Analysis of Mycotoxins and Cytotoxicity of Airborne Molds Isolated from the Zoological Garden-Screening Research

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this paper was to assess the airborne mold contamination, secondary metabolite profiles, and cytotoxicity of the dominant fungal species isolated from the air in selected rooms at a Zoological Garden.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fungal concentrations were measured with MAS-100 air samplers. The collected airborne fungi were identified using a combination of morphological and molecular methods. The cytotoxicity of 84 strains belonging to two Penicillium and Aspergillus genera was determined using the quantitative colorimetric MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium salt) assay. The mycotoxins were detected using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a mass spectrometry detector.

RESULTS

The ITS gene was amplified and sequenced to identify the 132 species. For mycotoxicological and cytotoxicity analyses, 52 Penicillium isolates and 32 Aspergillus representatives were selected. Cytotoxicity was confirmed in 97.6% of cases analyzed. Using the LC-MS/MS method, 42 out of 84 strains produced at least one of the following toxins: ochratoxin A, ochratoxin B, patulin, gliotoxin, roquefortine C, griseofulvin, sterigmatocystin, fumonisin B2, moniliformin, and mycophenolic acid.

CONCLUSIONS

Analytical methods for assessing the presence of mycotoxins in fungal isolates collected directly from the air have proven to be an effective tool. Our research provides new information on the occurrence of potentially toxin-producing molds within a zoo.

One Health Approach to Tackle Microbial Contamination on Poultries-A Systematic Review

This study reports the search of available data published regarding microbial occupational exposure assessment in poultries, following the PRISMA methodology. Air collection through filtration was the most frequently used. The most commonly used passive sampling method was material collection such as dust, cages, soils, sediment, and wastewater. Regarding assays applied, the majority of studies comprised culture-based methods, but molecular tools were also frequently used. Screening for antimicrobial susceptibility was performed only for bacteria; cytotoxicity, virological and serological assays were also performed. Most of the selected studies focused on bacteria, although fungi, endotoxins, and β-glucans were also assessed. The only study concerning fungi and mycotoxins reported the carcinogenic mycotoxin AFB1. This study gives a comprehensive overview of microbial contamination in the poultry industry, emphasizing this setting as a potential reservoir of microbial pathogens threatening human, animal, and environmental health. Additionally, this research helps to provide a sampling and analysis protocol proposal to evaluate the microbiological contamination in these facilities. Few articles were found reporting fungal contamination in poultry farms worldwide. In addition, information concerning fungal resistance profile and mycotoxin contamination remain scarce. Overall, a One Health approach should be incorporated in exposure assessments and the knowledge gaps identified in this paper should be addressed in further research.

Assessment of occupational and dietary exposures of feed handling workers to mycotoxins in rural areas from São Paulo, Brazil

In the current study, the occupational and dietary exposures of feed handling workers (N = 28) to aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), toxins T-2 and HT-2 were assessed for the first time in animal-producing farms and feed factories from São Paulo, Brazil. Mycotoxins in food (n = 244) and airborne dust (n = 27), as well as biomarkers in urine (n = 97) samples were determined by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. FBs were detected in all airborne dust samples, with concentrations ranging from 7.85 to 16,839 ng/m³. The mean probable daily intake (PDI) based on food data were 0.005, 0.769, 0.673 and 0.012 μg/kg of body weight (bw)/day for AFs, FBs, DON and ZEN, respectively. Mean PDI values obtained through urinary biomarkers were 0.29, 0.10, 0.50, 9.72 and 0.10 μg/kg body weight/day for AFB₁, DON, OTA, FB₁ and ZEN, respectively. The analyses based on urinary biomarkers revealed a potential health concern for OTA and FBs, although no potential health concern was observed with PDI calculated through food data. Results of this trial stress the need for preventive measures to avoid health risks of workers in Brazilian animal-producing farms and feed industries.

Human Biomonitoring of Selected Hazardous Compounds in Portugal: Part II—Lessons Learned on Mycotoxins

Human biomonitoring (HBM) data provide information on total exposure regardless of the route and sources of exposure. HBM studies have been applied to quantify human exposure to contaminants and environmental/occupational pollutants by means of determining the parent compounds, their metabolites, or even their reaction products in biological matrices. HBM studies performed among the Portuguese population are dispersed and limited. Thus, to overcome this knowledge gap, this work reviews the published Portuguese HBM information concerning mycotoxins detected in the urine, serum, milk, hair, and nails of different groups of the Portuguese population. This integrative approach to the available HBM data allows us to analyze the main determinants and patterns of exposure of the Portuguese population to the selected hazardous compounds, as well as to assess the potential health risks. We also aimed to identify the main difficulties and challenges of HBM through the analysis of the enrolled studies. Ultimately, this study aims to support national and European policies in promoting human health by summarizing the most important outcomes and lessons learned through the HBM studies carried out in Portugal.

Occupational risks and their implications for the health of poultry farmers

BACKGROUND

Poultry activity exposes workers to accidents and unhealthy conditions with physical, chemical, biological, ergonomic and psychological risks.

OBJECTIVE

The objective was to list risk factors in poultry farms in operational, behavioral, and environmental aspects.

METHODS

We evaluated poultry farm workers through quantitative and qualitative analysis applying a semi-structured online questionnaire containing 58 questions to identify risks in the workplace and health implications.

RESULTS

Most facilities were air-conditioned, workers performed their activities in a totally closed environment, with low light (1 to 10 lux), for more than 40 h/wk. Regarding accidents, 61%of workers claimed to have suffered some type of accident, 34%claimed to not use personal protection equipment, and 41%felt unable to perform their activities at some time due to health problems; handling animals and animal waste were the most significant biological risks; dust and ammonia corresponded to the most significant chemical risks; and electric shock, burns, and heat exposure were the most significant physical/accident risks.

CONCLUSIONS

Workers expose themselves daily to physical, chemical, biological, psychosocial, and ergonomic risks. These exposures often lead to symptoms such as stress, headache, eye and mucous membrane disorders, respiratory diseases, back and muscle pain, depression, and symptoms often associated with Sick Building Syndrome.

Investigating Multi-Mycotoxin Exposure in Occupational Settings: A Biomonitoring and Airborne Measurement Approach

Investigating workplace exposure to mycotoxins is of the utmost importance in supporting the implementation of preventive measures for workers. The aim of this study was to provide tools for measuring mycotoxins in urine and airborne samples. A multi-class mycotoxin method was developed in urine for the determination of aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin M1, ochratoxin A, ochratoxin α, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, α-zearalenol, β-zearalenol, fumonisin B1, HT2-toxin and T2-toxin. Analysis was based on liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry. Sample pre-treatments included enzymatic digestion and an online or offline sample clean-up step. The method was validated according to the European Medicines Agency guidance procedures. In order to estimate external exposure, air samples collected with a CIP 10 (Capteur Individuel de Particules 10) personal dust sampler were analyzed for the quantification of up to ten mycotoxins, including aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, fumonisin B1 and HT-2 toxin and T-2 toxin. The method was validated according to standards for workplace exposure to chemical and biological agents EN 482. Both methods, biomonitoring and airborne mycotoxin measurement, showed good analytical performances. They were successfully applied in a small pilot study to assess mycotoxin contamination in workers during cleaning of a grain elevator. We demonstrated that this approach was suitable for investigating occupational exposure to mycotoxins.

Occupational risk factors in health of broiler-farm workers: A systematic review

The present study aimed to identify gaps in literature regarding occupational risks to broiler farming workers. A systematic review was performed in which inclusion criteria were workers in poultry farms. The search was done between May and June 2019 with online papers. Keywords were "poultry farmer," "poultry worker," and "poultry workers" as terms of an axis of a theoretical framework. Results indicated as predominant topics lung diseases, nasal mucosa or paranasal sinus contamination, and aflatoxicosis. The identified gaps in scientific publications are related to mitigation of occupational risks. Prevalent described risks are associated to exposure to chemicals gases, vapors and aerosols, biological hazards (micro-organisms), ergonomic risks, wrong working posture, excessive body movement and inadequate behaviors. Preventive policies about poultry farmer's health and safety needs to be adopted to reduce potentially dangerous risk factors and increase productivity.

Mycotoxins feed contamination in a dairy farm - potential implications for milk contamination and workers' exposure in a One Health approach

BACKGROUND

Dairy farming feed can be contaminated with mycotoxins, affecting animals' health and milk quality. Dairy farming is also prone to occupational exposure to mycotoxins, and feed is recognized as a source of contamination in the workplace. An exploratory study was developed in a dairy farm located in Portugal intending to assess the mycotoxins present in the feed.

RESULTS

All the samples analyzed presented contamination by at least two mycotoxins and up to a maximum of 13 mycotoxins in the same sample. Zearalenone (ZEA) was detected in all the samples (n = 10) followed by deoxynivalenol (DON), which was reported in eight samples, and ochratoxin A (OTA), reported in five samples.

CONCLUSION

The results point to the possible contamination of milk by several mycotoxins and raise the possibility of occupational exposure to mycotoxins due to feed contamination. An adequate One Health approach for dairy production should address these issues through effective preventive actions such as avoiding the use of feed contaminated with mycotoxins. This represents an important challenge due to climate change. It requires proper attention and accurate management measures. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Characterization of Occupational Exposure To Fungal Burden in Portuguese Bakeries

Several studies reported adverse respiratory health effects in workers exposed to ambient contaminants in bakeries. The aim of this study was to examine worker exposure to fungi and mycotoxins in Portuguese bakeries in order to develop new policies in occupational health. Environmental samples such as air, surfaces, settled dust and electrostatic dust collector (EDC) were collected in 13 bakeries for fungal and mycotoxins assessment. Air samples obtained by impaction were performed applying malt extract agar (MEA) supplemented with chloramphenicol (0.05%) and dichloran glycerol (DG18) agar-based media. Air samples collected through impinger method were determined as well for fungal detection by molecular tools of Aspergillus sections and mycotoxins. The highest median value for fungal load was 1053 CFU·m-3 and 65.3% (32 out of 49) of the sampling sites displayed higher fungal load than limits imposed by the World Health Organization. Aspergillus genera was found in air, surface swabs and EDC. Molecular tools were effective in measuring Aspergillus section Fumigati in 22.4% on air, 27.8% on surface swabs and in 7.4% in EDC and Aspergillus section Versicolores in one air sample. All settled dust samples showed contamination with six to eight mycotoxins in each sample. The mycotoxins detected were deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol, monoacetoxyscirpenol, diacetoxyscirpenol, fumonisin B1, fumonisin B2, griseofulvin, HT2, ochratoxin A, ochratoxin B and mycophenolic acid. Industrial hygienists and exposure assessors should rely on different sampling methods (active and passive) and different assays (culture based and molecular methods) to obtain an accurate risk characterization regarding fungal burden (fungi and mycotoxins). Additionally, the awareness for the raw material as a potential mycotoxins indoor contamination source is important.

The role of occupational Aspergillus exposure in the development of diseases

Aspergillus spp. have a high nutritional versatility and good growth on a large variety of construction materials. They also colonize soil or food, but decaying vegetation is their primary ecological niche. Therefore, exposure to fungi may occur at home, during hospitalization, during specific leisure activities, or at the workplace. The development of Aspergillus infections depends on the interplay between host susceptibility and the organism. Environments with high counts of fungal elements (conidia, hyphal fragments and others), high levels of bioarerosols, and elevated concentrations of mycotoxins or other volatile organic compounds should be considered as potential hazards, since they may present a risk to the exposed person. Rural tasks as well as work related to wood and food industries, poultries, swineries, waste handling plants, and other occupational environments involving contaminated organic material are among the ones posing higher respiratory risks to the workers. This paper presents a review of several studies related to occupational and indoor exposure to Aspergillus, potential health effects related to that exposure, and associated exposure assessment procedures.

Exposure Assessment to Mycotoxins in a Portuguese Fresh Bread Dough Company by Using a Multi-Biomarker Approach

Mycotoxins are toxic mold metabolites that can persist in environment long after the fungi species responsible for their production disappear. Critical workplace for mycotoxins presence has already been studied and nowadays it is possible to recognize that exposure to mycotoxins through inhalation occurs due to their presence in dust. This study aimed to assess occupational co-exposure to multiple mycotoxins in a fresh bread dough company, an occupational setting not studied until now. Occupational exposure assessment to mycotoxins was done using a LC-MS/MS urinary multi-biomarker approach. Twenty-one workers and nineteen individuals that were used as controls participated in the study. Workers/controls (spot-urine) and environment (settled dust) samples were collected and analyzed. Concerning workers group, DON-GlcA, and OTA were the most prevalent biomarkers (>LOD), 66% and 90.5%, respectively. In the control group, OTA was also one of the most detected (68%) followed by CIT (58%) and DON-GlcA (58%). DON was the mycotoxin measured in high amounts in the settled dust sample (58.2 ng/g). Both workers and controls are exposed to several mycotoxins simultaneously. The workers group, due to their high contact with flour dust, revealed a higher exposure to DON. Considering these results, risk management measures must be applied including specific and adequate health surveillance programs in order to avoid exposure and consequently the associated health consequences.

Climate change and the health impact of aflatoxins exposure in Portugal - an overview

Climate change has been indicated as a driver for food safety issues worldwide, mainly due to the impact on the occurrence of food safety hazards at various stages of food chain. Mycotoxins, natural contaminants produced by fungi, are among the most important of such hazards. Aflatoxins, which have the highest acute and chronic toxicity of all mycotoxins, assume particular importance. A recent study predicted aflatoxin contamination in maize and wheat crops in Europe within the next 100 years and aflatoxin B1 is predicted to become a food safety issue in Europe, especially in the most probable scenario of climate change (+2°C). This review discusses the potential influence of climate change on the health risk associated to aflatoxins dietary exposure of Portuguese population. We estimated the burden of disease associated to the current aflatoxin exposure for Portuguese population in terms of Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs). It is expected that in the future the number of DALYs and the associated cases of hepatocellular carcinoma due to aflatoxins exposure will increase due to climate change. The topics highlighted through this review, including the potential impact on health of the Portuguese population through the dietary exposure to aflatoxins, should represent an alert for the potential consequences of an incompletely explored perspective of climate change. Politics and decision-makers should be involved and committed to implement effective measures to deal with climate change issues and to reduce its possible consequences. This review constitutes a contribution for the prioritisation of strategies to face the unequal burden of effects of weather-related hazards in Portugal and across Europe.

Altered immune responses in broiler chicken husbandry workers and their association with endotoxin exposure

Exposure to bioaerosols in indoor animal farms associates with respiratory illnesses, but little is known about the immune modulation to chicken farmers. This study aimed to compare the general immunity of chicken farmers with those of control subjects with non-agricultural jobs. Blood taken from the farmers and controls was subjected to plasma IgE and IgG subclass measurements. Isolated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were stimulated and cytokine production was measured. Indoor total and respirable dust levels and their endotoxin (LPS) and aflatoxin (AF) levels in the farms were measured. In total, 29 chicken farmers on 19 farms and 14 age- and sex-matched office workers participated. Hematological differences were not observed. The farmers tended to have higher serum IgE and IgG subclass levels with significance for IgG1. The cytokines released by PBMC from farmers indicated skewing toward Type-2 helper T-cell responses: interferon (IFN)-γ:interleukin (IL)-4 and IFNγ:IL-13 ratios were significantly lower than for control PBMC. The farms had 707.1 EU/m3 LPS in total dust, and 15.8 EU/m3 LPS in respirable dust. Farmers exhibited immune skewing towards allergic immune responses that correlated with the LPS levels on their farms. Chicken farmers may be at risk of respiratory allergies due to occupational endotoxin exposure.

Engaging One Health for Non-Communicable Diseases in Africa: Perspective for Mycotoxins

The role of mycotoxins-e.g., aflatoxins, ochratoxins, trichothecenes, zearalenone, fumonisins, tremorgenic toxins, and ergot alkaloids-has been recognized in the etiology of a number of diseases. In many African countries, the public health impact of chronic (indoor) and/or repeated (dietary) mycotoxin exposure is largely ignored hitherto, with impact on human health, food security, and export of African agricultural food products. Notwithstanding, African scientific research reached milestones that, when linked to findings gained by the international scientific community, make the design and implementation of science-driven governance schemes feasible. Starting from Nigeria as leading African Country, this article (i) overviews available data on mycotoxins exposure in Africa; (ii) discusses new food safety issues, such as the environment-feed-food chain and toxic exposures of food producing animals in risk assessment and management; (iii) identifies milestones for mycotoxins risk management already reached in West Africa; and (iv) points out preliminary operationalization aspects for shielding communities from direct (on health) and indirect (on trade, economies, and livelihoods) effects of mycotoxins. An African science-driven engaging of scientific knowledge by development actors is expected therefore. In particular, One health/One prevention is suggested, as it proved to be a strategic and sustainable development framework.

Cytotoxic and Inflammatory Potential of Air Samples from Occupational Settings with Exposure to Organic Dust

Organic dust and related microbial exposures are the main inducers of several respiratory symptoms. Occupational exposure to organic dust is very common and has been reported in diverse settings. In vitro tests using relevant cell cultures can be very useful for characterizing the toxicity of complex mixtures present in the air of occupational environments such as organic dust. In this study, the cell viability and the inflammatory response, as measured by the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα) and interleukin-1 β (IL-1β), were determined in human macrophages derived from THP-1 monocytic cells. These cells were exposed to air samples from five occupational settings known to possess high levels of contamination of organic dust: poultry and swine feed industries, waste sorting, poultry production and slaughterhouses. Additionally, fungi and particle contamination of those settings was studied to better characterize the organic dust composition. All air samples collected from the assessed workplaces caused both cytotoxic and pro-inflammatory effects. The highest responses were observed in the feed industry, particularly in swine feed production. This study emphasizes the importance of measuring the organic dust/mixture effects in occupational settings and suggests that differences in the organic dust content may result in differences in health effects for exposed workers.

Occupational Exposure to Aflatoxin B1 in a Portuguese Poultry Slaughterhouse

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a secondary metabolite produced by the fungi Aspergillus flavus and is the most potent hepatocarcinogen known in mammals and has been classified by the International Agency of Research on Cancer as Group 1 carcinogen. Although dietary exposure to AFB1 has been extensively documented, there are still few studies dedicated to the problem of occupational exposure. Considering recent findings regarding AFB1 occupational exposure in poultry production, it was considered relevant to clarify if there is also exposure in poultry slaughterhouses. Occupational exposure assessment to AFB1 was done with a biomarker of internal dose that measures AFB1 in the serum by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Thirty workers from a slaughterhouse were enrolled in this study. A control group (n = 30) was also considered in order to know AFB1 background levels for Portuguese population. Fourteen workers (47.0%) showed detectable levels of AFB1 with values from 1.06 to 4.03ng ml(-1), with a mean value of 1.73ng ml(-1). No AFB1 was detected in serum of individuals used as controls. Despite uncertainties regarding the exposure route that is contributing more to exposure (inhalation or dermal) is possible to state that exposure to AFB1 is occurring in the slaughterhouse studied. It seems that reducing AFB1 contamination in poultry production can have a positive result in this occupational setting.

Assessment of workers' exposure to aflatoxin B1 in a Portuguese waste industry

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is considered by different International Agencies as a genotoxic and potent hepatocarcinogen. However, despite the fact that the fungi producing this compound are detected in some work environments, AFB1 is rarely monitored in occupational settings. The aim of the present investigation was to assess exposure to AFB1 of workers from one Portuguese waste company located in the outskirt of Lisbon. Occupational exposure assessment to AFB1 was done with a biomarker of internal dose that measures AFB1 in the serum by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Forty-one workers from the waste company were enrolled in this study (26 from sorting; 9 from composting; 6 from incineration). A control group (n = 30) was also considered in order to know the AFB1 background levels for the Portuguese population. All the workers showed detectable levels of AFB1 with values ranging from 2.5ng ml(-1) to 25.9ng ml(-1) with a median value of 9.9±5.4ng ml(-1). All of the controls showed values below the method's detection limit. Results obtained showed much higher (8-fold higher) values when compared with other Portuguese settings already studied, such as poultry and swine production. Besides this mycotoxin, other mycotoxins are probably present in this occupational setting and this aspect should be taken into consideration for the risk assessment process due to possible synergistic reactions. The data obtained suggests that exposure to AFB1 occurs in a waste management setting and claims attention for the need of appliance of preventive and protective safety measures.