Distribution and significance of interstitial fibrosis and stroma-infiltrating B cells in tongue squamous cell carcinoma

Role of tumor budding and fibrotic cancer stroma in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is an aggressive cancer with an increased frequency of lymph node metastasis at the time of presentation. Tumour budding, characterised by the presence of a single cell or a small grouping of tumour cells (a cluster containing fewer than five malignant cells) at the invasive front and composition of the fibrotic cancer stroma has been demonstrated to have a growing impact on the behaviour of the solid tumour. However exact role played by them is yet to be defined and a standardized scoring system needs to be incorporated.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A total of 45 histopathologically confirmed cases of HNSCC were included in the study. Hematoxylin and Eosin staining (H&E staining), and immunohistochemistry for CK and alpha-SMA were applied to study the tumour budding and fibrotic cancer stroma in all HNSCC cases. The tumour budding was graded as, Grade 1: 0-4 tumour buds, Grade 2: 5-9 buds and Grade 3: ≥ 10 buds and the nature of fibrotic cancer stroma was categorized as mature, intermediate or immature.

RESULTS

Among 45 cases analyzed, well differentiated squamous cell carcinoma (WDSCC; Grade 1) accounted for 42.22% (19 cases), whereas moderately differentiated squamous cell carcinoma (MDSCC; Grade 2) and poorly differentiated squamous cell carcinoma (PDSCC; Grade 3) comprised 48.89% (22 cases) and 8.89% (4 cases) respectively. Tumour budding showed instances of 0-4 buds in 33.3% (Grade 1), 5-9 buds in 48.9% (Grade 2), and ≥ 10 buds in 17.8% of cases. Evaluating tumour stroma, Intermediate stroma led at 51.1%, Mature at 37.8%, and 11.1% displayed Immature stroma. Histologically, < 5 buds were seen in 47.4% of Grade 1 cases, while ≥ 10 buds were in 75.0% of Grade 3 cases, proven statistically significant (p = 0.021). However, an association between T&N Stage and tumour budding lacked significance. WDSCC notably had more mature stroma than MDSCC and PDSCC, whereas MDSCC showed higher rates of intermediate and immature stroma (p < 0.001). Comparatively, no significant correlation existed between fibrotic stroma and tumour budding (p = 0.076). Also, fibrotic stroma was compared with tumour budding, however, no significant correlation was found (p = 0.076) CONCLUSION: This study reveals a significant link between tumour budding, cancer stroma, and WHO tumour grade. Thus, evaluating these factors in HNSCC cases can serve as valuable histological prognostic indicators, aiding in treatment planning and prognosis assessment.

Y-Chromosome-Linked Genes Are Associated With Sex-Related Head-Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma Survival

OBJECTIVE

To define novel gene biomarkers for prognosis of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) patients' survival.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective study.

SETTING

The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) HNSCC RNA-Seq dataset.

METHODS

Coexpressed gene clusters were extracted from TCGA RNA-seq data using our previously published method (EPIG). Kaplan-Meier estimator was then used for overall survival-relevant analysis, with patients partitioned into 3 groups based on gene expression levels: female, male_low, and male_high.

RESULTS

Male had better overall survival than female and male with higher expression level of Y-chromosome-linked (Y-linked) genes had significantly better survival than those with lower expression levels. In addition, male with a higher expression level of Y-linked genes showed even better survival when they have a higher level of coexpressed cluster of genes related to B or T cell immune response. Other clinical conditions related to immune responses also consistently showed favorable effects on the Y-linked genes for survival estimation. Male patients with higher expression level of Y-linked genes also have significantly higher tumor/normal tissue (T/N) ratio of those genes and higher level of several immune responses related clinical measurements (eg, lymphocyte and TCR related). Male patients with lower expression level of Y-linked genes benefited from radiation-only treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

The favorable role of a cluster of coexpressed Y-linked genes in HNSCC patients' survival is potentially associated with elevated level of immune responses. These Y-linked genes could serve as useful prognostic biomarkers for HNSCC patients' survival estimation and treatment.

DNA methylation-based depiction of the immune microenvironment and immune-associated long non-coding RNAs in oral cavity squamous cell carcinomas

Oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is a complex and dynamic disease characterized by clinicopathological and molecular heterogeneity. Spatial and temporal heterogeneity of cell subpopulations has been associated with cancer progression and implicated in the prognosis and therapy response. Emerging evidence indicates that aberrant epigenetic profiles in OSCC may foster an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment by modulating the expression of immune-related long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs). DNA methylation analysis was performed in 46 matched OSCC and normal adjacent tissue samples using a genome-wide platform (Infinium HumanMethylation450 BeadChip). Reference-based computational deconvolution (MethylCIBERSORT) was applied to infer the immune cell composition of the bulk samples. The expression levels of genes encoding immune markers and differentially methylated lncRNAs were investigated using The Cancer Genome Atlas dataset. OSCC specimens presented distinct immune cell composition, including the enrichment of monocyte lineage cells, natural killer cells, cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, regulatory T-lymphocytes, and neutrophils. In contrast, B-lymphocytes, effector T-lymphocytes, and fibroblasts were diminished in tumor samples. The hypomethylation of three immune-associated lncRNAs (MEG3, MIR155HG, and WFDC21P) at individual CpG sites was confirmed by bisulfite-pyrosequencing. Also, the upregulation of a set of immune markers (FOXP3, GZMB, IL10, IL2RA, TGFB, IFNG, TDO2, IDO1, and HIF1A) was detected. The immune cell composition, immune markers alteration, and dysregulation of immune-associated lncRNAs reinforce the impact of the immune microenvironment in OSCC. These concurrent factors contribute to tumor heterogeneity, suggesting that epi-immunotherapy could be an efficient alternative to treat OSCC.

Clonal redemption of B cells in cancer

Potentially self-reactive B cells constitute a large portion of the peripheral B cell repertoire in both mice and humans. Maintenance of autoreactive B cell populations could conceivably be detrimental to the host but their conservation throughout evolution suggests performance of a critical and beneficial immune function. We discuss herein how the process of clonal redemption may provide insight to preservation of an autoreactive B cell pool in the context of infection and autoimmunity. Clonal redemption refers to additional recombination or hypermutation events decreasing affinity for self-antigen, while increasing affinity for foreign antigens. We then review findings in murine models and human patients to consider whether clonal redemption may be able to provide tumor antigen-specific B cells and how this may or may not predispose patients to autoimmunity.

The Three-Dimensional In Vitro Cell Culture Models in the Study of Oral Cancer Immune Microenvironment

The onset and progression of oral cancer are accompanied by a dynamic interaction with the host immune system, and the immune cells within the tumor microenvironment play a pivotal role in the development of the tumor. By exploring the cellular immunity of oral cancer, we can gain insight into the contribution of both tumor cells and immune cells to tumorigenesis. This understanding is crucial for developing effective immunotherapeutic strategies to combat oral cancer. Studies of cancer immunology present unique challenges in terms of modeling due to the extraordinary complexity of the immune system. With its multitude of cellular components, each with distinct subtypes and various activation states, the immune system interacts with cancer cells and other components of the tumor, ultimately shaping the course of the disease. Conventional two-dimensional (2D) culture methods fall short of capturing these intricate cellular interactions. Mouse models enable us to learn about tumor biology in complicated and dynamic physiological systems but have limitations as the murine immune system differs significantly from that of humans. In light of these challenges, three-dimensional (3D) culture systems offer an alternative approach to studying cancer immunology and filling the existing gaps in available models. These 3D culture models provide a means to investigate complex cellular interactions that are difficult to replicate in 2D cultures. The direct study of the interaction between immune cells and cancer cells of human origin offers a more relevant and representative platform compared to mouse models, enabling advancements in our understanding of cancer immunology. This review explores commonly used 3D culture models and highlights their significant contributions to expanding our knowledge of cancer immunology. By harnessing the power of 3D culture systems, we can unlock new insights that pave the way for improved strategies in the battle against oral cancer.

Prognostic significance of tetraspanin CD9 and oncogenic epidermal growth factor receptor in tongue squamous cell carcinoma survival

The most prevalent locations for head and neck cancer is the tongue. The surviving patients who are receiving therapy have considerably compromised speech, taste, chewing, and swallowing. CD9 is a cell surface protein that has contradictory role in cancer progression. The objective of the study is to analyze the Cluster of Differentiation 9(CD9), Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) and Phosphorylated Akt (p-Akt) expression in tongue cancer specimens and its clinical significance.50 tongue cancer sections were used to analyze the expression of CD9,EGFR and p-Akt by immunohistochemistry. Data regarding the histological grade of the tumor, age, sex, and habits were recorded, and relation with CD9,EGFR and p-Akt expression was assessed. Data were expressed as mean ± SEM. Categorical data was analyzed by Chi-square test. Student t-test was used to check the significance of data between two groups.A significant increase in the CD9,EGFR and p-Akt expression (1.8 ± 0.11, 2.06 ± 0.18 and 2.3 ± 0.15 respectively) was seen in the tongue cancer specimens. CD9 and p-Akt expression had a significant association with the histological grade (p < 0.004 and p < 0.006 respectively). CD9 expression was higher in patients with the combination of addiction/habit compared to patients with single addictions(1.08 ± 0.11 and 0.75 ± 0.47). Overall a poor rate of survival was observed in CD9 positive patients(p < 0.039). EGFR and p-Akt expression increased with increasing expression of CD9, suggesting its use as a biomarker to track the development of TSCC.

Matrix stiffness induces an invasive-dormant subpopulation via cGAS-STING axis in oral cancer

OBJECTIVES

Dormancy is a crucial machinery for cancer cells to survive hostile microenvironment. It is considered as the major cause of post-treatment relapse and metastases. However, its regulatory mechanism in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) remains unclear. Here we sought to decipher the impacts of matrix stiffness on OSCC-cell dormancy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Clinicopathological relevance of matrix stiffness in OSCC was analyzed in a 127 patients' cohort. Impacts of stiffness-related mechanical stress (MS) on OSCC-cell behaviors were investigated in vitro and in vivo. Transcriptomic profiling of MS induced dormant cells were performed, following by mechanistic investigations on MS-induced dormancy. The functional relevance of cGAS in OSCC were analyzed through a bioinformatic approach.

RESULTS

Stiffened matrix correlated with poor survival and post-surgical recurrence in OSCC. Stiffness-related MS induces a dormant subpopulation in OSCC cells, which showed increased drug resistance, enhanced tumor repopulating ability, and an unexpected upregulation of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and invasiveness. Mechanistically, MS caused DNA damage, resulted in activation of cGAS-STING signaling. Either blocking of cGAS or STING dramatically impeded the MS-induced production of this invasive-dormant subpopulation. Moreover, cGAS was found being central to the cell-cycle regulation and correlated with poor prognosis in OSCC.

DISCUSSION

We revealed a previously unsuspected role of cGAS-STING axis in mediating the induction of an invasive-dormant subpopulation in response to mechanical cues. Our findings indicated an adaptive machinery whereby tumor cells survive and escape from harsh microenvironment. Targeting this machinery may be a potential strategy for preventing post-therapeutic recurrence and lymphatic metastasis in OSCC.

Precancerous Lesions of the Head and Neck Region and Their Stromal Aberrations: Piecemeal Data

Head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCCs) develop through a series of precancerous stages from a pool of potentially malignant disorders (PMDs). Although we understand the genetic changes that lead to HNSCC, our understanding of the role of the stroma in the progression from precancer to cancer is limited. The stroma is the primary battleground between the forces that prevent and promote cancer growth. Targeting the stroma has yielded promising cancer therapies. However, the stroma at the precancerous stage of HNSCCs is poorly defined, and we may miss opportunities for chemopreventive interventions. PMDs already exhibit many features of the HNSCC stroma, such as inflammation, neovascularization, and immune suppression. Still, they do not induce cancer-associated fibroblasts or destroy the basal lamina, the stroma's initial structure. Our review aims to summarize the current understanding of the transition from precancer to cancer stroma and how this knowledge can reveal opportunities and limitations for diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic decisions to benefit patients. We will discuss what may be needed to fulfill the promise of the precancerous stroma as a target to prevent progression to cancer.

Expression of CD 20 B-Lymphocyte in oral epithelial dysplasia and oral squamous cell carcinoma: A comparative immunohistochemistry study

Background

As the progressive trends in the field of immunotherapy, it is very favourable to reconsider the role played by B lymphocytes in the tumor microenvironment. Both the protumorogenic and antitumorogenic responses have to be evaluated to formulate an effective immunotherapeutic protocol.

Aim and objective

The study was primarily conducted to assess the qualitative expression of B lymphocytes in pretumorogenic (oral epithelial dysplasia) and tumorogenic environment (oral squamous cell carcinoma). The differential immunohistochemical staining of CD 20 immune marker was assessed in about 60 cases that included 30 cases of oral epithelial dysplasia and 30 cases of oral squamous cell carcinoma.

Results

The study found significant correlation between CD 20 IHC immune expression and histopathological diagnosis along with significant correlation between the subject's age group and histopathological diagnosis.

Conclusion

Modulating the immune response in a precancerous state can be highly beneficial in implementing better immunotherapeutic strategies to treat or prevent malignancy at an early stage.

Immunology of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma-A Comprehensive Insight with Recent Concepts

This review aims to understand the concept of oral cancer immunology through the notion of immune profiling, immunoediting and immunotherapy, and to gain knowledge regarding its application for the management of oral cancer patients. Oral cancer is an immunogenic tumor where the cells of the tumor microenvironment play an important role in tumorigenesis. Understanding the mechanism of these modulations can help design immunotherapeutic strategies in oral cancer patients. This article gives an overview of immunomodulation in the oral cancer tumor microenvironment, with concepts of immune profiling, immunoediting and immunotherapy. English literature searches via Google Scholar, Web of Science, EBSCO, Scopus, and PubMed database were performed with the key words immunology, tumor microenvironment, cells, cross talk, immune profiling, biomarkers, inflammation, gene expression, techniques, immunoediting, immunosurveillance, tumor escape, immunotherapy, immune checkpoint inhibitors, vaccines in cancer, oral cancer, and head and neck cancer. Original research articles, reviews, and case reports published from 2016-2021 (n = 81) were included to appraise different topics, and were discussed under the following subsections. Literature published on oral cancer immunology reveals that oral cancer immune profiling with appropriate markers and techniques and knowledge on immunoediting concepts can help design and play an effective role in immunotherapeutic management of oral cancer patients. An evaluation of oral cancer immunology helps to determine its role in tumorigenesis, and immunotherapy could be the emerging drift in the effective management of oral cancer.

Novel pathological predictive factors for extranodal extension in oral squamous cell carcinoma: a retrospective cohort study based on tumor budding, desmoplastic reaction, tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes, and depth of invasion

Background

Extranodal extension (ENE) is a poor prognostic factor for oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). Identifying ENE by clinical and/or radiological examination is difficult, thereby leading to unnecessary neck dissections. Currently, no definitive predictors are available for ENE. Thus, we aimed to determine the histological predictors of ENE by routine histopathological examination using biopsy and surgically resected specimens.

Methods

This retrospective study included 186 surgically resected OSCC and 83 matched biopsy specimens. Clinical features associated with the tumor microenvironment, including desmoplastic reaction (DR), tumor budding (TB), and tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), were evaluated using hematoxylin and eosin-stained primary OSCC and neck dissection specimens. These histological features were divided into two groups: DR-immature (DR-I) and DR-mature (DR-M); TB-high (TB-H) and TB-low (TB-L); and TILs-low (TILs-L) and TILs-high (TILs-H). Clinical depth of invasion (cDOI) and pathological DOI (pDOI) were adapted for biopsies and resections, respectively; DOI was evaluated as DOI > 10 mm and DOI ≤ 10 mm. The clinicopathological relationships between these histopathological features and ENE and the independent risk factors for ENE were analyzed. The histological predictors of ENE were evaluated.

Results

The histological status of DR, TILs, and TB present in biopsy and resection specimens showed high accuracy with that of ENE. DR-I, TILs-L, and TB-H were significantly associated with lymph node metastasis, cDOI, and pDOI. Bivariate and multivariate analyses revealed that TB-H and pDOI > 10 mm in resections were independent factors for the presence of ENE (ENE +). The combination of TB-H/pDOI > 10 mm in resection specimens showed high specificity (91%) and accuracy (83%) regarding ENE + . Although there proved to be no independent factors in biopsies, DR-I and TILs-L were significantly associated with ENE + (p < 0.001). The combination of DR-I/TILs-L/cDOI > 10 mm in biopsies exhibited high sensitivity and specificity with ENE + (70% and 77%, respectively, p < 0.001). These histological predictors could detect even minor ENE (< 2 mm).

Conclusions

The tumor microenvironment status in primary OSCC was significantly associated with that of ENE, and TB-H was an independent risk factor for ENE. The histological status of DR-I/TILs-L/cDOI > 10 mm in biopsy specimens and TB-H/pDOI > 10 mm in resection specimens is a useful predictor of ENE.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12885-022-09393-8.

Comprehensive gene cluster analysis of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma TCGA RNA-seq data defines B cell immunity-related genes as a robust survival predictor

BACKGROUND

The authors aimed to define novel gene expression signatures that are associated with patients' survival with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC).

METHODS

TCGA RNA-seq data were used for gene expression clusters extraction from 499 tumor samples by the "EPIG" method. Tumor samples were then partitioned into lower and higher than median level groups for survival relevant analysis by Kaplan-Meier estimator.

RESULTS

We found that two gene clusters (_1, _2) are favorably, while two (_3, _4) are unfavorably, associated with patients' survival with HNSCC. Notably, most genes on the top lists of cluster_2 are associated with B cells. A gene expression signature with combined genes from cluster_2 and _4 was further determined to be associated with HNSCC survival rate.

CONCLUSION

Our work strongly supported a favorable role of B cells in patients' survival with HNSCC and identified a novel coexpressed gene signature as prognostic biomarker for patients' survival with HNSCC estimation.

The Crossroads of Periodontitis and Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Immune Implications and Tumor Promoting Capacities

Periodontitis (PD) is increasingly considered to interact with and promote a number of inflammatory diseases, including cancer. In the case of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) the local inflammatory response associated with PD is capable of triggering altered cellular events that can promote cancer cell invasion and proliferation of existing primary oral carcinomas as well as supporting the seeding of metastatic tumor cells into the gingival tissue giving rise to secondary tumors. Both the immune and stromal components of the periodontium exhibit phenotypic alterations and functional differences during PD that result in a microenvironment that favors cancer progression. The inflammatory milieu in PD is ideal for cancer cell seeding, migration, proliferation and immune escape. Understanding the interactions governing this attenuated anti-tumor immune response is vital to unveil unexplored preventive or therapeutic possibilities. Here we review the many commonalities between the oral-inflammatory microenvironment in PD and oral-inflammatory responses that are associated with OSCC progression, and how these conditions can act to promote and sustain the hallmarks of cancer.

MicroRNAs: Their Role in Metabolism, Tumor Microenvironment, and Therapeutic Implications in Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Simple Summary

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC), which arises from the oral epithelium, is one of the most common cancers worldwide. Despite excellent diagnosis and treatment improvements, the mortality rate associated with HNSCC is still extremely high. Current data suggest that dysregulation of exosomes and metabolic abnormalities are involved in the initiation and progression of HNSCC. Thus, approaches for targeting exosomes in the tumor microenvironment and metabolic reprogramming pathways represent potential therapeutic strategies. Moreover, some miRNAs are thought to have significant functions in regulating the progression of HNSCC. The present article aims to summarize the current knowledge concerning the important miRNAs in both exosomes and cancer metabolism, as well as discuss future perspectives regarding their future diagnostic potential and treatment recommendations.

Abstract

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are endogenous small non-coding RNA molecules that negatively regulate gene expression by binding to target mRNAs. Deregulated miRNAs can act as either oncogenic miRNAs or tumor suppressor miRNAs in controlling proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, metastasis, epithelial–mesenchymal transition, and immune responses, which are all involved in the carcinogenesis process of HNSCC. Recent findings have shown that metabolic reprogramming is an important hallmark of cancer, which is necessary for malignant transformation and tumor development. Some reprogrammed metabolisms are believed to be required for HNSCC against an unfavorable tumor microenvironment (TME). The TME is composed of various cell types embedded in the altered extracellular matrix, among which exosomes, secreted by cancer cells, are one of the most important factors. Tumor-derived exosomes reshape the tumor microenvironment and play a crucial role in cell-to-cell communication during HNSCC development. Exosomes encapsulate many biomolecules, including miRNAs, circulate in body fluids, and can transmit intercellular regulatory messages to nearby and distant sites, which indicates that exosomal miRNAs have the potential to become non-invasive biomarkers. This review aims to clarify the functions of diverse miRNAs in HNSCC metabolic reprogramming and tumor-derived exosomes. In addition, it also emphasizes the potential role of miRNA as a biomarker in the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of HNSCC cancer.

Epigenetic modulation of the tumor microenvironment in head and neck cancer: Challenges and opportunities

Head and neck cancer is globally challenging due to the resistance to therapy and aggressive behavior leading to high rates of mortality. Recent findings show that the tumor microenvironment plays a role in the maintenance and progression of many solid tumors, including head and neck cancer. The mechanisms involved in the modulation and regulation of the tumor microenvironment remain poorly understood. Increasing evidence suggests that epigenetic events can modulate the crosstalk between neoplastic and non-neoplastic cells during tumor progression. In this review, we explore the current understanding of the involvement of epigenetic events in the modulation of the tumor microenvironment and its impact on head and neck cancer behavior. We also explore the latest therapeutic strategies that use epigenetic-modulating drugs to manage tumor growth and progression.

Spatiotemporal Analysis of B Cell- and Antibody Secreting Cell-Subsets in Human Melanoma Reveals Metastasis-, Tumor Stage-, and Age-Associated Dynamics

Background: The role of tumor-associated B cells in human cancer is only starting to emerge. B cells typically undergo a series of developmental changes in phenotype and function, however, data on the composition of the B cell population in human melanoma are largely absent including changes during tumor progression and their potential clinical significance.

Methods: In this study, we compared the number and distribution of six major B cell and antibody secreting cell subpopulations outside tertiary lymphoid structures in whole tumor sections of 154 human cutaneous melanoma samples (53 primary tumors without subsequent metastasis, 44 primary tumors with metastasis, 57 metastatic samples) obtained by seven color multiplex immunohistochemistry and automated tissue imaging and analysis.

Results: In primary melanomas, we observed the highest numbers for plasmablast-like, memory-like, and activated B cell subtypes. These cells showed a patchy, predominant paratumoral distribution at the invasive tumor-stroma margin. Plasma cell-like cells were hardly detected, germinal center- and transitional/regulatory-like B cells not at all. Of the major clinicopathologic prognostic factors for primary melanomas, metastasis was associated with decreased memory-like B cell numbers and a higher age associated with higher plasmablast-like cell numbers. When we compared the composition of B cell subpopulations in primary melanomas and metastatic samples, we found a significantly higher proportion of plasma cell-like cells at distant metastatic sites and a higher proportion of memory-like B cells at locoregional than distant metastatic sites. Both cell types were detected mainly in the para- and intratumoral stroma.

Conclusion: These data provide a first comprehensive and comparative spatiotemporal analysis of major B cell and antibody secreting cell subpopulations in human melanoma and describe metastasis-, tumor stage-, and age-associated dynamics, an important premise for B cell-related biomarker and therapy studies.

Tertiary lymphoid structures and B lymphocytes in cancer prognosis and response to immunotherapies

Tertiary lymphoid structures (TLS) are ectopic cellular aggregates that resemble secondary lymphoid organs in their composition and structural organization. In contrast to secondary lymphoid organs, TLS are not imprinted during embryogenesis but are formed in non-lymphoid tissues in response to local inflammation. TLS structures exhibiting a variable degree of maturation are found in solid tumors. They are composed of various immune cell types including dendritic cells and antigen-specific B and T lymphocytes, that together, actively drive the immune response against tumor development and progression. This review highlights the successive steps leading to tumor TLS formation and its association with clinical outcomes. We discuss the role played by tumor-infiltrating B lymphocytes and plasma cells, their prognostic value in solid tumors and immunotherapeutic responses and their potential for future targeting.

B-cell clusters at the invasive margin associate with longer survival in early-stage oral-tongue cancer patients

In oral-cancer, the number of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) associates with improved survival, yet the prognostic value of the cellular composition and localization of TILs is not defined. We quantified densities, localizations, and cellular networks of lymphocyte populations in 138 patients with T1-T2 primary oral-tongue squamous cell carcinoma treated with surgical resections without any perioperative (chemo)radiotherapy, and correlated outcomes to overall survival (OS). Multiplexed in-situ immunofluorescence was performed for DAPI, CD4, CD8, CD20, and pan-cytokeratin using formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded sections, and spatial distributions of lymphocyte populations were assessed in the tumor and stroma compartments at the invasive margin (IM) as well as the center of tumors. We observed a high density of CD4, CD8, and CD20 cells in the stroma compartment at the IM, but neither lymphocyte densities nor networks as single parameters associated with OS. In contrast, assessment of two contextual parameters within the stroma IM region of tumors, i.e., the number of CD20 cells within 20 µm radii of CD20 and CD4 cells, termed the CD20 Cluster Score, yielded a highly significant association with OS (HR 0.38; p = .003). Notably, the CD20 Cluster Score significantly correlated with better OS and disease-free survival in multivariate analysis (HR 0.34 and 0.47; p = .001 and 0.019) as well as with lower local recurrence rate (OR: 0.13; p = .028). Taken together, our study showed that the presence of stromal B-cell clusters at IM, in the co-presence of CD4 T-cells, associates with good prognosis in early oral-tongue cancer patients.

Tumor-Infiltrating CD20+ B Lymphocytes: Significance and Prognostic Implications in Oral Cancer Microenvironment

Simple Summary

The complex interplay between the different cellular components in the tumor microenvironment (TME) dynamically modulates the antitumor immune response. This study investigates the prognostic relevance of CD20⁺ tumor-infiltrating B lymphocytes in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), and also possible relationships with other immune subtypes and key players within the oral TME.

Abstract

Immunohistochemical analysis of stromal/tumoral CD20⁺ B lymphocytes was performed in 125 OSCC patients. Correlations with immune profiles CD4⁺, CD8⁺, and FOXP3⁺ tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), tumoral PD-L1, and stem-related factors NANOG and SOX2 were assessed, and also associations with clinical data and patient survival. There was a strong positive correlation between the infiltration of CD20⁺ B lymphocytes and other immune profiles (i.e., CD4⁺, CD8⁺, and FOXP3⁺ TILs, and CD68⁺ and CD163⁺ macrophages) both in stroma and tumor nests. Strikingly, CD20⁺ TILs were inversely correlated with NANOG/SOX2 expression. Stromal CD20⁺ TILs were significantly associated with T classification and second primary tumors. A stratified survival analysis showed that tumoral CD20⁺ TILs were significantly associated with prognosis in male and younger patients, with tobacco or alcohol consumption, high tumoral CD8⁺ TILs, low tumoral infiltration by CD68⁺ macrophages, positive PD-L1 expression, and negative NANOG/SOX2. Multivariate Cox analysis further revealed clinical stage and tumoral CD20⁺ TILs independently associated with disease-specific survival (HR = 2.42, p = 0.003; and HR = 0.57, p = 0.04, respectively). In conclusion, high CD20⁺ TIL density emerges as an independent good prognostic factor in OSCC, suggesting a role in antitumor immunity. This study also uncovered an inverse correlation between CD20⁺ TILs and CSC marker expression.

Inhibition of microRNA-17 enhances cisplatin-induced apoptosis of human tongue squamous carcinoma cell

MicroRNA-17 (miR-17) was reported to promote cell proliferation and migration of various types of cancers. However, the mechanism remains unclear. This present study was designed to explore the potential mechanism. Downregulation of miR-17 in CAL-27 cells was performed by transfecting anti-miR-27 plasmids. Xenograft tumor model was carried out to detect the effect of inhibition of microRNA-17 on tongue squamous carcinoma growth. MiR-17 inhibition promotes cisplatin-induced apoptosis via regulating the expression of apoptotic molecules. MiR-17 inhibition promotes cisplatin-induced autophagy of CAL-27 cells. Mechanically, miR-17 inhibition promotes apoptosis and autophagy through STAT3 signaling pathway. Xenograft tumor model showed that miR-17 inhibition attenuates tongue squamous carcinoma growth and promotes tongue squamous carcinoma cell apoptosis in vivo. MiR-17 inhibition enhances cisplatin-induced apoptosis of human tongue squamous carcinoma cell. Our study supplies the evidence that miR-17 may serve as the potential target for human tongue squamous carcinoma treatment.

Overproduced CPSF4 Promotes Cell Proliferation and Invasion via PI3K-AKT Signaling Pathway in Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

PURPOSE

Invasion and metastasis are major challenges in the treatment of oral cancer. We hypothesize that cleavage and polyadenylation specific factor 4 (CPSF4), a key mediator of cell growth and metastasis in several types of cancers, contributes to oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) pathogenesis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The expression and production of CPSF4 in OSCC cell lines and tumor tissues were assessed by RT-PCR and western blot, respectively. The relationships between CPSF4 production and OSCC clinicopathological features were analyzed using immunohistochemistry. The effects of CPSF4 on viability, proliferation, migration, invasion, cell cycle distribution, and apoptosis of OSCC cells were measured by MTS assay, colony formation assay, wound-healing, transwell invasion assay, flow cytometry, and cell apoptosis assay, respectively. Western blot analysis was used to assess alteration of PI3K-AKT pathway member levels in cell lines transfected with CPSF4 siRNA. Mice xenograft models were used to determine the effect of CPSF4 on OSCC tumor growth in vivo.

RESULTS

CPSF4 was highly expressed in OSCC cell lines and tumor tissues compared with adjacent normal oral tissues. High CPSF4 expression was strongly correlated with vascular invasion (P = .004), distant metastasis (P = .001), and TNM stages (P = .001). Moreover, reduction of CPSF4 levels contributed to the inhibition of cell viability, proliferation, invasion and migration, and the induction of apoptosis in OSCC cell lines. Reduction of CPSF4 levels results in OSCC cell cycle arrest in G1 phase by targeting c-Myc. CPSF4 contributed to proliferation inhibition via PI3K-AKT signaling pathway. Reduction of CPSF4 levels inhibits OSCC tumor growth in vivo.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that CPSF4 supports OSCC invasion and metastasis and may be a promising therapeutic target for OSCC.

Development of a novel 7 immune-related genes prognostic model for oral cancer: A study based on TCGA database

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is an aggressive tumor whose prognosis has little improvement in the last three decades. Various immune-related genes have been suggested as significant roles in the development and progression of malignant cancers. In this study, we acquired and integrated differentially expressed genes of OSCC patients, including immune-related genes and transcription factors (TFs), from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. TF-mediated network was established to exploring the regulatory mechanisms of prognostic immune-related genes. A 7 immune-related genes prognostic model for OSCC was obtained, including CGB8, CTLA4, TNFRSF19, CCL26, NRG1, TPM2 and PLAU, which was further proved to be an independent prognostic indicator after adjusting for other clinical factors. The immune-related genes prognostic index was significantly negatively correlated to the infiltration abundances of B cells (P < 0.05) and CD8+ T cells (P < 0.05). The novel proposed immune-based prognostic model not only provided a promising biomarker and a way to monitor the long-term treatment of OSCC, but also gave a new insight into a potential immunotherapy strategy.

Myxoid stroma is associated with postoperative relapse in patients with stage II colon cancer

BACKGROUND

Fibrosis surrounding cancer cells has been shown to affect cancer cell metastatic behavior. The present study aimed to explore the utility of myxoid stroma as a predictive factor for postoperative relapse in patients with stage II colon cancer.

METHODS

The present study retrospectively investigated 169 patients who underwent curative surgical resection of stage II colon cancer. The fibrotic stroma was classified according to Ueno's criteria, and the patients were divided into the myxoid (MY) group and the non-MY (NMY) group. We also recorded tumor budding (TB) and investigated the combination of MY and TB for postoperative relapse. Postoperative survival was also explored.

RESULTS

Thirty-two (18.9%) patients had MY. MY was significantly associated with tumor budding (TB) and postoperative relapse (p <  0.001 and p <  0.001, respectively). The 5-year RFS rates in MY group and NMY group were 52.1 and 94.6% (p < 0.0001), and the 5-year OS rates in MY group and NMY group were 74.6 and 93.3% (p = 0.001). Multivariate analysis showed that both MY and TB were significant risk factors for postoperative relapse (p < 0.001 and p = 0.02, respectively), and that only TB was a significant risk factor for OS (p = 0.043). Furthermore, compared with patients with either one of MY or TB, patients with both MY and TB had postoperative relapse more frequently (11.4% vs. 53.8%).

CONCLUSIONS

The present study suggests that MY is a predictive marker for postoperative relapse in patients with stage II colon cancer.

Carcinoma-associated Fibroblasts are a Common Finding in the Microenvironment of HPV-positive Oropharyngeal Squamous Cell Carcinoma

The important role of the human papillomavirus (HPV) is widely established in oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma (OPSCC). The behavior of a OPSCCs especially induced by HPV might be influenced by the tissue microenvironment and its changes according to the tumor nature. Recognition of the role of the tumor microenvironment on the behavior of neoplastic cells has led to utilization of the microenvironment to use as therapeutic target. Carcinoma-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), the most abundant cells in the tumor microenvironment, show wide-spread expression of alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA). We focused on CAFs, its presence in OPSCC and the relationship with HPV for the first time. Expression of α-SMA protein in CAFs of the tumor microenvironment of the 44 formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue blocks from the primary tumor of OPSCC evaluated by immunohistochemistry between HPV-positive and HPV-negative tumors separated by nested polymerase chain reaction. In 44 samples 23 HPV-positive cases were detected. Statistically there were significant differences between histopathologic grade, percent and final score of α-SMA and HPV expression. Significant difference between HPV expression and inflammation, intensity, and clinical parameters was not identified in the present study. Our results indicate that CAFs are a common finding in the microenvironment of HPV-positive OPSCC and associated with higher histopathologic grade. Therapeutic strategies to use CAF-mediated drugs need to be considered and evaluated more for treatment of HPV-positive OPSCC.

Tumor infiltrating B-cells signal functional humoral immune responses in breast cancer

Tumor-infiltrating B-cells (TIL-B) in breast cancer (BC) have previously been associated with improved clinical outcomes; however, their role(s) in tumor immunity is not currently well known. This study confirms and extends the correlation between higher TIL-B densities and positive outcomes through an analysis of HER2-positive and triple-negative BC patients from the BIG 02-98 clinical trial (10yr mean follow-up). Fresh tissue analyses identify an increase in TIL-B density in untreated primary BC compared to normal breast tissues, which is associated with global, CD4+ and CD8+ TIL, higher tumor grades, higher proliferation and hormone receptor negativity. All B-cell differentiation stages are detectable but significant increases in memory TIL-B are consistently present. BC with higher infiltrates are specifically characterized by germinal center TIL-B, which in turn are correlated with TFH TIL and antibody-secreting TIL-B principally located in tertiary lymphoid structures. Some TIL-B also interact directly with tumor cells. Functional analyses reveal TIL-B are responsive to BCR stimulation ex vivo, express activation markers and produce cytokines and immunoglobulins despite reduced expression of the antigen-presenting molecules HLA-DR and CD40. Overall, these data support the concept that ongoing humoral immune responses are generated by TIL-B and help to generate effective anti-tumor immunity at the tumor site.

The prognostic role of tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes in oral squamous cell carcinoma: A meta-analysis

It has been suggested that tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) are associated with the progression of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). However, the prognostic value of TILs is inconclusive due to the heterogeneity of immune cells within the tumour microenvironment. In this meta-analysis, we aimed to assess the prognostic value of TILs in OSCC. The PubMed, Cochrane, Embase, Scopus and Web of Science databases were searched up to April 20, 2019, and 33 studies were ultimately included in this meta-analysis. Our pooled meta-analysis showed that high infiltration of CD8⁺ TILs, CD45RO⁺ TILs and CD57⁺ TILs favoured better overall survival (OS). However, high infiltration of CD68⁺ macrophages and CD163⁺ macrophages was associated with poor prognosis in OSCC. These findings suggest that CD8⁺ TILs, CD45RO⁺ TILs, CD57⁺ TILs, CD68⁺ macrophages and CD163⁺ macrophages might serve as novel prognostic factors and therapeutic targets in OSCC.

Tissue-infiltrating immune cells as prognostic markers in oral squamous cell carcinoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Various immune cells have been suggested as prognostic markers for cancer patients. In this article, we present a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies assessing the prognostic value of tissue-infiltrating immune cells in oral cancer and discuss the reporting quality of these studies.

Methods

We performed a systematic literature search and included studies using immunohistochemistry and survival analysis to assess the prognostic value of tumour-infiltrating T cells, B cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, mast cells and natural killer cells in oral cancer. We performed meta-analysis of studies providing necessary statistical data and investigated the studies’ adherence to the REporting recommendations for tumour MARKer prognostic studies (REMARK) guidelines.

Results

Of the 1960 articles identified, 33 were eligible for this systematic review and 8 were included in the meta-analysis. CD163+ M2 macrophages and CD57+ natural killer cells were the most promising predictors of survival in oral cancer patients. Many studies lacked important information on their design and conduct.

Conclusion

Deficiencies in the reporting of study design and conduct make it difficult to draw reliable conclusions about the suggested markers. The prognostic value of CD163+ M2 macrophages and CD57+ natural killer cells should be validated in large, standardised studies.

Prognostic Significance of Tumor-Infiltrating B Cells and Plasma Cells in Human Cancer

There is abundant evidence that tumor-infiltrating CD8⁺ T cells contribute positively to antitumor immunity; however, the role of tumor-infiltrating B cells (TIL-B) and plasma cells (PC) remains controversial, leading to differing opinions about whether immunotherapies should be designed to enhance or inhibit these cells. Through a comprehensive PubMed search, we reviewed publications with cohorts of 50 or more cases in which the prognostic value of TIL-B/PC was assessed by immunohistochemistry and/or gene-expression analysis. Sixty-nine studies representing 19 cancers met our review criteria. The large majority of studies assessed TIL-B by immunohistochemical detection of CD20. Of these, 50.0% reported a positive prognostic effect for CD20⁺ TIL-B, whereas the remainder found a neutral (40.7%) or negative (9.3%) effect. These differences in prognostic effect were not attributable to cancer type, other clinicopathologic factors, or differing technical approaches. The prognostic significance of TIL-B/PC was generally concordant with that of CD3⁺ and/or CD8⁺ T cells, and the prognostic effect of T cells was generally stronger when TIL-B and/or PC were also present. Additionally, 21 studies inferred the presence of TIL-B/PC from gene-expression data, and a large majority reported a positive prognostic effect. Although more studies are required involving additional cancer types and independent patient cohorts, the weight of evidence supports a positive role for TIL-B and PC in antitumor immunity, suggesting that enhancement of these responses should be considered in the design of cancer immunotherapies.

CRBP-1 over-expression is associated with poor prognosis in tongue squamous cell carcinoma

Background

Tongue squamous cell carcinoma (TSCC) is one of the most common malignancies of oral squamous cell carcinomas. Cellular retinol binding protein-1 (CRBP-1) as a carrier protein transports retinol from the liver storage site to peripheral tissue. Up-regulated expression of CRBP-1 is associated with some tumor types such as prostate cancer, breast cancer and ovarian cancer as reported, but its role in TSCC remains uncertain.

Methods

In this study, an integrated bioinformatics analysis based on the multiple cancer microarray data sets available from Oncomine database was conducted to view the differential expression of CRBP-1 between TSCC and the adjacent non-tumorous tissues. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), western blotting (WB) and immunohistochemical (IHC) assays were performed to investigate CRBP-1 expression in 101 paraffin-embeded TSCC tissues and 48 pairs of freshly frozen tissues. Kaplan-Meier curve and univariate and multivariate Cox-regression analysis were used to estimate the association between CRBP-1 expression and patients’ prognosis. Then western blotting, MTT, transwell migration and invasion assays were performed in TSCC cell lines to investigate the effects of CRBP-1 on cellular proliferation and invasion.

Results

Compared with the matched adjacent non-tumorous tissues, the expression of CRBP-1 was significantly up-regulated in TSCC tissues, which correlated with the differentiation state (P = 0.003), N classification (P = 0.048), the clinical stage (P = 0.048) and death (P = 0.001). The Kaplan-Meier curve showed that TSCC patients with higher CRBP-1 expression levels had lower overall survival rates than those with lower CRBP-1 expression levels. A univariate and multivariate analysis demonstrated that CRBP-1 was an independent prognostic factor (P < 0.05). Furthermore, we knocked down CRBP-1 expression and observed that TSCC cell proliferation and invasion in vitro were significantly blocked, as determined by MTT and transwell assays.

Conclusions

Up-regulated expression of CRBP-1 is associated with poor prognosis in TSCC, so it might potentially serve as an additional prognostic marker, and the inhibition of CRBP-1 might provide new therapeutic approaches for TSCC.

Identification of Key Genes and Pathways in Tongue Squamous Cell Carcinoma Using Bioinformatics Analysis

BACKGROUND Tongue squamous cell carcinoma (TSCC) is a major type of oral cancers and has remained an intractable cancer over the past decades. The aim of this study was to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs) during TSCC and reveal their potential mechanisms. MATERIAL AND METHODS The gene expression profiles of GSE13601 were downloaded from the GEO database. The GSE13601 dataset contains 57 samples, including 31 tongue SCC samples and 26 matched normal mucosa samples. Gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway (KEGG) enrichment analyses were performed; Cytoscape software was used for the protein-protein interaction (PPI) network and module analysis of the DEGs. RESULTS We identified a total of 1,050 upregulated DEGs (uDEGs) and 702 downregulated DEGs (dDEGs) of TSCC. The GO analysis results showed that uDEGs were significantly enriched in the following biological processes (BP): signal transduction, positive or negative regulation of cell proliferation, and negative regulation of cell proliferation. The dDEGs were significantly enriched in the following biological processes: signal transduction, cell adhesion, and apoptotic process. The KEGG pathway analysis showed that uDEGs were enriched in metabolic pathways, pathways in cancer, and PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, while the dDEGs were enriched in focal adhesion and ECM-receptor interaction. The top centrality hub genes RAC1, APP, EGFR, KNG1, AGT, and HRAS were identified from the PPI network. Module analysis revealed that TSCC was associated with significant pathways, including neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction, calcium signaling pathway, and chemokine signaling pathway. CONCLUSIONS The present study identified key genes and signal pathways, which deepen our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of carcinogenesis and development of the disease, and might be used as diagnostic and therapeutic molecular biomarkers for TSCC.

MicroRNA‑509 acts as a tumor suppressor in tongue squamous cell carcinoma by targeting epidermal growth factor receptor

Tongue squamous cell carcinoma (TSCC) is the most frequent type of oral carcinoma, and is characterized by high metastatic and growth capabilities. Previous studies have demonstrated that aberrantly expressed cancer‑associated microRNAs (miRs) may be associated with tumorigenesis and tumor development in various types of cancer, including TSCC. miR‑509 has been identified as a critical regulator in tumorigenesis and tumor development, via its tumor‑suppressing actions in several types of human cancer. In the present study, miR‑509 expression in TSCC tissues and cell lines was determined by reverse transcription‑quantitative polymerase chain reaction. The effects of miR‑509 on TSCC cell proliferation and invasion were evaluated via MTT and invasion assays, respectively. In addition, the direct target of miR‑509 in TSCC was investigated. The present study demonstrated that miR‑509 expression was downregulated in TSCC tissue samples and cell lines, whereas its ectopic expression suppressed TSCC cell proliferation and invasion in vitro. In addition, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) was identified as a direct target gene of miR‑509 in TSCC cells. EGFR downregulation was demonstrated to suppress the proliferation and invasion of TSCC cells, similar to miR‑509 overexpression. Furthermore, EGFR was significantly upregulated in TSCC tissues, and the levels of miR‑509 were revealed to be negatively correlated with EGFR expression in TSCC tissues. Following transfection with miR‑509 mimics, signaling pathways downstream of EGFR appeared to be suppressed, as phosphorylated (p)‑extracellular signal‑regulated kinase and p‑Akt were downregulated in TSCC cells. In conclusion, the results of the present study suggested that miR‑509 may inhibit the proliferation and invasion of TSCC cells via directly targeting EGFR, thus suggesting that the miR‑509/EGFR axis may have potential as a novel therapeutic target for the development of a treatment for patients with TSCC.

Overexpression of α-sma-positive fibroblasts (CAFs) in Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Predicts Poor Prognosis

Purpose: The aim of this study is to investigate the differential expression of α-sma-positive fibroblasts (CAFs) in nasopharyngeal carcinomas (NPCs), nasopharyngitis, metastatic tissues of NPCs and its prognostic value in NPCs.

Methods: The expression of α-sma-labeled CAFs in 85 NPCs, 32 nasopharyngitis and 12 metastatic tissues of NPCs was detected by immunohistochemical method. The relationship between CAFs and clinicopathological parameters of NPCs was analyzed.

Results: The high density of CAFs in the NPCs, nasopharyngitis and metastatic tissues of NPCs group were 41.2% (35/85), 6.2% (2/32) and 83.3% (10/12), and a significant difference was showed among these three groups (P<0.05). Chi-square test showed that there was no significant correlation between the density of CAFs and gender, age, N stage, treatment (P>0.05), but closely correlated with T stage and relapse (P<0.05). Kaplan-Meier survival analysis showed that the mean overall survival of high-density and low-density CAFs was 86.8 months and 127.0 months, respectively. Correspondingly, the 5-year survival rates were 57.1% (20/35) and 90.0% (45/50), and there were inversely statistical differences between two groups (P<0.05). Cox multivariate analysis showed that the density of CAFs could be used as an independent prognostic factor for the survival of NPC patients (P<0.05).

Conclusions: The density of CAFs could be closely related to the metastasis of NPCs, and also is an efficient prediction factor of poor survival in patients with NPCs.

The roles and applications of autoantibodies in progression, diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of human malignant tumours

The existence of autoantibodies towards an individual's own proteins or nucleic acids has been established for more than 100years, and for a long period, these autoantibodies have been believed to be closely associated with autoimmune diseases. However, in recent years, researchers have become more interested in the role and application of autoantibodies in progression, diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of human malignant tumours. Over the past few decades, numerous epidemiological studies have shown that the risk of certain cancers is significantly altered (increased or decreased) in patients with autoimmune diseases, which suggests that autoantibodies may play either promoting or suppressing roles in cancer progression. The idea that autoantibodies are directly involved in tumour progression gains special support by the findings that some antibodies secreted by a variety of cancer cells can promote their proliferation and metastasis. Because the cancer cells generate cell antigenic changes (neoantigens), which trigger the immune system to produce autoantibodies, serum autoantibodies against tumour-associated antigens have been established as a novel type of cancer biomarkers and have been extensively studied in different types of cancer. The autoantibodies as biomarkers in cancer diagnosis are not only more sensitive and specific than antigens, but also could appear before clinical evidences of the tumours, thus disclosing them. The observations that cancer risk is lower in patients with some autoimmune diseases suggest that certain autoantibodies may be protective from certain cancers. Moreover, the presence of autoantibodies in healthy individuals implies that it could be safe to employ autoantibodies to treat cancer. Of note, an autoantibodies derived from lupus murine model received much attention due to their selective cytotoxicity for malignant tumour cell without harming normal ones. These studies showed the therapeutic value of autoantibodies in cancer. In this review, we revisited the pathological or protective role of autoantibodies in cancer progression, summarize the application of autoantibodies in cancer diagnosis and prognosis, and discuss the value of autoantibodies in cancer therapy. The studies established to date suggest that autoantibodies not only regulate cancer progression but also promise to be valuable instruments in oncological diagnosis and therapy.

Applications of Immunogenomics to Cancer

Cancer immunogenomics originally was framed by research supporting the hypothesis that cancer mutations generated novel peptides seen as "non-self" by the immune system. The search for these "neoantigens" has been facilitated by the combination of new sequencing technologies, specialized computational analyses, and HLA binding predictions that evaluate somatic alterations in a cancer genome and interpret their ability to produce an immune-stimulatory peptide. The resulting information can characterize a tumor's neoantigen load, its cadre of infiltrating immune cell types, the T or B cell receptor repertoire, and direct the design of a personalized therapeutic.

MicroRNA-137 suppresses tongue squamous carcinoma cell proliferation, migration and invasion

OBJECTIVES

Tongue squamous cell carcinoma (TSCC) is the most frequent type of oral malignancy. Increasing evidence has shown that miRNAs play key roles in many biological processes such as cell development, invasion, proliferation, differentiation, metabolism, apoptosis and migration.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

qRT-PCR analysis was performed to measure miR-137 expression. CCK-8 analysis, cell colony formation, wound-healing analysis and invasion were performed to detect resultant cell functions. The direct target of miR-137 was labelled and measured by luciferase assay and Western blotting.

RESULTS

We demonstrated that expression of miR-137 was downregulated in TSCC tissues compared to matched normal ones. miR-137 expression was downregulated in TSCC lines (SCC4, SCC1, UM1 and Cal27) compared to the immortalized NOK16B cell line and normal oral keratinocytes in culture (NHOK). In addition, we have shown that miR-137 expression was epigenetically regulated in TSCCs. Overexpression of miR-137 suppressed TSCC proliferation and colony formation. Ectopic expression of miR-137 promoted expression of the epithelial biomarker, E-cadherin, and inhibited the mesenchymal biomarker, N-cadherin, as well as vimentin and Snail expression, indicating that miR-137 suppressed TSCC epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). We also showed that ectopic expression of miR-137 inhibited TSCC invasion and migration. In addition, we identified SP1 as a direct target gene of miR-137 in SCC1 cells. SP1 overexpression rescued inhibitory effects exerted by miR-137 on cell proliferation and EMT.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that miR-137 acted as a tumour suppressor in TSCC by targeting SP1.