Mitigation of Mycotoxins in Food-Is It Possible?

Among microorganisms found in food, fungi stand out because they are adaptable and competitive in a large range of water activities, temperatures, pHs, humidities and substrate types. Besides sporulating, some species are toxigenic and produce toxic metabolites, mycotoxins, under adverse biotic and abiotic variables. Microorganisms are inactivated along the food chain, but mycotoxins have stable structures and remain in ready-to-eat food. The most prevalent mycotoxins in food, which are aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxin A, patulin, tenuazonic acid, trichothecenes and zearalenone, have maximum tolerable limits (MTLs) defined as ppb and ppt by official organizations. The chronic and acute toxicities of mycotoxins and their stability are different in a chemical family. This critical review aims to discuss promising scientific research that successfully mitigated levels of mycotoxins and focus the results of our research group on this issue. It highlights the application of natural antifungal compounds, combinations of management, processing parameters and emergent technologies, and their role in reducing the levels and bioaccessibility. Despite good crop management and processing practices, total decontamination is almost impossible. Experimental evidence has shown that exposure to mycotoxins may be mitigated. However, multidisciplinary efforts need to be made to improve the applicability of successful techniques in the food supply chain to avoid mycotoxins' impact on global food insecurity.

Changing climate, shifting mycotoxins: A comprehensive review of climate change impact on mycotoxin contamination

Climate change (CC) is a complex phenomenon that has the potential to significantly alter marine, terrestrial, and freshwater ecosystems worldwide. Global warming of 2°C is expected to be exceeded during the 21st century, and the frequency of extreme weather events, including floods, storms, droughts, extreme temperatures, and wildfires, has intensified globally over recent decades, differently affecting areas of the world. How CC may impact multiple food safety hazards is increasingly evident, with mycotoxin contamination in particular gaining in prominence. Research focusing on CC effects on mycotoxin contamination in edible crops has developed considerably throughout the years. Therefore, we conducted a comprehensive literature search to collect available studies in the scientific literature published between 2000 and 2023. The selected papers highlighted how warmer temperatures are enabling the migration, introduction, and mounting abundance of thermophilic and thermotolerant fungal species, including those producing mycotoxins. Certain mycotoxigenic fungal species, such as Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium graminearum, are expected to readily acclimatize to new conditions and could become more aggressive pathogens. Furthermore, abiotic stress factors resulting from CC are expected to weaken the resistance of host crops, rendering them more vulnerable to fungal disease outbreaks. Changed interactions of mycotoxigenic fungi are likewise expected, with the effect of influencing the prevalence and co-occurrence of mycotoxins in the future. Looking ahead, future research should focus on improving predictive modeling, expanding research into different pathosystems, and facilitating the application of effective strategies to mitigate the impact of CC.

Phytochemicals reduced growth, sporulation and conidial dimensions of Fusarium verticillioides, cause of fumonisin contamination in maize grains

The objective of the study was to evaluate the effectiveness of methanolic extracts of plants against radial growth and spore dimensions of Fusarium verticillioides. Leaf extracts of 25 plants were tested against the fungus. Of which, thirteen extracts were potent against the fungus and evaluated using food poising technique. Growth was evaluated on PDA medium amended with the extracts at 5 mg ml-1. Control treatments included plates without (negative) extracts and with synthetic (positive) fungicide. Spore dimension was determined using PDB. The results showed T. vulgaris extract completely inhibited mycelial growth of the fungus as equivalent as the fungicide. Similarly, G. parviflora, C. citratus, R. officinalis, R. chalepensis, and Agave sp. also recorded growth reductions ranging from 71.04 to 81.35 % at day seven. In addition, extracts of Agave sp., C. citratus and T. vulgaris did not support sporulation. Overall, the results indicate that T. vulgaris extracts could be safe source of bioactive chemicals to control F. verticillioides.

Fungal and Toxin Contaminants in Cereal Grains and Flours: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Cereal grains serve as the cornerstone of global nutrition, providing a significant portion of humanity's caloric requirements. However, the presence of fungal genera, such Fusarium, Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Alternaria, known for their mycotoxin-producing abilities, presents a significant threat to human health due to the adverse effects of these toxins. The primary objective of this study was to identify the predominant fungal contaminants in cereal grains utilized in breadmaking, as well as in flour and bread. Moreover, a systematic review, including meta-analysis, was conducted on the occurrence and levels of mycotoxins in wheat flour from the years 2013 to 2023. The genera most frequently reported were Fusarium, followed by Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Alternaria. Among the published reports, the majority focused on the analysis of Deoxynivalenol (DON), which garnered twice as many reports compared to those focusing on Aflatoxins, Zearalenone, and Ochratoxin A. The concentration of these toxins, in most cases determined by HPLC-MS/MS or HPLC coupled with a fluorescence detector (FLD), was occasionally observed to exceed the maximum limits established by national and/or international authorities. The prevalence of mycotoxins in flour samples from the European Union (EU) and China, as well as in foods intended for infants, exhibited a significant reduction compared to other commercial flours assessed by a meta-analysis investigation.

Fusarium Head Blight on Wheat: Biology, Modern Detection and Diagnosis and Integrated Disease Management

Fusarium head blight (FHB) is a major threat for wheat production worldwide. Most reviews focus on Fusarium graminearum as a main causal agent of FHB. However, different Fusarium species are involved in this disease complex. These species differ in their geographic adaptation and mycotoxin profile. The incidence of FHB epidemics is highly correlated with weather conditions, especially rainy days with warm temperatures at anthesis and an abundance of primary inoculum. Yield losses due to the disease can reach up to 80% of the crop. This review summarizes the Fusarium species involved in the FHB disease complex with the corresponding mycotoxin profiles, disease cycle, diagnostic methods, the history of FHB epidemics, and the management strategy of the disease. In addition, it discusses the role of remote sensing technology in the integrated management of the disease. This technology can accelerate the phenotyping process in the breeding programs aiming at FHB-resistant varieties. Moreover, it can support the decision-making strategies to apply fungicides via monitoring and early detection of the diseases under field conditions. It can also be used for selective harvest to avoid mycotoxin-contaminated plots in the field.

Modified Mycotoxins, a Still Unresolved Issue

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by filamentous microfungi on almost every agricultural commodity worldwide. After the infection of crop plants, mycotoxins are modified by plant enzymes or other fungi and often conjugated to more polar substances, like sugars. The formed—often less toxic—metabolites are stored in the vacuole in soluble form or bound to macromolecules. As these substances are usually not detected during routine analysis and no maximum limits are in force, they are called modified mycotoxins. While, in most cases, modified mycotoxins have lower intrinsic toxicity, they might be reactivated during mammalian metabolism. In particular, the polar group might be cleaved off (e.g., by intestinal bacteria), releasing the native mycotoxin. This review aims to provide an overview of the critical issues related to modified mycotoxins. The main conclusion is that analytical aspects, toxicological evaluation, and exposure assessment merit more investigation.

Mycotoxins occurrence in milk and cereals in North African countries - a review

North African countries; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia suffer from mycotoxin contamination. Various studies have indicated the presence of mycotoxins in raw milk and cereals (i.e. wheat, barley, maize and cereal-based products). Aflatoxins (AFs), Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), Ochratoxin A (OTA), Fumonisin (FB1) and Zearalenone (ZEN)-mycotoxin are the most detected due to climatic change in the region. In this review, we will present the kind of foods and feeds cereals and milk based products contaminated and the level of their contaminated mycotoxin. On the other hand, researchers try to find biologic methods to remove/mitigate mycotoxins in food and feed using bio-products. But the research works concerning legislations and mycotoxin risk assessment still rare. Therefore, it appears necessary to make review on the current status of mycotoxins in North African countries in order to explore data related to contamination of basic food in this region and to highlight the problem to the policy-makers to establish a serious legislation on this matter. On the other hand, to give more information to the worldwide readers about the impact of climate change on the food and feed pollution on mycotoxins in the Mediterranean Sea region.

Multimycotoxin Determination in Grains: A Comprehensive Study on Method Validation and Assessment of Effectiveness of Controlled Atmosphere Storage in Preventing Mycotoxin Contamination

Two simple and low-cost QuEChERS approaches were optimized and validated for multimycotoxin determination in grains by UPLC-MS/MS and applied to assess effectiveness of controlled atmosphere (CA) storage in preventing mycotoxin contamination. Common bean, soybean, and maize samples were stored for 6 months. CA treatments were conducted varying O₂ and CO₂ partial pressures, temperatures, and moisture contents of the chambers. In the validation study for common bean and maize, 8 out of 11 mycotoxins were successfully validated. For soybean, 10 out of 11 mycotoxins were validated. Aflatoxin B1 was detected in all commodities. Statistical tests suggest that storage temperature played a key role in aflatoxin B1 concentrations in common bean and soybean, but had no influence on maize. Maize was also positive for fumonisins B1 and B2. Differences in fumonisin concentrations were not significant among different treatments. Concentrations of aflatoxin B1 in some samples exceeded legislation's maximum levels. Thus, some of the CA treatments applied were effective in preventing mycotoxin contamination in common bean and soybean but were not effective for maize.

Predicted Aflatoxin B1 Increase in Europe Due to Climate Change: Actions and Reactions at Global Level

Climate change (CC) is predicted to increase the risk of aflatoxin (AF) contamination in maize, as highlighted by a project supported by EFSA in 2009. We performed a comprehensive literature search using the Scopus search engine to extract peer-reviewed studies citing this study. A total of 224 papers were identified after step I filtering (187 + 37), while step II filtering identified 25 of these papers for quantitative analysis. The unselected papers (199) were categorized as “actions” because they provided a sounding board for the expected impact of CC on AFB₁ contamination, without adding new data on the topic. The remaining papers were considered as “reactions” of the scientific community because they went a step further in their data and ideas. Interesting statements taken from the “reactions” could be summarized with the following keywords: Chain and multi-actor approach, intersectoral and multidisciplinary, resilience, human and animal health, and global vision. In addition, fields meriting increased research efforts were summarized as the improvement of predictive modeling; extension to different crops and geographic areas; and the impact of CC on fungi and mycotoxin co-occurrence, both in crops and their value chains, up to consumers.

Sphinganine-Analog Mycotoxins (SAMs): Chemical Structures, Bioactivities, and Genetic Controls

Sphinganine-analog mycotoxins (SAMs) including fumonisins and A. alternata f. sp. Lycopersici (AAL) toxins are a group of related mycotoxins produced by plant pathogenic fungi in the Fusarium genus and in Alternaria alternata f. sp. Lycopersici, respectively. SAMs have shown diverse cytotoxicity and phytotoxicity, causing adverse impacts on plants, animals, and humans, and are a destructive force to crop production worldwide. This review summarizes the structural diversity of SAMs and encapsulates the relationships between their structures and biological activities. The toxicity of SAMs on plants and animals is mainly attributed to their inhibitory activity against the ceramide biosynthesis enzyme, influencing the sphingolipid metabolism and causing programmed cell death. We also reviewed the detoxification methods against SAMs and how plants develop resistance to SAMs. Genetic and evolutionary analyses revealed that the FUM (fumonisins biosynthetic) gene cluster was responsible for fumonisin biosynthesis in Fusarium spp. Sequence comparisons among species within the genus Fusarium suggested that mutations and multiple horizontal gene transfers involving the FUM gene cluster were responsible for the interspecific difference in fumonisin synthesis. We finish by describing methods for monitoring and quantifying SAMs in food and agricultural products.

Advances in Occurrence, Importance, and Mycotoxin Control Strategies: Prevention and Detoxification in Foods

Mycotoxins are toxic substances that can infect many foods with carcinogenic, genotoxic, teratogenic, nephrotoxic, and hepatotoxic effects. Mycotoxin contamination of foodstuffs causes diseases worldwide. The major classes of mycotoxins that are of the greatest agroeconomic importance are aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, trichothecenes, emerging Fusarium mycotoxins, enniatins, ergot alkaloids, Alternaria toxins, and patulin. Thus, in order to mitigate mycotoxin contamination of foods, many control approaches are used. Prevention, detoxification, and decontamination of mycotoxins can contribute in this purpose in the pre-harvest and post-harvest stages. Therefore, the purpose of the review is to elaborate on the recent advances regarding the occurrence of main mycotoxins in many types of important agricultural products, as well as the methods of inactivation and detoxification of foods from mycotoxins in order to reduce or fully eliminate them.

Occurrence and Risk Assessment of Fumonisin B1 and B2 Mycotoxins in Maize-Based Food Products in Hungary

Fumonisins are toxic secondary metabolites produced mainly by Fusarium verticillioides and Fusarium proliferatum. Their toxicity was evaluated, and health-based guidance values established on the basis of both Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) and European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) recommendations. This study presents the results of fumonisin analyses in different maize- and rice-based food products in Hungary and the potential health risk arising from their dietary intake. In total, 326 samples were measured in 2017 and 2018 to determine fumonisins B1 and B2 levels. Three-day dietary record data were collected from 4992 consumers, in 2009. For each food category, the average concentration values were multiplied by the relevant individual consumption data, and the results were compared to the reference values. With respect to the maximum limits, one maize flour, two maize grits, and two samples of other maize-based, snack-like products had total fumonisin content minimally exceeding the EU regulatory limit. The mean daily intake for all maize-product consumers was 0.045-0.120 µg/kg bw/day. The high intake (95 percentile) ranged between 0.182 and 0.396 µg/kg bw/day, well below the 1 µg/kg bw/day tolerable daily intake (TDI) established by EFSA. While the intake calculations resulted in comforting results, maize-based products may indeed be contaminated by fumonisins. Therefore, frequent monitoring of fumonisins' levels and evaluation of their intakes using the best available data are recommended.

Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium verticillioides Interaction: Modeling the Impact on Mycotoxin Production

The influence of climate change on agricultural systems has been generally accepted as having a considerable impact on food security and safety. It is believed that the occurrence of mycotoxins will be greatly affected by future climate scenarios and this has been confirmed by recent data. Temperature (T) and CO2 increases, variation in rain intensity and distribution, as well as extreme weather events, affect the dominant fungal species in different ways, depending on their ecological needs. Therefore, the aim of this work was to study Aspergillus flavus (Af) and Fusarium verticillioides (Fv) co-occurrence in vitro in order to collect quantitative data on the effect of fungal interaction on growth and mycotoxin production and develop functions for their description. Experimental trials were organized with the cited fungi grown alone or together. They were incubated at different T regimes (10-40°C, step 5°C) for 21 days. Fungal growth was measured weekly, while AFs and FBs were quantified at the end of the incubation period. Temperature and incubation time significantly affected fungal growth both for Af and Fv (p ≤ 0.01), and a significant interaction between T and the presence of one versus both fungi influenced the amount of AFs and FBs produced. Each fungus was affected by the presence of the other fungus; in particular, Af and Fv showed a decrease in colony diameter of 10 and 44%, respectively, when they were grown together, compared to alone. The same influence was not found for mycotoxin production. In fact, the dynamics of toxin production in different temperature regimes followed a comparable trend with fungi grown alone or together, but a significant impact of inoculum × temperature interaction was highlighted. Fungal growth and toxin production in different T regimes were well described, both for AFs and FBs, by a Bete function. These results are the first attempt to model mycotoxigenic fungal co-occurrence under several T regimes; this is essential in order to improve effective prediction of growth and mycotoxin production by such fungi.

Fumonisins: Impact on Agriculture, Food, and Human Health and their Management Strategies

The fumonisins producing fungi, Fusarium spp., are ubiquitous in nature and contaminate several food matrices that pose detrimental health hazards on humans as well as on animals. This has necessitated profound research for the control and management of the toxins to guarantee better health of consumers. This review highlights the chemistry and biosynthesis process of the fumonisins, their occurrence, effect on agriculture and food, along with their associated health issues. In addition, the focus has been put on the detection and management of fumonisins to ensure safe and healthy food. The main focus of the review is to provide insights to the readers regarding their health-associated food consumption and possible outbreaks. Furthermore, the consumers' knowledge and an attempt will ensure food safety and security and the farmers' knowledge for healthy agricultural practices, processing, and management, important to reduce the mycotoxin outbreaks due to fumonisins.

Lipids as Key Markers in Maize Response to Fumonisin Accumulation

The present field study offers new insights into the role played by plant lipid pathways in the modulation of fumonisin accumulation in maize. Untargeted metabolomics was applied to better understand the multifactorial plant-pathogen-interaction mechanisms, including host resistance. Our results showed a significant influence from the hybrid genotype and the environmental growing conditions on fumonisin accumulation. A total of 25 significant metabolites have been identified, with glycerophospholipid and linoleic acid metabolism as the main pathways affected by the plant-pathogen interactions. This evidence highlighted the crucial role played by lipid signaling as an integrated part of the complex regulatory network in plants.

Mycotoxins in uncooked and plate-ready household food from rural northern Nigeria

In order to understand the changes in toxic metabolite profiles in uncooked and cooked foods, samples of flour/grain (n = 40) and their corresponding plate-ready food (n = 39) were collected from 40 households in two states of northern Nigeria. The food samples were analyzed for multiple fungal metabolites by LC-MS/MS and daily intakes of mycotoxins in the diets were estimated and compared to established margin of exposure (MOE) and tolerable daily intake (TDI) values. Both food groups contained 65 fungal and plant metabolites, inclusive of 23 mycotoxins. The mean concentrations of aflatoxin B₁, beauvericin, fumonisin B₁ (FB₁), FB₂, FB₃, hydrolysed FB₁, moniliformin and nivalenol were significantly (p < 0.05) higher in flour than in the plate-ready food samples. The levels of several mycotoxins were higher in the flour samples than in plate-ready meals by 129-383%. The dilution effect from proportionate mixing of flour samples with water led to 48-100% reduction in detectable mycotoxins in flour to plate-ready meals. Aflatoxins and fumonisins co-occurred in 36% of the plate-ready foods. Exposures of households to aflatoxins and fumonisins based on 95% CI concentration of mycotoxins in the meals were high, suggesting potential health risks based on calculated low MOE and exceedence of stipulated TDI value, respectively.

Multi-(myco)toxins in Malting and Brewing By-Products

Fungi, yeasts, and bacteria are common microorganisms on cereals used in malting and brewing industries. These microorganisms are mostly associated with the safety and quality of malt and beer, but also with the health safety of by-products used in animal nutrition. The real problem is their harmful metabolites-toxins that, due to their thermostable properties, can easily be transferred to malting and brewing by-products. Besides fungal metabolites, other toxins originating from plants can be harmful to animal health. Precise and accurate analytical techniques broadened the spectrum of known toxins originating from microorganisms and plants that can pose a threat to animal health. Multi-(myco)toxin analyses are advanced and useful tools for the assessment of product safety, and legislation should follow up and make some important changes to regulate yet unregulated, but highly occurring, microbial and plant toxins in malting and brewing by-products used for animal feed.

Post-Harvest Contamination with Mycotoxins in the Context of the Geographic and Agroclimatic Conditions in Romania

This study aimed to assess post-harvest contamination with mycotoxins in the context of the geographic and agroclimatic conditions in Romania in 2012–2015, a period that was characterized by extreme meteorological events and the effects of climate change. The samples were randomly sampled from five agricultural regions of Romania and analyzed for mycotoxins by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. An SPSS analysis was done to explore correlations between mycotoxins (deoxynivalenol—DON, aflatoxins—AF, ochratoxin A—OTA, zearalenone—ZEA), product types (raw cereal, processed cereal, cereal-based food), geographic coordinates (latitude, longitude, agricultural region), and agroclimatic factors (air temperature, precipitation, soil moisture reserve, aridity index, soil type). In the southeast part of the Southern Plain and Dobrogea (Baragan Plain, located at 44–45° N, 26–27° E), contamination with AF and OTA was higher in raw and processed cereals (maize in silo, silo corn germs) in the dry years (2012 and 2013), and contamination with DON was high in processed cereals (wheat flour type 450) in the rainy year (2014). DON and OTA contamination were significantly correlated with cumulative precipitation in all years, while AF and ZEA contamination were non-significantly correlated with climatic factors and aridity indices. The distribution of mycotoxins by product type and the non-robust correlations between post-harvest mycotoxins and agrometeorological factors could be explained by the use of quality management systems that control cereal at warehouse receptions, performant processing technologies, and the quality of storage spaces of agri-food companies. The Baragan Plain is Romania’s most sensitive area to the predicted climate change in southeast Europe, which may be associated with its increased cereal contamination with AF and OTA.

Fumonisin occurrence in wheat-based products from Argentina

In Argentina, wheat is the most consumed cereal by the human population. Since fumonisins occurence in wheat grains and wheat-based products have been reported worldwide, a survey was conducted in order to determine fumonisin contamination in 91 wheat-based products (white wheat flour samples, wheat flour used at bakery products and whole-wheat flour samples) collected from different retail stores of Rio Cuarto city in Argentina using HPLC-MS/MS. Sixty-seven samples (74%) showed contamination by fumonisins. From these samples, 16 showed fumonisin levels between LOD and LOQ (between 0.01 to 0.05 ng/g), while fumonisins (FB₁ + FB₂) in quantifiable samples ranged from 0.05 ng/g to 18.9 ng/g. Although FB₁ was more prevalent, FB₂ was foun3d in higher levels than FB₁. Overall, fumonisin prevalence was high, but concentrations were far below EU or USA limits set for maize and maize-based products.

Yesterday masked, today modified; what do mycotoxins bring next?

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by toxigenic fungi in crops worldwide. In (micro)organisms such as plants, fungi, bacteria, or animals they may be further metabolised and modified, but this is also true for food processing, which may lead to a wide range of masked mycotoxin forms. These often remain undetected by analytical methods and are the culprits for underestimates in risk assessments. Furthermore, once ingested, modified mycotoxins can convert back to their parent forms. This concern has raised the need for analytical methods that can detect and quantify modified mycotoxins as essential for accurate risk assessment. The promising answer is liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. New masked mycotoxin forms are now successfully detected by iontrap, time-of-flight, or high-resolution orbitrap mass spectrometers. However, the toxicological relevance of modified mycotoxins has not been fully clarified.

Risks for animal health related to the presence of fumonisins, their modified forms and hidden forms in feed

Fumonisins, mycotoxins primarily produced by Fusarium verticillioides and Fusarium proliferatum, occur predominantly in cereal grains, especially in maize. The European Commission asked EFSA for a scientific opinion on the risk to animal health related to fumonisins and their modified and hidden forms in feed. Fumonisin B1 (FB 1), FB 2 and FB 3 are the most common forms of fumonisins in feedstuffs and thus were included in the assessment. FB 1, FB 2 and FB 3 have the same mode of action and were considered as having similar toxicological profile and potencies. For fumonisins, the EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) identified no-observed-adverse-effect levels (NOAELs) for cattle, pig, poultry (chicken, ducks and turkeys), horse, and lowest-observed-adverse-effect levels (LOAELs) for fish (extrapolated from carp) and rabbits. No reference points could be identified for sheep, goats, dogs, cats and mink. The dietary exposure was estimated on 18,140 feed samples on FB 1-3 representing most of the feed commodities with potential presence of fumonisins. Samples were collected between 2003 and 2016 from 19 different European countries, but most of them from four Member States. To take into account the possible occurrence of hidden forms, an additional factor of 1.6, derived from the literature, was applied to the occurrence data. Modified forms of fumonisins, for which no data were identified concerning both the occurrence and the toxicity, were not included in the assessment. Based on mean exposure estimates, the risk of adverse health effects of feeds containing FB 1-3 was considered very low for ruminants, low for poultry, horse, rabbits, fish and of potential concern for pigs. The same conclusions apply to the sum of FB 1-3 and their hidden forms, except for pigs for which the risk of adverse health effect was considered of concern.

Updated Overview of Infrared Spectroscopy Methods for Detecting Mycotoxins on Cereals (Corn, Wheat, and Barley)

Each year, mycotoxins cause economic losses of several billion US dollars worldwide. Consequently, methods must be developed, for producers and cereal manufacturers, to detect these toxins and to comply with regulations. Chromatographic reference methods are time consuming and costly. Thus, alternative methods such as infrared spectroscopy are being increasingly developed to provide simple, rapid, and nondestructive methods to detect mycotoxins. This article reviews research conducted over the last eight years into the use of near-infrared and mid-infrared spectroscopy to monitor mycotoxins in corn, wheat, and barley. More specifically, we focus on the Fusarium species and on the main fusariotoxins of deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and fumonisin B1 and B2. Quantification models are insufficiently precise to satisfy the legal requirements. Sorting models with cutoff levels are the most promising applications.