapment efficiencies were high, ranging from 91.24% to 99.99%. During the four weeks stability testing, the particle size remained stable. The niosomal formulations showed in vitro sustained drug release profiles for doxorubicin and clearly increased the dissolution rate of poorly water soluble paclitaxel. The incorporation of both the drugs into niosomes improved cell penetration and antiproliferative activity of the drugs PC3-MM2 cell lines. As a conclusion, doxorubicin and paclitaxel loaded niosome formulations resulted in relatively stable, small sized niosomes with improved drug release profiles, low toxicity, better cell penetration and antiproliferative activity. The niosomes showed synergistic effect due to the presence of both drugs, which can overcome multidrug resistance.

Artemisinin-Based Smart Nanomedicines with Self-Supply of Ferrous Ion to Enhance Oxidative Stress for Specific and Efficient Cancer Treatment

Though abundant researches report that artemisinin could inhibit cancer cell growth via generating toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS), the therapeutic efficiency of artemisinin for cancer treatment is still limited owing to the insufficient intracellular ferrous ion and defensive effect of intracellular glutathione. Herein, we report a cathepsin B-controllable smart nanomedicine based on the structural and pharmacodynamic characteristics of artemisinin, which employed transferrin-peptide-modified mesoporous silica to codeliver artemisinin and buthionine-sulfoximine, a glutathione scavenger, into cancer cells. As a gatekeeper, the transferrin-peptide can not only target the cancer cells but also supply the extra ferrous iron to catalyze artemisinin to produce excessive ROS to kill cancer cells efficiently. Once the designed nanomedicine attack into lysosome of tumor cells, the cargos of nanomedicine can be released in the presence of cathepsin B to immediately activate self-amplification of oxidative stress by simultaneously elevating the levels of ROS and weakening the levels of glutathione. We anticipate that this rational design strategy provides innovative opportunities for artemisinin in the clinical application of cancer.

Lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles for controlled delivery of hydrophilic and lipophilic doxorubicin for breast cancer therapy

Background: Lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPHNPs) for the controlled delivery of hydrophilic doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOX.HCl) and lipophilic DOX base have been fabricated by the single step modified nanoprecipitation method.

Materials and methods: Poly (D, L-lactide-co-glicolide) (PLGA), lecithin, and 1,2-distearoyl-Sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[methoxy (polyethylene glycol)-2000 (DSPE-PEG 2000) were selected as structural components.

Results: The mean particle size was 173–208 nm, with an encapsulation efficiency of 17.8±1.9 to 43.8±4.4% and 40.3±0.6 to 59. 8±1.4% for DOX.HCl and DOX base, respectively. The drug release profile was in the range 33–57% in 24 hours and followed the Higuchi model (R²=0.9867–0.9450) and Fickian diffusion (n<0.5). However, the release of DOX base was slower than DOX.HCl. The in vitro cytotoxicity studies and confocal imaging showed safety, good biocompatibility, and a higher degree of particle internalization. The higher internalization of DOX base was attributed to higher permeability of lipophilic component and better hydrophobic interaction of particles with cell membranes. Compared to the free DOX, the DOX.HCl and DOX base loaded LPHNPs showed higher antiproliferation effects in MDA-MB231 and PC3 cells.

Conclusion: Therefore, LPHNPs have provided a potential drug delivery strategy for safe, controlled delivery of both hydrophilic and lipophilic form of DOX in cancer cells.

Magnetic nanocarriers: Evolution of spinel ferrites for medical applications

A valuable site-directed application in the field of nanomedicine is targeted drug delivery using magnetic metal oxide nanoparticles by applying an external magnetic field at the target tissue. The magnetic property of these structures allows controlling the orientation and location of particles by changing the direction of the applied external magnetic field. Pharmaceutical design and research in the field of nanotechnology offer novel solutions for diagnosis and therapies. This review summarizes magnetic nanoparticles and magnetic spinel ferrit's properties, remarkable approaches in magnetic liposomes, magnetic polymeric nanoparticles, MRI, hyperthermia and especially magnetic drug delivery systems, which have recently developed in the field of magnetic nanoparticles and their medicinal applications. Here, we discuss spinel ferrite (SF) as magnetic materials that are a significant class of composite metal oxides. They contain ferric ions and have the general structural formula M²⁺Fe₂³⁺O₄ (where M = Co,Ni,Zn,etc.). This structure indicates unique multifunctional properties, such as excellent magnetic characteristics, high specific surface area, surface active sites, high chemical stability, tuneable shape and size, and options for functionalization. The review assesses the current efforts on synthesis, properties and medical application of magnetic spinel ferrites nanoparticles based on cobalt, nickel and zinc. Based on this review, it can be concluded that MNPs and SFNPs have unlimited ability in biomedical applications. However, the practical application of SFNPs on a huge scale still needs to be considered and evaluated.

Stepwise dual pH and redox-responsive cross-linked polypeptide nanoparticles for enhanced cellular uptake and effective cancer therapy

The systemic toxicity, reduced cellular internalization, and uncontrollable intracellular drug release of smart nanoparticles (NPs) still need to be overcome for effective cancer therapy.

Transferrin receptors-targeting nanocarriers for efficient targeted delivery and transcytosis of drugs into the brain tumors: a review of recent advancements and emerging trends

Treatment of glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a predominant challenge in chemotherapy due to the existence of blood-brain barrier (BBB) which restricts delivery of chemotherapeutic agents to the brain together with the problem of drug penetration through hard parenchyma of the GBM. With the structural and mechanistic elucidation of the BBB under both physiological and pathological conditions, it is now viable to target central nervous system (CNS) disorders utilizing the presence of transferrin (Tf) receptors (TfRs). However, overexpression of these TfRs on the GBM cell surface can also help to avoid restrictions of GBM cells to deliver chemotherapeutic agents within the tumor. Therefore, targeting of TfR-mediated delivery could counteract drug delivery issues in GBM and create a delivery system that could cross the BBB effectively to utilize ligand-conjugated drug complexes through receptor-mediated transcytosis. Hence, approach towards successful delivery of antitumor agents to the gliomas has been making possible through targeting these overexpressed TfRs within the CNS and glioma cells. This review article presents a thorough analysis of current understanding on Tf-conjugated nanocarriers as efficient drug delivery system.

A mechanistic study of the effect of transferrin conjugation on cytotoxicity of targeted liposomes

This study was performed to prepare 5-fluorouracil (5FU) containing targeted liposomes for the safety and efficacy enhancement. Liposomes were prepared using thin layer method and transferrin (Tf) was employed as the targeting ligand. Morphology of 5FU-loaded liposomes was assessed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The in vitro cytotoxicity was investigated via MTT assay on HT-29, CT26 and fibroblast cells. Mitochondrial membrane and cell death evaluations were also investigated. Resulted showed that the encapsulation efficiency (EE%) and particle size of the liposomes were 40.12% and 130 nm, respectively. TEM image implied that liposomes were spherical in shape. In cancer cells, targeted liposomes triggered the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway by lower production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) (63.58 vs 84.95 fluorescence intensity), reduced mitochondrial membrane potential and releasing of cytochrome c (68.66 vs 51.13 ng/mL). The results of this study indicated that Tf-targeted 5FU liposomes can be employed as promising nanocarrier for the delivery of drugs to cancer cells.

Antiproliferative and Apoptosis Triggering Potential of Paclitaxel-Based Targeted-Lipid Nanoparticles with Enhanced Cellular Internalization by Transferrin Receptors-a Study in Leukemia Cells

Leukemia is a typical blood cancer that is characterized by the numerous duplication and proliferation of white blood cells. The main aim of this study was to develop PTX-loaded multifunctional nanoparticles and target to leukemia cells. In this study, transferrin-decorated paclitaxel-loaded lipid nanoparticle (TPLN) was prepared with an aim to increase the chemotherapeutic efficacy in the leukemia cells. Results clearly showed the superior targeting potential of TPLN to the HL-60 cancer cells compared to that of the paclitaxel-loaded nanoparticles (PLN). To be specific, TPLN showed a significantly higher cytotoxic effect in the cancer cells compared to that of the PLN indicating the superior targeting efficiency of the Tf-decorated nanoparticle system. The IC50 value of TPLN was 0.45 μg/ml compared to 2.8 μg/ml for PLN. TPLN induced a most remarkable apoptosis of the cancer cells and much of the cells were distorted with huge presence of the apoptotic body formation. Importantly, TPLN showed a remarkable reduction in the viable cells proportion to ~ 65% with around ~ 30% apoptosis cells (early and late apoptosis). Overall, results clearly showed the targeting potential of ligand-conjugated lipid nanoparticle system to the leukemia cells that might pave the way for the successful cancer treatment.

Facilitating the Cellular Accumulation of Pt-Based Chemotherapeutic Drugs

Cisplatin, carboplatin, and oxaliplatin are Pt-based drugs used in the chemotherapeutic eradication of cancer cells. Although most cancer patient cells initially respond well to the treatment, the clinical effectiveness declines over time as the cancer cells develop resistance to the drugs. The Pt-based drugs are accumulated via membrane-bound transporters, translocated to the nucleus, where they trigger various intracellular cell death programs through DNA interaction. Here we illustrate how resistance to Pt-based drugs, acquired through limitation in the activity/subcellular localization of canonical drug transporters, might be circumvented by the facilitated uptake of Pt-based drug complexes via nanocarriers/endocytosis or lipophilic drugs by diffusion.

An overview on the current status of cancer nanomedicines

PURPOSE

Cancer remains a significant cause of morbidity and mortality across the globe. A recent report suggests around 14.1 million new cases and 8.2 million cancer-related deaths, which are expected to reach 21.7 million and 13 million by 2030 worldwide, respectively.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Because of highly complex mechanisms of cancer progression, it is important to explore and develop new innovative technologies which are more efficient compared with presently available treatment options.

RESULTS

Currently, chemotherapy, radiation and surgery are the most commonly used cancer treatment methods. In the last decade, nanomedicine emerged as an alternative treatment option that uses specific drug-delivery systems, improves efficacy of drugs and reduces detrimental side effects to normal tissues.

CONCLUSION

In this review, we have summarized cancer nanomedicines (active and passive drug delivery) available in the market. We have also discussed other nanomedicines that are at different stages of clinical trials.

Multicellular Tumor Spheroids (MCTS) as a 3D In Vitro Evaluation Tool of Nanoparticles

Multicellular tumor spheroid models (MCTS) are often coined as 3D in vitro models that can mimic the microenvironment of tissues. MCTS have gained increasing interest in the nano-biotechnology field as they can provide easily accessible information on the performance of nanoparticles without using animal models. Considering that many countries have put restrictions on animals testing, which will only tighten in the future as seen by the recent developments in the Netherlands, 3D models will become an even more valuable tool. Here, an overview on MCTS is provided, focusing on their use in cancer research as most nanoparticles are tested in MCTS for treatment of primary tumors. Thereafter, various types of nanoparticles-from self-assembled block copolymers to inorganic nanoparticles, are discussed. A range of physicochemical parameters including the size, shape, surface chemistry, ligands attachment, stability, and stiffness are found to influence nanoparticles in MCTS. Some of these studies are complemented by animal studies confirming that lessons from MCTS can in part predict the behaviour in vivo. In summary, MCTS are suitable models to gain additional information on nanoparticles. While not being able to replace in vivo studies, they can bridge the gap between traditional 2D in vitro studies and in vivo models.