1
|
Robinson K, Duffield KR, Ramirez JL, Cohnstaedt LW, Ashworth A, Jesudhasan PR, Arsi K, Morales Ramos JA, Rojas MG, Crippen TL, Shanmugasundaram R, Vaughan M, Webster C, Sealey W, Purswell JL, Oppert B, Neven L, Cook K, Donoghue AM. MINIstock: Model for INsect Inclusion in sustainable agriculture: USDA-ARS's research approach to advancing insect meal development and inclusion in animal diets. JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 2024:toae130. [PMID: 38961669 DOI: 10.1093/jee/toae130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2024] [Revised: 05/23/2024] [Accepted: 06/05/2024] [Indexed: 07/05/2024]
Abstract
Animal agriculture is under pressure to increase efficiency, sustainability, and innovation to meet the demands of a rising global population while decreasing adverse environmental effects. Feed cost and availability are 2 of the biggest hurdles to sustainable production. Current diets depend on sources of grain and animal byproduct protein for essential amino acids which have limited sustainability. Insects have arisen as an attractive, sustainable alternative protein source for animal diets due to their favorable nutrient composition, low space and water requirements, and natural role in animal diets. Additionally, insects are capable of bioremediating waste streams including agricultural and food waste, manure, and plastics helping to increase their sustainability. The insect rearing industry has grown rapidly in recent years and shows great economic potential. However, state-of-the-art research is urgently needed to overcome barriers to adoption in commercial animal diets such as regulatory restrictions, production scale issues, and food safety concerns. To address this need, the USDA Agricultural Research Service "MINIstoc: Model for INsect Inclusion" project was created to bring together diverse scientists from across the world to synergistically advance insect meal production and inclusion in animal diets. Here, we provide a short review of insects as feed while describing the MINIstock project which serves as the inspiration for the Journal of Economic Entomology Special Collection "Insects as feed: sustainable solutions for food waste and animal production practices."
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Kristin R Duffield
- USDA-ARS, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Crop Bioprotection Research, Peoria, IL, USA
| | - José L Ramirez
- USDA-ARS, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Crop Bioprotection Research, Peoria, IL, USA
| | - Lee W Cohnstaedt
- USDA-ARS, National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility, Foreign Arthropod Borne Animal Disease Research, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Amanda Ashworth
- USDA-ARS, Poultry Production and Product Safety Research, Fayetteville, AR, USA
| | - Palmy R Jesudhasan
- USDA-ARS, Poultry Production and Product Safety Research, Fayetteville, AR, USA
| | - Komala Arsi
- USDA-ARS, Poultry Production and Product Safety Research, Fayetteville, AR, USA
| | - Juan A Morales Ramos
- USDA-ARS, National Biological Control Laboratory, Biological Control of Pests Research, Stoneville, MS, USA
| | - M Guadalupe Rojas
- USDA-ARS, National Biological Control Laboratory, Biological Control of Pests Research, Stoneville, MS, USA
| | - Tawni L Crippen
- USDA-ARS, Food and Feed Safety Research, College Station, TX, USA
| | | | - Martha Vaughan
- USDA-ARS, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Mycotoxin Prevention and Applied Microbiology Research, Peoria, IL, USA
| | - Carl Webster
- USDA-ARS, Aquatic Animal Health Research, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Wendy Sealey
- USDA-ARS, Bozeman Fish Technology Center, Bozeman, MT, USA
| | | | - Brenda Oppert
- USDA-ARS, Center for Grain and Animal Health Research, Stored Product Insect and Engineering Research, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Lisa Neven
- USDA-ARS, Temperate Tree Fruit and Vegetable Research, Wapato, WA, USA
| | - Kim Cook
- USDA-ARS, Beltsville, Beltsville, MD, USA
| | - Annie M Donoghue
- USDA-ARS, Poultry Production and Product Safety Research, Fayetteville, AR, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Lisboa HM, Nascimento A, Arruda A, Sarinho A, Lima J, Batista L, Dantas MF, Andrade R. Unlocking the Potential of Insect-Based Proteins: Sustainable Solutions for Global Food Security and Nutrition. Foods 2024; 13:1846. [PMID: 38928788 PMCID: PMC11203160 DOI: 10.3390/foods13121846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2024] [Revised: 06/05/2024] [Accepted: 06/10/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The present review highlights the potential of insect-based proteins to address the growing need for sustainable and secure food systems. The key findings suggest that edible insects offer a viable and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional livestock, requiring significantly less land, water, and feed while emitting lower levels of greenhouse gases. Insect farming can also reduce waste and recycle nutrients, supporting circular economy models. Nutritionally, insects provide high-quality protein, essential amino acids, and beneficial fats, making them valuable to human diets. Despite these benefits, this review emphasizes the need for comprehensive regulatory frameworks to ensure food safety, manage potential allergenicity, and mitigate contamination risks from pathogens and environmental toxins. Additionally, developing innovative processing technologies can enhance the palatability and marketability of insect-based products, promoting consumer acceptance. This review concludes that with appropriate regulatory support and technological advancements, insect-based proteins have the potential to significantly contribute to global food security and sustainability efforts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hugo M. Lisboa
- Unidade Academica Engenharia de Alimentos, Universidade Federal Campina Grande, Av. Aprigio Veloso, 882, Campina Grande 58429-900, PB, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
3
|
Janković-Tomanić M, Petković B, Vranković JS, Perić-Mataruga V. Effects of high doses of zearalenone on some antioxidant enzymes and locomotion of Tenebrio molitor larvae (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). JOURNAL OF INSECT SCIENCE (ONLINE) 2024; 24:6. [PMID: 38717261 PMCID: PMC11078044 DOI: 10.1093/jisesa/ieae052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Revised: 03/04/2024] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024]
Abstract
The mealworm Tenebrio molitor L. (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) feeds on wheat bran and is considered both a pest and an edible insect. Its larvae contain proteins and essential amino acids, fats, and minerals, making them suitable for animal and human consumption. Zearalenone (ZEA) is the mycotoxin most commonly associated with Fusarium spp. It is found in cereals and cereal products, so their consumption is a major risk for mycotoxin contamination. One of the most important effects of ZEA is the induction of oxidative stress, which leads to physiological and behavioral changes. This study deals with the effects of high doses of ZEA (10 and 20 mg/kg) on survival, molting, growth, weight gain, activity of antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione S-transferase (GST), and locomotion of mealworm larvae. Both doses of ZEA were found to (i) have no effect on survival, (ii) increase molting frequency, SOD, and GST activity, and (iii) decrease body weight and locomotion, with more pronounced changes at 20 mg/kg. These results indicated the susceptibility of T. molitor larvae to high doses of ZEA in feed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Milena Janković-Tomanić
- Department of Insect Physiology and Biochemistry, Institute for Biological Research “Siniša Stanković”—National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Despot Stefan Blvd. 142, 11108 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Branka Petković
- Department of Neurophysiology, Institute for Biological Research “Siniša Stanković”—National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Despot Stefan Blvd. 142, 11108 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Jelena S Vranković
- Department of Hydroecology and Water Protection, Institute for Biological Research “Siniša Stanković”—National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Despot Stefan Blvd. 142, 11108 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Vesna Perić-Mataruga
- Department of Insect Physiology and Biochemistry, Institute for Biological Research “Siniša Stanković”—National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Despot Stefan Blvd. 142, 11108 Belgrade, Serbia
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Lestingi A. Alternative and Sustainable Protein Sources in Pig Diet: A Review. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:310. [PMID: 38275770 PMCID: PMC10812645 DOI: 10.3390/ani14020310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2023] [Revised: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
The search for alternative protein sources to soybean meal (SBM) in animal feeding is a strategic objective to reduce production costs and contribute to sustainable animal production. Spirulina, due to the high protein content, has emerged as a potential cost-effective, sustainable, viable, and high-nutritional-value food resource for many animal species. Insect larvae (Tenebrio molitor and Hermetia illucens) are also considered potential alternatives to SBM, given their high edible percentage of almost 100%, as well as a protein value higher than that of vegetable proteins. Rapeseed meal and grain legumes, such as fava beans, peas, lupins, and chickpea, can also be used as locally producible protein ingredients. This study reviews the nutritional value of these potential alternatives to SBM in pig diets, and their effects on animal performance, digestion, immune system, and the physicochemical and sensorial characteristics of meat, including processed pork products. The limits on their use in pig feeding are also reviewed to indicate gaps to be filled in future research on the supplementation level of these potential alternative protein sources in pig diets.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Antonia Lestingi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Valenzano, 70010 Bari, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Syahrulawal L, Torske MO, Sapkota R, Næss G, Khanal P. Improving the nutritional values of yellow mealworm Tenebrio molitor (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) larvae as an animal feed ingredient: a review. J Anim Sci Biotechnol 2023; 14:146. [PMID: 38042833 PMCID: PMC10693714 DOI: 10.1186/s40104-023-00945-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Yellow mealworm larvae (YML; Tenebrio molitor) are considered as a valuable insect species for animal feed due to their high nutritional values and ability to grow under different substrates and rearing conditions. Advances in the understanding of entomophagy and animal nutrition over the past decades have propelled research areas toward testing multiple aspects of YML to exploit them better as animal feed sources. This review aims to summarize various approaches that could be exploited to maximize the nutritional values of YML as an animal feed ingredient. In addition, YML has the potential to be used as an antimicrobial or bioactive agent to improve animal health and immune function in production animals. The dynamics of the nutritional profile of YML can be influenced by multiple factors and should be taken into account when attempting to optimize the nutrient contents of YML as an animal feed ingredient. Specifically, the use of novel land-based and aquatic feeding resources, probiotics, and the exploitation of larval gut microbiomes as novel strategies can assist to maximize the nutritional potential of YML. Selection of relevant feed supplies, optimization of ambient conditions, the introduction of novel genetic selection procedures, and implementation of effective post-harvest processing may be required in the future to commercialize mealworm production. Furthermore, the use of appropriate agricultural practices and technological improvements within the mealworm production sector should be aimed at achieving both economic and environmental sustainability. The issues highlighted in this review could pave the way for future approaches to improve the nutritional value of YML.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Linggawastu Syahrulawal
- Animal Science, Production and Welfare Division, Faculty of Biosciences and Aquaculture, Nord University, Skolegata 22, Steinkjer, 7713, Norway
| | - Magnhild Oust Torske
- Animal Science, Production and Welfare Division, Faculty of Biosciences and Aquaculture, Nord University, Skolegata 22, Steinkjer, 7713, Norway
| | - Rumakanta Sapkota
- Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, Roskilde, 4000, Denmark
| | - Geir Næss
- Animal Science, Production and Welfare Division, Faculty of Biosciences and Aquaculture, Nord University, Skolegata 22, Steinkjer, 7713, Norway
| | - Prabhat Khanal
- Animal Science, Production and Welfare Division, Faculty of Biosciences and Aquaculture, Nord University, Skolegata 22, Steinkjer, 7713, Norway.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Ventura M, Holland ME, Smith MB, Chaparro JM, Prenni J, Patz JA, Paskewitz S, Weir TL, Stull VJ. Suitability of maize crop residue fermented by Pleurotus ostreatus as feed for edible crickets: growth performance, micronutrient content, and iron bioavailability. Front Nutr 2023; 10:1157811. [PMID: 37497060 PMCID: PMC10368478 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2023.1157811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Small-scale farming of edible insects could help combat public health challenges such as protein energy malnutrition and anemia, but reliable low-cost feeds for insects are needed. In resource-limited contexts, where grains such as maize are prohibitively costly for use as insect feed, the feasibility of insect farming may depend on finding alternatives. Here, we explore the potential to modify plentiful maize crop residue with edible mushroom mycelium to generate a low-cost feed adjunct for the farmed two-spotted cricket, Gryllus bimaculatus. Mushroom farming, like insect agriculture, is versatile; it can yield nutritious food while increasing system circularity by utilizing lignocellulosic residues from row crops as inputs. Pleurotus ostreatus, is an edible basidiomycete capable of being cultivated on corn stover (Zea mays). Mushroom harvest results in abundant "spent" substrate, which we investigated as a candidate feed ingredient. We created six cricket feeds containing fermented Pleurotus substrate plus an unfermented control, measuring cricket mass, mortality, and maturation weekly to evaluate cricket growth performance impacts of both fungal fermentation duration and mushroom formation. Pasteurized corn stover was inoculated with P. ostreatus mycelium and fermented for 0, 2, 3, 4, or 8 weeks. Some 4 and 8-week substrates were induced to produce mushrooms through manipulations of temperature, humidity, and light conditions. Dried fermented stover (40%) was added to a 1:1 corn/soy grain mix and fed to crickets ad libitum for 44 days. The unfermented control group showed higher survivorship compared to several fermented diets. Control group mass yield was higher for 2 out of 6 fermented diets. Little variation in cricket iron content was observed via ICP-spectrometry across feeds, averaging 2.46 mg/100 g. To determine bioavailability, we conducted in vitro Caco-2 human colon epithelial cell absorption assays, showing that iron in crickets fed fruiting-induced substrates was more bioavailable than in unfruited groups. Despite more bioavailable iron in crickets reared on post-fruiting substrates, we conclude that Pleurotus-fermented stover is an unsuitable feed ingredient for G. bimaculatus due to high mortality, variability in growth responses within treatments, and low mass yield.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martin Ventura
- Department of Entomology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - M Elizabeth Holland
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | | | - Jacqueline M Chaparro
- Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Jessica Prenni
- Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Jonathan A Patz
- Center for Sustainability and the Global Environment, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Susan Paskewitz
- Department of Entomology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Tiffany L Weir
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Valerie J Stull
- Center for Sustainability and the Global Environment, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Wang Y, Zhao D, Zhang W, Wang S, Wu Y, Wang S, Yang Y, Guo B. Four PQQ-Dependent Alcohol Dehydrogenases Responsible for the Oxidative Detoxification of Deoxynivalenol in a Novel Bacterium Ketogulonicigenium vulgare D3_3 Originated from the Feces of Tenebrio molitor Larvae. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:367. [PMID: 37368668 PMCID: PMC10301637 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15060367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol (DON) is frequently detected in cereals and cereal-based products and has a negative impact on human and animal health. In this study, an unprecedented DON-degrading bacterial isolate D3_3 was isolated from a sample of Tenebrio molitor larva feces. A 16S rRNA-based phylogenetic analysis and genome-based average nucleotide identity comparison clearly revealed that strain D3_3 belonged to the species Ketogulonicigenium vulgare. This isolate D3_3 could efficiently degrade 50 mg/L of DON under a broad range of conditions, such as pHs of 7.0-9.0 and temperatures of 18-30 °C, as well as during aerobic or anaerobic cultivation. 3-keto-DON was identified as the sole and finished DON metabolite using mass spectrometry. In vitro toxicity tests revealed that 3-keto-DON had lower cytotoxicity to human gastric epithelial cells and higher phytotoxicity to Lemna minor than its parent mycotoxin DON. Additionally, four genes encoding pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ)-dependent alcohol dehydrogenases in the genome of isolate D3_3 were identified as being responsible for the DON oxidation reaction. Overall, as a highly potent DON-degrading microbe, a member of the genus Ketogulonicigenium is reported for the first time in this study. The discovery of this DON-degrading isolate D3_3 and its four dehydrogenases will allow microbial strains and enzyme resources to become available for the future development of DON-detoxifying agents for food and animal feed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yang Wang
- Academy of National Food and Strategic Reserves Administration, Beijing 100037, China; (Y.W.)
| | - Donglei Zhao
- School of Health Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Academy of National Food and Strategic Reserves Administration, Beijing 100037, China; (Y.W.)
| | - Songshan Wang
- Academy of National Food and Strategic Reserves Administration, Beijing 100037, China; (Y.W.)
| | - Yu Wu
- Academy of National Food and Strategic Reserves Administration, Beijing 100037, China; (Y.W.)
| | - Songxue Wang
- Academy of National Food and Strategic Reserves Administration, Beijing 100037, China; (Y.W.)
| | - Yongtan Yang
- Academy of National Food and Strategic Reserves Administration, Beijing 100037, China; (Y.W.)
| | - Baoyuan Guo
- Academy of National Food and Strategic Reserves Administration, Beijing 100037, China; (Y.W.)
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Bisconsin-Junior A, Feitosa BF, Silva FL, Barros Mariutti LR. Mycotoxins on edible insects: Should we be worried? Food Chem Toxicol 2023; 177:113845. [PMID: 37209938 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.113845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Revised: 04/27/2023] [Accepted: 05/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Edible insects are a solid alternative to meet the growing demand for animal protein. However, there are doubts regarding the safety of insect consumption. Mycotoxins are substances of concern for food safety, as they may cause harmful effects on the human organism and accumulate in the tissues of some animals. This study focuses on the characteristics of the main mycotoxins, the mitigation of human consumption of contaminated insects, and the effects of mycotoxins on insect metabolism. To date, studies reported the interaction of the mycotoxins aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, fumonisin B1, and T-2, isolated or combined, in three insect species from Coleoptera and one from Diptera order. The use of rearing substrates with low mycotoxin contamination did not reduce the survival and development of insects. Fasting practices and replacing contaminated substrate with a decontaminated one decreased the concentration of mycotoxins in insects. There is no evidence that mycotoxins accumulate in the tissues of the insects' larvae. Coleoptera species showed high excretion capacity, while Hermetia illucens had a lower excretion capacity of ochratoxin A, zearalenone, and deoxynivalenol. Thus, a substrate with low mycotoxin contamination could be used for raising edible insects, particularly from the Coleoptera order.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Bisconsin-Junior
- School of Food Engineering, University of Campinas, Campinas, SP, Brazil; Federal Institute of Rondônia, Ariquemes, RO, Brazil.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Valenti I, Tini F, Sevarika M, Agazzi A, Beccari G, Bellezza I, Ederli L, Grottelli S, Pasquali M, Romani R, Saracchi M, Covarelli L. Impact of Enniatin and Deoxynivalenol Co-Occurrence on Plant, Microbial, Insect, Animal and Human Systems: Current Knowledge and Future Perspectives. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:271. [PMID: 37104209 PMCID: PMC10144843 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15040271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2023] [Revised: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Fusarium mycotoxins commonly contaminate agricultural products resulting in a serious threat to both animal and human health. The co-occurrence of different mycotoxins in the same cereal field is very common, so the risks as well as the functional and ecological effects of mycotoxins cannot always be predicted by focusing only on the effect of the single contaminants. Enniatins (ENNs) are among the most frequently detected emerging mycotoxins, while deoxynivalenol (DON) is probably the most common contaminant of cereal grains worldwide. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the simultaneous exposure to these mycotoxins, with emphasis on the combined effects in multiple organisms. Our literature analysis shows that just a few studies on ENN-DON toxicity are available, suggesting the complexity of mycotoxin interactions, which include synergistic, antagonistic, and additive effects. Both ENNs and DON modulate drug efflux transporters, therefore this specific ability deserves to be explored to better understand their complex biological role. Additionally, future studies should investigate the interaction mechanisms of mycotoxin co-occurrence on different model organisms, using concentrations closer to real exposures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Irene Valenti
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy; (I.V.); (M.P.); (M.S.)
| | - Francesco Tini
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121 Perugia, Italy; (M.S.); (G.B.); (L.E.); (R.R.); (L.C.)
| | - Milos Sevarika
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121 Perugia, Italy; (M.S.); (G.B.); (L.E.); (R.R.); (L.C.)
| | - Alessandro Agazzi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of Milan, 26900 Lodi, Italy;
| | - Giovanni Beccari
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121 Perugia, Italy; (M.S.); (G.B.); (L.E.); (R.R.); (L.C.)
| | - Ilaria Bellezza
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy; (I.B.); (S.G.)
| | - Luisa Ederli
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121 Perugia, Italy; (M.S.); (G.B.); (L.E.); (R.R.); (L.C.)
| | - Silvia Grottelli
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy; (I.B.); (S.G.)
| | - Matias Pasquali
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy; (I.V.); (M.P.); (M.S.)
| | - Roberto Romani
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121 Perugia, Italy; (M.S.); (G.B.); (L.E.); (R.R.); (L.C.)
| | - Marco Saracchi
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy; (I.V.); (M.P.); (M.S.)
| | - Lorenzo Covarelli
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121 Perugia, Italy; (M.S.); (G.B.); (L.E.); (R.R.); (L.C.)
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Zhao D, Xie H, Gao L, Zhang J, Li Y, Mao G, Zhang H, Wang F, Lam SS, Song A. Detoxication and bioconversion of aflatoxin B 1 by yellow mealworms (Tenebrio molitor): A sustainable approach for valuable larval protein production from contaminated grain. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2022; 242:113935. [PMID: 35999758 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.113935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Revised: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) is a supplementary protein source for food and feed and represents a promising solution to manage grain contaminated with Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). In this study, AFB1 present in different concentrations in wheat bran was treated and removed via bioconversion by yellow mealworm of different instars, with emphasis on the bioconversion performance and metabolism of AFB1. Upon application of wheat bran spiked with 100 μg/kg AFB1 to 5th-6th instar yellow mealworms, the conversion rate of AFB1 was up to 87.85 %. Low level of AFB1 (< 2 μg/kg) was accumulated in the larval bodies, and the survival rate, development and nutrition contents of yellow mealworm were not significantly affected. It was revealed that 1 kg of wheat bran contaminated with AFB1 increased the weight of yellow mealworms from 138 g to 469 g, containing approximately 103 g of protein. The bioconversion of AFB1 by yellow mealworms led to generation of 13 metabolites in the frass and 3 metabolites in the larvae. AFB1 was detoxicated and removed via phase I metabolism comprising reduction, dehydrogenation, hydration, demethylation, hydroxylation, decarbonylation and ketoreduction, followed by phase II metabolism involving conjugation of amino acid, glucoside and glutathione (GSH). The toxicity of AFB1 metabolites was deemed lower than that of AFB1 according to their structures. This study provides a sustainable approach and theoretical foundation on using yellow mealworms for cleaner grain contamination management and valuable larval protein production via bioconversion of food and feed contaminated by AFB1.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dandan Zhao
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China
| | - Hui Xie
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China; The Key Laboratory of Enzyme Engineering of Agricultural Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China
| | - Lei Gao
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China
| | - Jian Zhang
- School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, PR China
| | - Yan Li
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China
| | - Guotao Mao
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China; The Key Laboratory of Enzyme Engineering of Agricultural Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China
| | - Hongsen Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China; The Key Laboratory of Enzyme Engineering of Agricultural Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China
| | - Fengqin Wang
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China; The Key Laboratory of Enzyme Engineering of Agricultural Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China
| | - Su Shiung Lam
- Pyrolysis Technology Research Group, Higher Institution Centre of Excellence (HICoE), Institute of Tropical Aquaculture and Fisheries (AKUATROP), Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Nerus, Terengganu, Malaysia; Sustainability Cluster, School of Engineering, University of Petroleum & Energy Studies, Dehradun, Uttarakhand 248007, India
| | - Andong Song
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China; The Key Laboratory of Enzyme Engineering of Agricultural Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Valdés F, Villanueva V, Durán E, Campos F, Avendaño C, Sánchez M, Domingoz-Araujo C, Valenzuela C. Insects as Feed for Companion and Exotic Pets: A Current Trend. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:1450. [PMID: 35681914 PMCID: PMC9179905 DOI: 10.3390/ani12111450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The objective of this review was to carry out a comprehensive investigation of the benefits of incorporating insects as a pet food ingredient and the implications this can have in determining a market demand for insect-based pet foods. Black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens), mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) and adult house crickets (Acheta domesticus) are currently used in pet food. These insects are widely fed to exotic pets, mainly in whole, live or dehydrated formats. They are also incorporated as meal or fat and are offered to cats and dogs as dry or wet food and treats. Scientific studies about the use of insects for dog and cat feed are scarce. Most studies are in dogs. Research shows that insect nutrients, mainly amino acids, have high digestibility, are beneficial to health, do not have any detrimental effect on the gut microbiota and are accepted by dogs. In several countries, insects are approved for use in pet food and commercialization has spread throughout the world. Pet owners are willing to try foods made with insect meal for their pets. In conclusion, the use of insects in pet food is a reality that is taking on more and more prominence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Carolina Valenzuela
- Departamento de Fomento de la Producción Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias de la Universidad de Chile, La Pintana, Santiago 11735, Chile; (F.V.); (V.V.); (E.D.); (F.C.); (C.A.); (M.S.); (C.D.-A.)
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Abstract
Globally, the utilization of alternative protein sources in livestock feed has been extensively deliberated and established to be the best novel approach. Extensive research indicated that insects provide good opportunities as a sustainable, high quality, and low-cost component of animal feed. The use of insects in animal diet sounds to be the prospective opportunity leading to sustainability of animal feeds and meet the intensifying worldwide plea for livestock products. The value of these protein sources has, however, increased due to limited production, competition between humans and animals. The use of insects for feeding farmed animals represents a promising alternative because of the nutritional properties of insects and the possible environmental benefits, given the sustainability of this type of farming. Yet little has been documented about the nutrient composition of various insect meals, the impact of insect meal in the animal feed industry, safety, and attitude and willingness of farmers to accept insect-based animal feed and food. Therefore, this chapter seeks to document the potential utilization of insect meal as livestock feed.
Collapse
|
13
|
Evans NM, Shao S. Mycotoxin Metabolism by Edible Insects. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14030217. [PMID: 35324714 PMCID: PMC8949902 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14030217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2022] [Revised: 03/11/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are a group of toxic secondary metabolites produced in the food chain by fungi through the infection of crops both before and after harvest. Mycotoxins are one of the most important food safety concerns due to their severe poisonous and carcinogenic effects on humans and animals upon ingestion. In the last decade, insects have received wide attention as a highly nutritious, efficient and sustainable source of animal-derived protein and caloric energy for feed and food purposes. Many insects have been used to convert food waste into animal feed. As food waste might contain mycotoxins, research has been conducted on the metabolism and detoxification of mycotoxins by edible insects. The mycotoxins that have been studied include aflatoxins, fumonisins, zearalenone (ZEN), vomitoxin or deoxynivalenol (DON), and ochratoxins (OTAs). Aflatoxin metabolism is proved through the production of hydroxylated metabolites by NADPH-dependent reductases and hydroxylases by different insects. ZEN can be metabolized into α- and β-zearalenol. Three DON metabolites, 3-, 15-acetyl-DON, and DON-3-glucoside, have been identified in the insect DON metabolites. Unfortunately, the resulting metabolites, involved enzymes, and detoxification mechanisms of OTAs and fumonisins within insects have yet to be identified. Previous studies have been focused on the insect tolerance to mycotoxins and the produced metabolites; further research needs to be conducted to understand the exact enzymes and pathways that are involved.
Collapse
|
14
|
Veldkamp T, Meijer N, Alleweldt F, Deruytter D, Van Campenhout L, Gasco L, Roos N, Smetana S, Fernandes A, van der Fels-Klerx HJ. Overcoming Technical and Market Barriers to Enable Sustainable Large-Scale Production and Consumption of Insect Proteins in Europe: A SUSINCHAIN Perspective. INSECTS 2022; 13:281. [PMID: 35323579 PMCID: PMC8948993 DOI: 10.3390/insects13030281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2022] [Revised: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The expected global population growth to 9.7 billion people in 2050 and the significant change in global dietary patterns require an increase in global food production by about 60%. The protein supply for feed and food is most critical and requires an extension in protein sources. Edible insects can upgrade low-grade side streams of food production into high-quality protein, amino acids and vitamins in a very efficient way. Insects are considered to be the "missing link" in the food chain of a circular and sustainable economy. Insects and insect-derived products have entered the European market since first being acknowledged as a valuable protein source for feed and food production in around 2010. However, today, scaling up the insect value chain in Europe is progressing at a relatively slow pace. The mission of SUSINCHAIN (SUStainable INsect CHAIN)-a four-year project which has received funding from the European Commission-is to contribute to novel protein provision for feed and food in Europe by overcoming the remaining barriers for increasing the economic viability of the insect value chain and opening markets by combining forces in a comprehensive multi-actor consortium. The overall project objective is to test, pilot and demonstrate recently developed technologies, products and processes, to realize a shift up to Technology Readiness Level 6 or higher. In addition to these crucial activities, the project engages with stakeholders in the insect protein supply chain for feed and food by living labs and workshops. These actions provide the necessary knowledge and data for actors in the insect value chain to decrease the cost price of insect products, process insects more efficiently and market insect protein applications in animal feed and regular human diets that are safe and sustainable. This paves the way for further upscaling and commercialization of the European insect sector.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Teun Veldkamp
- Wageningen Livestock Research, P.O. Box 338, 6700 AH Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Nathan Meijer
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, The Netherlands; (N.M.); (H.J.v.d.F.-K.)
| | - Frank Alleweldt
- CIVIC Consulting GMBH, Potsdamer Strasse 150, 10783 Berlin, Germany;
| | | | - Leen Van Campenhout
- Research Group for Insect Production and Processing, Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems (M2S), Geel Campus, KU Leuven, Kleinhoefstraat 4, 2440 Geel, Belgium;
| | - Laura Gasco
- Department of Agricultural, Forest, and Food Sciences, Università degli Studi di Torino, Largo P. Braccini 2, 10095 Grugliasco, Italy;
| | - Nanna Roos
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of Copenhagen, Rolighedsvej 26, 1958 Frederiksberg, Denmark;
| | - Sergiy Smetana
- German Institute of Food technologies (DIL e.V.), Prof. Von Klitzing Strasse 7, 49610 Quakenbrueck, Germany;
| | - Ana Fernandes
- Sociedade Portuguesa de Inovacao Consultadoria Empresarial e Fomento da Inovacao SA, Av Marechal Gomes da Costa, 1376 Porto, Portugal;
| | - H. J. van der Fels-Klerx
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, The Netherlands; (N.M.); (H.J.v.d.F.-K.)
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Hong J, Kim YY. Insect as feed ingredients for pigs. Anim Biosci 2022; 35:347-355. [PMID: 34991213 PMCID: PMC8831829 DOI: 10.5713/ab.21.0475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Among edible insects, black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens), yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor), and common housefly (Musca domestica) have been considered as an alternative protein source for pigs. Because they are easy to breed and grow in the organic wastes, and they have well-balanced nutritional value as a protein source for pigs. The black soldier fly larvae and mealworm could replace the fish meal in the diets for weaned pigs without adverse effects on growth performance and nutrient digestibility. Black soldier fly could also be included in the finishing pig's diet without any negative effects on the growth performance and pork quality of the market pigs. Insect products showed a greater standardized ileal digestibility value of amino acids than conventional animal proteins in growing pigs. Due to the limited amount of insect products used for pig feeding study, most previous pig studies have been conducted in weaned pigs. Thus, further study is needed about the optimal inclusion level of insect products in every phase diet from weaned pigs to sows. The use of insect products in swine diets has some challenges in terms of cost, supply, and safety. Lastly, intrinsic differences among insect species, processing method, and feeding phase should be taken into consideration for the use of insect products in the swine diets.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jinsu Hong
- Department of Animal Science, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007,
USA
| | - Yoo Yong Kim
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, and Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826,
Korea
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Niermans K, Meyer AM, den Hil EFHV, van Loon JJA, van der Fels-Klerx HJ. A systematic literature review on the effects of mycotoxin exposure on insects and on mycotoxin accumulation and biotransformation. Mycotoxin Res 2021; 37:279-295. [PMID: 34618340 PMCID: PMC8571154 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-021-00441-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Novel protein sources for animal feed are needed, and the use of insects as feed ingredient is explored. The insect production sector offers opportunities for a circular and sustainable approach to feed production by upgrading waste or side streams into high-quality proteins. However, potential food or feed safety issues should be studied in advance. Mycotoxins, such as aflatoxin B1, are natural contaminants commonly found in agricultural crops and have proven to be detrimental to the agricultural industry, livestock, and human health. This systematic review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the published evidence on effects of mycotoxin exposure on insect growth and survival, mycotoxin accumulation within the insect body, and metabolization of various mycotoxins by insects. The review includes 54 scientific articles published in the past 55 years, in total covering 32 insect species. The main findings are the following: (1) Insects of the order Coleoptera show lower mortality after exposure to aflatoxin B1 when compared to Lepidoptera and Diptera; (2) effects of mycotoxins on larval growth and survival are less detrimental in later larval stages; (3) accumulation of mycotoxins was low in most insect species; (4) mycotoxins are metabolized within the insect body, the degree of which depends on the particular mycotoxin and insect species; (5) cytochrome P450s are the main family of enzymes involved in biotransformation of mycotoxins in some insect species. Results of this review support an optimistic outlook for the use of mycotoxin-contaminated waste streams as substrate for insect rearing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K Niermans
- Department of Plant Sciences, Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.,Wageningen Food Safety Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - A M Meyer
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - E F Hoek-van den Hil
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - J J A van Loon
- Department of Plant Sciences, Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Berestetskiy A, Hu Q. The Chemical Ecology Approach to Reveal Fungal Metabolites for Arthropod Pest Management. Microorganisms 2021; 9:1379. [PMID: 34202923 PMCID: PMC8307166 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9071379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Biorational insecticides (for instance, avermectins, spinosins, azadirachtin, and afidopyropen) of natural origin are increasingly being used in agriculture. The review considers the chemical ecology approach for the search for new compounds with insecticidal properties (entomotoxic, antifeedant, and hormonal) produced by fungi of various ecological groups (entomopathogens, soil saprotrophs, endophytes, phytopathogens, and mushrooms). The literature survey revealed that insecticidal metabolites of entomopathogenic fungi have not been sufficiently studied, and most of the well-characterized compounds show moderate insecticidal activity. The greatest number of substances with insecticidal properties was found to be produced by soil fungi, mainly from the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium. Metabolites with insecticidal and antifeedant properties were also found in endophytic and phytopathogenic fungi. It was noted that insect pests of stored products are mostly low sensitive to mycotoxins. Mushrooms were found to be promising producers of antifeedant compounds as well as insecticidal proteins. The expansion of the number of substances with insecticidal properties detected in prospective fungal species is possible by mining fungal genomes for secondary metabolite gene clusters and secreted proteins with their subsequent activation by various methods. The efficacy of these studies can be increased with high-throughput techniques of extraction of fungal metabolites and their analysis by various methods of chromatography and mass spectrometry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Qiongbo Hu
- College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China;
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Hadi J, Brightwell G. Safety of Alternative Proteins: Technological, Environmental and Regulatory Aspects of Cultured Meat, Plant-Based Meat, Insect Protein and Single-Cell Protein. Foods 2021; 10:1226. [PMID: 34071292 PMCID: PMC8230205 DOI: 10.3390/foods10061226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Food security and environmental issues have become global crises that need transformative solutions. As livestock production is becoming less sustainable, alternative sources of proteins are urgently required. These include cultured meat, plant-based meat, insect protein and single-cell protein. Here, we describe the food safety aspects of these novel protein sources, in terms of their technological backgrounds, environmental impacts and the necessary regulatory framework for future mass-scale production. Briefly, cultured meat grown in fetal bovine serum-based media can be exposed to viruses or infectious prion, in addition to other safety risks associated with the use of genetic engineering. Plant-based meat may contain allergens, anti-nutrients and thermally induced carcinogens. Microbiological risks and allergens are the primary concerns associated with insect protein. Single-cell protein sources are divided into microalgae, fungi and bacteria, all of which have specific food safety risks that include toxins, allergens and high ribonucleic acid (RNA) contents. The environmental impacts of these alternative proteins can mainly be attributed to the production of growth substrates or during cultivation. Legislations related to novel food or genetic modification are the relevant regulatory framework to ensure the safety of alternative proteins. Lastly, additional studies on the food safety aspects of alternative proteins are urgently needed for providing relevant food governing authorities with sufficient data to oversee that the technological progress in this area is balanced with robust safety standards.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Hadi
- AgResearch Ltd., Hopkirk Research Institute, Cnr University Ave and Library Road, Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand;
| | - Gale Brightwell
- AgResearch Ltd., Hopkirk Research Institute, Cnr University Ave and Library Road, Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand;
- New Zealand Food Safety Science and Research Centre, Massey University Manawatu (Turitea), Tennent Drive, Palmerston North 4474, New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Skotnicka M, Karwowska K, Kłobukowski F, Borkowska A, Pieszko M. Possibilities of the Development of Edible Insect-Based Foods in Europe. Foods 2021; 10:766. [PMID: 33916741 PMCID: PMC8065412 DOI: 10.3390/foods10040766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
All over the world, a large proportion of the population consume insects as part of their diet. In Western countries, however, the consumption of insects is perceived as a negative phenomenon. The consumption of insects worldwide can be considered in two ways: on the one hand, as a source of protein in countries affected by hunger, while, on the other, as an alternative protein in highly-developed regions, in response to the need for implementing policies of sustainable development. This review focused on both the regulations concerning the production and marketing of insects in Europe and the characteristics of edible insects that are most likely to establish a presence on the European market. The paper indicates numerous advantages of the consumption of insects, not only as a valuable source of protein but also as a raw material rich in valuable fatty acids, vitamins, and mineral salts. Attention was paid to the functional properties of proteins derived from insects, and to the possibility for using them in the production of functional food. The study also addresses the hazards which undoubtedly contribute to the mistrust and lowered acceptance of European consumers and points to the potential gaps in the knowledge concerning the breeding conditions, raw material processing and health safety. This set of analyzed data allows us to look optimistically at the possibilities for the development of edible insect-based foods, particularly in Europe.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Skotnicka
- Departament of Commodity Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Medical University of Gdańsk, 80-210 Gdańsk, Poland; (K.K.); (F.K.); (A.B.)
| | - Kaja Karwowska
- Departament of Commodity Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Medical University of Gdańsk, 80-210 Gdańsk, Poland; (K.K.); (F.K.); (A.B.)
| | - Filip Kłobukowski
- Departament of Commodity Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Medical University of Gdańsk, 80-210 Gdańsk, Poland; (K.K.); (F.K.); (A.B.)
| | - Aleksandra Borkowska
- Departament of Commodity Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Medical University of Gdańsk, 80-210 Gdańsk, Poland; (K.K.); (F.K.); (A.B.)
| | - Magdalena Pieszko
- Departament of Clinical Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Medical University of Gdańsk, 80-210 Gdańsk, Poland;
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Derler H, Lienhard A, Berner S, Grasser M, Posch A, Rehorska R. Use Them for What They Are Good at: Mealworms in Circular Food Systems. INSECTS 2021; 12:40. [PMID: 33419154 PMCID: PMC7825568 DOI: 10.3390/insects12010040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Future food systems must provide more food produced on less land with fewer greenhouse gas emissions if the goal is to keep planetary boundaries within safe zones. The valorisation of agricultural and industrial by-products by insects is an increasingly investigated strategy, because it can help to address resource scarcities and related environmental issues. Thus, insects for food and feed have gained increasing attention as a sustainable protein production strategy in circular food systems lately. In this article, we provide an overview on by-products, which have already been fed to T. molitor (mealworms), a common edible insect species. In addition, we investigate other by-products in Austria, which can be suitable substrates for T. molitor farming. We also provide an overview and discuss different perspectives on T. molitor and link it with the circular economy concept. We identify several future research fields, such as more comprehensive feeding trials with other by-products, feeding trials with mealworms over several generations, and the development of a standardized framework for insect rearing trials. In addition, we argue that due to their ability to convert organic by-products from agricultural and industrial processes into biomass in an efficient way, T. molitor can contribute towards resource-efficient and circular food and feed production. However, several hurdles, such as legal frameworks, need to be adapted, and further research is needed to fully reap the benefits of mealworm farming.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hartmut Derler
- Institute of Applied Production Sciences, Sustainable Food Management, University of Applied Sciences FH JOANNEUM, Eggenberger Allee 11, 8020 Graz, Austria; (A.L.); (S.B.); (M.G.); (R.R.)
- Institute of Systems Sciences, Innovation and Sustainability Research, University of Graz, Merangasse 18/1, 8010 Graz, Austria;
| | - Andrea Lienhard
- Institute of Applied Production Sciences, Sustainable Food Management, University of Applied Sciences FH JOANNEUM, Eggenberger Allee 11, 8020 Graz, Austria; (A.L.); (S.B.); (M.G.); (R.R.)
| | - Simon Berner
- Institute of Applied Production Sciences, Sustainable Food Management, University of Applied Sciences FH JOANNEUM, Eggenberger Allee 11, 8020 Graz, Austria; (A.L.); (S.B.); (M.G.); (R.R.)
| | - Monika Grasser
- Institute of Applied Production Sciences, Sustainable Food Management, University of Applied Sciences FH JOANNEUM, Eggenberger Allee 11, 8020 Graz, Austria; (A.L.); (S.B.); (M.G.); (R.R.)
| | - Alfred Posch
- Institute of Systems Sciences, Innovation and Sustainability Research, University of Graz, Merangasse 18/1, 8010 Graz, Austria;
| | - René Rehorska
- Institute of Applied Production Sciences, Sustainable Food Management, University of Applied Sciences FH JOANNEUM, Eggenberger Allee 11, 8020 Graz, Austria; (A.L.); (S.B.); (M.G.); (R.R.)
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Hong J, Han T, Kim YY. Mealworm ( Tenebrio molitor Larvae) as an Alternative Protein Source for Monogastric Animal: A Review. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10112068. [PMID: 33171639 PMCID: PMC7695176 DOI: 10.3390/ani10112068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 11/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Tenebrio molitor (T. molitor) larvae, known as mealworm, have been considered a good protein source for monogastric animals. They have a high quantity and quality of protein content and amino acid profile. The inclusion of T. molitor larvae in broiler diets improved the growth performance without having negative effects on carcass traits and blood profiles in broiler chickens, or had no influence on the growth performance and carcass yield of broiler chickens. The supplementation of T. molitor larvae improved the growth performance and protein utilization of weaning pigs. Furthermore, the replacement of fishmeal with T. molitor larvae resulted in no difference in the growth performance and nutrient digestibility of weaning pigs. However, there are some challenges regarding biosafety, consumer’s acceptance, and price for the use of T. moiltor larvae in animal feed. Consequently, T. molitor larvae could be used as an alternative or sustainable protein source in monogastric animal feed. Abstract Edible insects have been used as an alternative protein source for food and animal feed, and the market size for edible insects has increased. Tenebrio molitor larvae, also known as mealworm and yellow mealworm, are considered a good protein source with nutritional value, digestibility, flavor, and a functional ability. Additionally, they are easy to breed and feed for having a stable protein content, regardless of their diets. Therefore, T. molitor larvae have been produced industrially as feed for pets, zoo animals, and even for production animals. To maintain the nutrient composition and safety of T. molitor larvae, slaughtering (heating or freezing) and post-slaughtering (drying and grinding) procedures should be improved for animal feed. T. molitor larvae are also processed with defatting or hydrolysis before grinding. They have a high quality and quantity of protein and amino acid profile, so are considered a highly sustainable protein source for replacing soybean meal or fishmeal. T. molitor has a chitin in its cuticle, which is an indigestible fiber with positive effects on the immune system. In studies of poultry, the supplementation of T. molitor larvae improved the growth performance of broiler chickens, without having negative effects on carcass traits, whereas some studies have reported that there were no significant differences in the growth performance and carcass yield of broiler chickens. In studies of swine, the supplementation of T. molitor larvae improved the growth performance and protein utilization of weaning pigs. Furthermore, 10% of T. molitor larvae showed greater amino acid digestibility than conventional animal proteins in growing pigs. However, there are some challenges regarding the biosafety, consumer’s acceptance, and price for the use of T. moiltor larvae in animal feed. Consequently, T. molitor larvae could be used as an alternative or sustainable protein source in monogastric animal feed with a consideration of the nutritional values, biosafety, consumer’s acceptance, and market price of T. molitor larvae products.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jinsu Hong
- Department of Animal Science, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA;
| | - Taehee Han
- Department of Production Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland;
| | - Yoo Yong Kim
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, and Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-2-878-5838; Fax: +82-2-878-5839
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Distribution of T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin during experimental feeding of yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor). Mycotoxin Res 2020; 37:11-21. [PMID: 32990831 PMCID: PMC7819947 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-020-00411-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Revised: 09/15/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Within the European Union (EU), edible insects need to be approved as "Novel Food" according to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 and must comply with the requirements of European food law with regard to microbiological and chemical food safety. Substrates used for feeding insects are susceptible to the growth of Fusarium spp. and consequently to contamination with trichothecene mycotoxins. Therefore, the current study aimed to investigate the influence of T-2 and HT-2 toxins on the larval life cycle of yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor (L.)) and to study the transfer of T-2, HT-2, T-2 triol and T-2 tetraol in the larvae. In a 4-week feeding study, T. molitor larvae were kept either on naturally (oat flakes moulded with Fusarium sporotrichioides) or artificially contaminated oat flakes, each at two levels (approximately 100 and 250 μg/kg total T-2 and HT-2). Weight gain and survival rates were monitored, and mycotoxins in the feeding substrates, larvae and residues were determined using LC-MS/MS. Larval development varied between the diets and was 44% higher for larvae fed artificially contaminated diets. However, the artificially contaminated diets had a 16% lower survival rate. No trichothecenes were detected in the surviving larvae after harvest, but T-2 and HT-2 were found both in the dead larvae and in the residues of naturally and artificially contaminated diets.
Collapse
|
23
|
|
24
|
Leni G, Cirlini M, Jacobs J, Depraetere S, Gianotten N, Sforza S, Dall'Asta C. Impact of Naturally Contaminated Substrates on Alphitobius diaperinus and Hermetia illucens: Uptake and Excretion of Mycotoxins. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11080476. [PMID: 31426582 PMCID: PMC6722799 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11080476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2019] [Revised: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 08/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Insects are considered a suitable alternative feed for livestock production and their use is nowadays regulated in the European Union by the European Commission Regulation No. 893/2017. Insects have the ability to grow on a different spectrum of substrates, which could be naturally contaminated by mycotoxins. In the present work, the mycotoxin uptake and/or excretion in two different insect species, Alphitobius diaperinus (Lesser Mealworm, LM) and Hermetia illucens (Black Soldier Fly, BSF), grown on naturally contaminated substrates, was evaluated. Among all the substrates of growth tested, the Fusarium toxins deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin 1 and 2 (FB1 and FB2) and zearalenone (ZEN) were found in those based on wheat and/or corn. No mycotoxins were detected in BSF larvae, while quantifiable amount of DON and FB1 were found in LM larvae, although in lower concentration than those detected in the growing substrates and in the residual fractions. Mass balance calculations indicated that BSF and LM metabolized mycotoxins in forms not yet known, accumulating them in their body or excreting in the faeces. Further studies are required in this direction due to the future employment of insects as feedstuff.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Leni
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Martina Cirlini
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy.
| | - Johan Jacobs
- Circular Organics, Slachthuisstraat 120/6, 2300 Turnhout, Belgium
| | | | | | - Stefano Sforza
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Chiara Dall'Asta
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Niermans K, Woyzichovski J, Kröncke N, Benning R, Maul R. Feeding study for the mycotoxin zearalenone in yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) larvae-investigation of biological impact and metabolic conversion. Mycotoxin Res 2019; 35:231-242. [PMID: 30864055 PMCID: PMC6611894 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-019-00346-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Revised: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Edible insects as additional food and/or feed source may represent one important component to solve the problem of food security for a growing human population. Especially for covering the rising demand for protein of animal origin, seven insect species currently allowed as feed constituents in the European Union are gaining more interest. However, before considering insects such as yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) as suitable for, e.g. human consumption, the possible presence and accumulation of contaminants must be elucidated. The present work investigates the effects of the mycotoxin zearalenone (ZEN) and its metabolites on insect larvae. Seven different diets were prepared: toxin-free control, spiked and artificially contaminated (both containing approx.500 μg/kg and approx. 2000 μg/kg of ZEN) as well as two naturally contaminated diets (600 μg/kg and 900 μg/kg ZEN). The diets were used in a multiple-week feeding trial using T. molitor larvae as model insects. The amount of ZEN and its metabolites in the feed, larvae and the residue were measured by HPLC-MS/MS. A significantly enhanced individual larval weight was found for the insects fed on the naturally contaminated diets compared to the other feeding groups after 8 weeks of exposure. No ZEN or ZEN metabolites were detected in the T. molitor larvae after harvest. However, ZEN, α- and β-stereoisomers of zearalenol were found in the residue samples indicating an intense metabolism of ZEN in the larvae. No further ZEN metabolites could be detected in any sample. Thus, ZEN is not retained to any significant amount in T. molitor larvae.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kelly Niermans
- BfR - German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jan Woyzichovski
- University of Applied Sciences Bremerhaven, An der Karlstadt 8, 27568, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Nina Kröncke
- University of Applied Sciences Bremerhaven, An der Karlstadt 8, 27568, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Rainer Benning
- University of Applied Sciences Bremerhaven, An der Karlstadt 8, 27568, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Ronald Maul
- BfR - German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany.
- University of Applied Sciences Bremerhaven, An der Karlstadt 8, 27568, Bremerhaven, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Schrögel P, Wätjen W. Insects for Food and Feed-Safety Aspects Related to Mycotoxins and Metals. Foods 2019; 8:E288. [PMID: 31357435 PMCID: PMC6724024 DOI: 10.3390/foods8080288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2019] [Revised: 07/17/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Edible insects as an alternative source of protein are discussed as an important contribution to future feed and food security. However, it has to be ensured that the consumption is non-hazardous. This systematic review summarizes findings concerning contaminations of insects with mycotoxins and heavy metal ions (SciFinder, Pubmed, until 26 June 2019). Both kinds of contaminants were reported to reduce growth performance and increase mortality in insects. There was no evidence for accumulation of various mycotoxins analyzed in distinct insect species. However, further research is necessary due to limitation of data. Since the gut content contributes relevantly to the total body burden of contaminants in insects, a starving period before harvesting is recommended. Contrary, accumulation of heavy metal ions occurred to a varying extent dependent on metal type, insect species, and developmental stage. Examples are the accumulation of cadmium (black soldier fly) and arsenic (yellow mealworm). The reported species-specific accumulation and metabolism patterns of contaminants emphasize the importance to assess potential safety hazards in a case-by-case approach. Subject to regular monitoring of contaminants, the general ban in the European Union to use waste in animal feed should also be questioned regarding insect farming.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pamela Schrögel
- Postgraduate Course for Toxicology and Environmental Toxicology, Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Leipzig, Johannisallee 28, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Wim Wätjen
- Institute of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Weinbergweg 22, 06120 Halle/Saale, Germany.
- Competence Cluster for Nutrition and Cardiovascular Health (nutriCARD), Halle-Jena-Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Biancarosa I, Sele V, Belghit I, Ørnsrud R, Lock EJ, Amlund H. Replacing fish meal with insect meal in the diet of Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar) does not impact the amount of contaminants in the feed and it lowers accumulation of arsenic in the fillet. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2019; 36:1191-1205. [PMID: 31161892 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2019.1619938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Insects are promising sources of protein and lipid in feeds for farmed animals. In the European Union, the use of insect meal (IM) and insect oil is permitted in fish feed. However, the European Food Safety Authority has highlighted the lack of data regarding the chemical safety of insects and products thereof. In this study, Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) were fed diets in which fish meal (FM) was partially or fully substituted with IM, resulting in four diets with an FM replacement of 0%, 33%, 66% and 100% by IM. The IM was produced from Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae fed media containing 60% seaweed (Ascophyllum nodosum). After 16 weeks of feeding, fish fillet samples were collected. The concentrations of undesirable substances, e.g., heavy metals, arsenic, dioxins, mycotoxins, pesticides, in the IM, the diets and fillets were determined. The concentrations of the analysed compounds in the IM were all below EU maximum levels for feed ingredients, except for arsenic. However, for complete feeds the concentrations of these compounds in the feeds, including arsenic, were all below EU MLs. Arsenic was transferred from seaweed to IM, resulting in arsenic levels in IM similar to what has been documented for FM. Transfer of arsenic from feed to fillet was observed; however, total arsenic concentrations in the fillet significantly decreased when fish were fed diets with more IM and less FM. Arsenic speciation analysis of the diets showed that although total arsenic levels were similar, the arsenic species were different. Arsenobetaine was the major organoarsenic species in the diets containing FM, while in diets containing IM several unidentified arsenic species were detected. The results suggest that the lower feed-to-fillet transfer of arsenic when FM is replaced by IM may be due to the presence of arsenic species with low bioavailability in the IM.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Irene Biancarosa
- a Department of Requirement and Welfare, Institute of Marine Research , Bergen , Norway.,b Department of Biology, University of Bergen , Bergen , Norway
| | - Veronika Sele
- a Department of Requirement and Welfare, Institute of Marine Research , Bergen , Norway
| | - Ikram Belghit
- a Department of Requirement and Welfare, Institute of Marine Research , Bergen , Norway
| | - Robin Ørnsrud
- a Department of Requirement and Welfare, Institute of Marine Research , Bergen , Norway
| | - Erik-Jan Lock
- a Department of Requirement and Welfare, Institute of Marine Research , Bergen , Norway
| | - Heidi Amlund
- c Department of Nano-Bio Science, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark , Kongens Lyngby , Denmark
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Ochoa Sanabria C, Hogan N, Madder K, Gillott C, Blakley B, Reaney M, Beattie A, Buchanan F. Yellow Mealworm Larvae ( Tenebrio molitor) Fed Mycotoxin-Contaminated Wheat-A Possible Safe, Sustainable Protein Source for Animal Feed? Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11050282. [PMID: 31117211 PMCID: PMC6563207 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11050282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2019] [Revised: 05/07/2019] [Accepted: 05/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine the potential for accumulation of deoxynivalenol (DON) in yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) reared on high DON Fusarium-infected wheat and investigate the effects on production, survival and nutritional traits. Wheat containing 200 μg/kg DON was used as the control diet. A different source of wheat was sorted into six fractions and mixed to obtain low (2000 μg/kg), medium (10,000 μg/kg) and high (12,000 μg/kg) levels of DON. Each diet was replicated five times with 300 or 200 mealworms per replicate for the feeding and breeding trials, respectively. Trial termination occurred when the first two pupae were observed (32–34 days). There was no difference in the concentrations of DON detected in the larvae between diets that ranged from 122 ± 19.3 to 136 ± 40.5 μg/kg (p = 0.88). Excretion of DON was 131, 324, 230 and 742 μg/kg for control, low, medium and high, respectively. Nutritional analysis of larvae showed maximum crude protein of 52% and crude fat of 36%. Ash, fiber, chitin, fatty-acids and amino-acid content were consistent across diets. Survival was greater than 96% for all life stages and average daily gain ranged from 1.9 ± 0.1 to 2.1 ± 0.1 mg/day per mealworm. Larvae accumulated low levels of DON from Fusarium-infected wheat diets suggesting contaminated wheat could be used to produce a sustainable, safe protein source.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Ochoa Sanabria
- Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Saskatchewan, 51 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A8, Canada.
| | - Natacha Hogan
- Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Saskatchewan, 51 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A8, Canada.
- Toxicology Centre, University of Saskatchewan, 44 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B3, Canada.
| | - Kayla Madder
- Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Saskatchewan, 51 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A8, Canada.
| | - Cedric Gillott
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, 112 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E2, Canada.
| | - Barry Blakley
- Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B4, Canada.
| | - Martin Reaney
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, 51 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A8, Canada.
| | - Aaron Beattie
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, 51 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A8, Canada.
| | - Fiona Buchanan
- Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Saskatchewan, 51 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A8, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
van der Fels-Klerx HJ, Camenzuli L, Belluco S, Meijer N, Ricci A. Food Safety Issues Related to Uses of Insects for Feeds and Foods. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2018; 17:1172-1183. [DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2018] [Revised: 06/18/2018] [Accepted: 06/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- H. J. van der Fels-Klerx
- Dept. of Toxicology and Novel Foods; RIKILT Wageningen Research; Akkermaalsbos 2 NL-6708 WB Wageningen The Netherlands
| | - L. Camenzuli
- Dept. of Toxicology and Novel Foods; RIKILT Wageningen Research; Akkermaalsbos 2 NL-6708 WB Wageningen The Netherlands
- ExxonMobile Petroleum & Chemical; Hermeslaan 2 1831 Machelen Belgium
| | - S. Belluco
- Food Safety Dept., Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie; Via dell'Università; 10 35020 Legnaro (PD) Italy
| | - N. Meijer
- Dept. of Toxicology and Novel Foods; RIKILT Wageningen Research; Akkermaalsbos 2 NL-6708 WB Wageningen The Netherlands
| | - A. Ricci
- Food Safety Dept., Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie; Via dell'Università; 10 35020 Legnaro (PD) Italy
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Camenzuli L, Van Dam R, de Rijk T, Andriessen R, Van Schelt J, Van der Fels-Klerx HJI. Tolerance and Excretion of the Mycotoxins Aflatoxin B₁, Zearalenone, Deoxynivalenol, and Ochratoxin A by Alphitobius diaperinus and Hermetia illucens from Contaminated Substrates. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E91. [PMID: 29495278 PMCID: PMC5848191 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10020091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2018] [Revised: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the potential accumulation of mycotoxins in the lesser mealworm (Alphitobius diaperinus, LMW) and black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens, BSF) larvae. Feed was spiked with aflatoxin B₁, deoxynivalenol (DON), ochratoxin A or zearalenone, and as a mixture of mycotoxins, to concentrations of 1, 10, and 25 times the maximum limits set by the European Commission for complete feed. This maximum limit is 0.02 mg/kg for aflatoxin B₁, 5 mg/kg for DON, 0.5 mg/kg for zearalenone and 0.1 mg/kg for ochratoxin A. The mycotoxins and some of their metabolites were analysed in the larvae and residual material using a validated and accredited LC-MS/MS-based method. Metabolites considered were aflatoxicol, aflatoxin P₁, aflatoxin Q₁, and aflatoxin M₁, 3-acetyl-DON, 15-acetyl-DON and DON-3-glycoside, and α- and β-zearalenol. No differences were observed between larvae reared on mycotoxins individually or as a mixture with regards to both larvae development and mycotoxin accumulation/excretion. None of the mycotoxins accumulated in the larvae and were only detected in BSF larvae several orders of magnitude lower than the concentration in feed. Mass balance calculations showed that BSF and LMW larvae metabolized the four mycotoxins to different extents. Metabolites accounted for minimal amounts of the mass balance, except for zearalenone metabolites in the BSF treatments, which accounted for an average maximum of 86% of the overall mass balance. Both insect species showed to excrete or metabolize the four mycotoxins present in their feed. Hence, safe limits for these mycotoxins in substrates to be used for these two insect species possibly could be higher than for production animals. However, additional analytical and toxicological research to fully understand the safe limits of mycotoxins in insect feed, and thus the safety of the insects, is required.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Louise Camenzuli
- ExxonMobil Petroleum & Chemical, Hermeslaan 2, 1831 MAchelen, Belgium.
- RIKILTWageningen Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WBWageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Ruud Van Dam
- RIKILTWageningen Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WBWageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Theo de Rijk
- RIKILTWageningen Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WBWageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Rob Andriessen
- Proti-Farm, Harderwijkerweg 141a, 3852 AB Ermelo, The Netherlands.
| | - Jeroen Van Schelt
- Koppert BV, Veilingweg 14, 2650 AD Berkel en Rodenrijs, The Netherlands.
| | | |
Collapse
|
31
|
|