Predominant expression of CCL2 at the tumor site of prostate cancer patients directs a selective loss of immunological tolerance to CCL2 that could be amplified in a beneficial manner

Pro-inflammatory cytokines and CXC chemokines as game-changer in age-associated prostate cancer and ovarian cancer: Insights from preclinical and clinical studies' outcomes

Prostate cancer (PC) and Ovarian cancer (OC) are two of the most common types of cancer that affect the reproductive systems of older men and women. These cancers are associated with a poor quality of life among the aged population. Therefore, finding new and innovative ways to detect, treat, and prevent these cancers in older patients is essential. Finding biomarkers for these malignancies will increase the chance of early detection and effective treatment, subsequently improving the survival rate. Studies have shown that the prevalence and health of some illnesses are linked to an impaired immune system. However, the age-associated changes in the immune system during malignancies such as PC and OC are poorly understood. Recent research has suggested that the excessive production of inflammatory immune mediators, such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-8 (IL-8), transforming growth factor (TGF), tumor necrosis factor (TNF), CXC motif chemokine ligand 1 (CXCL1), CXC motif chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12), and CXC motif chemokine ligand 13 (CXCL13), etc., significantly impact the development of PC and OC in elderly patients. Our review focuses on the latest functional studies of pro-inflammatory cytokines (interleukins) and CXC chemokines, which serve as biomarkers in elderly patients with PC and OC. Thus, we aim to shed light on how these biomarkers affect the development of PC and OC in elderly patients. We also examine the current status and future perspective of cytokines (interleukins) and CXC chemokines-based therapeutic targets in OC and PC treatment for elderly patients.

The chemokine landscape: one system multiple shades

Leukocyte trafficking is mainly governed by chemokines, chemotactic cytokines, which can be concomitantly produced in tissues during homeostatic conditions or inflammation. After the discovery and characterization of the individual chemokines, we and others have shown that they present additional properties. The first discoveries demonstrated that some chemokines act as natural antagonists on chemokine receptors, and prevent infiltration of leukocyte subsets in tissues. Later on it was shown that they can exert a repulsive effect on selective cell types, or synergize with other chemokines and inflammatory mediators to enhance chemokine receptors activities. The relevance of the fine-tuning modulation has been demonstrated in vivo in a multitude of processes, spanning from chronic inflammation to tissue regeneration, while its role in the tumor microenvironment needs further investigation. Moreover, naturally occurring autoantibodies targeting chemokines were found in tumors and autoimmune diseases. More recently in SARS-CoV-2 infection, the presence of several autoantibodies neutralizing chemokine activities distinguished disease severity, and they were shown to be beneficial, protecting from long-term sequelae. Here, we review the additional properties of chemokines that influence cell recruitment and activities. We believe these features need to be taken into account when designing novel therapeutic strategies targeting immunological disorders.

Development of a salivary autoantibody biomarker panel for diagnosis of oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma

Oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is a destructive disease with increasing incidence. OSCC is usually diagnosed at an advanced stage, which leads to poor outcomes of OSCC patients. Currently, there is a lack of biomarkers with sufficient effectiveness in early diagnosis of OSCC. To ameliorate OSCC screening, we evaluated the performances of salivary autoantibodies (auto-Abs) to nine proteins (ANXA2, CA2, ISG15, KNG1, MMP1, MMP3, PRDX2, SPARC, and HSPA5) as OSCC biomarkers. A multiplexed immunoassay using a fluorescence bead-based suspension array system was established for simultaneous assessment of the salivary levels of the above nine auto-Abs and a known OSCC-associated auto-Ab, anti-p53. Compared to healthy individuals (n = 140), the salivary levels of nine auto-Abs were significantly elevated in OSCC patients (n = 160). Notably, the salivary levels of the 10 auto-Abs in the early-stage OSCC patients (n = 102) were higher than that in the healthy group. Most importantly, utilizing a marker panel consisting of anti-MMP3, anti-PRDX2, anti-SPARC, and anti-HSPA5 for detection of early-stage OSCC achieved a sensitivity of 63.8% with a specificity of 90%. Collectively, herein we established a multiplex auto-Ab platform for OSCC screening, and demonstrated a four-auto-Ab panel which shows clinical applicability for early diagnosis of OSCC.

Autoimmunity and Cancer-Two Sides of the Same Coin

Autoimmune disease results from the immune response against self-antigens, while cancer develops when the immune system does not respond to malignant cells. Thus, for years, autoimmunity and cancer have been considered as two separate fields of research that do not have a lot in common. However, the discovery of immune checkpoints and the development of anti-cancer drugs targeting PD-1 (programmed cell death receptor 1) and CTLA-4 (cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4) pathways proved that studying autoimmune diseases can be extremely helpful in the development of novel anti-cancer drugs. Therefore, autoimmunity and cancer seem to be just two sides of the same coin. In the current review, we broadly discuss how various regulatory cell populations, effector molecules, genetic predisposition, and environmental factors contribute to the loss of self-tolerance in autoimmunity or tolerance induction to cancer. With the current paper, we also aim to convince the readers that the pathways involved in cancer and autoimmune disease development consist of similar molecular players working in opposite directions. Therefore, a deep understanding of the two sides of immune tolerance is crucial for the proper designing of novel and selective immunotherapies.

Monocytic MDSCs homing to thymus contribute to age-related CD8+ T cell tolerance of HBV

Hepatitis B virus exposure in children usually develops into chronic hepatitis B (CHB). Although hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg)–specific CD8⁺ T cells contribute to resolve HBV infection, they are preferentially undetected in CHB patients. Moreover, the mechanism for this rarely detected HBsAg-specific CD8⁺ T cells remains unexplored. We herein found that the frequency of HBsAg-specific CD8⁺ T cells was inversely correlated with expansion of monocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells (mMDSCs) in young rather than in adult CHB patients, and CCR9 was upregulated by HBsAg on mMDSCs via activation of ERK1/2 and IL-6. Sequentially, the interaction between CCL25 and CCR9 mediated thymic homing of mMDSCs, which caused the cross-presentation, transferring of peripheral HBsAg into the thymic medulla, and then promoted death of HBsAg-specific CD8⁺ thymocytes. In mice, adoptive transfer of mMDSCs selectively obliterated HBsAg-specific CD8⁺ T cells and facilitated persistence of HBV in a CCR9-dependent manner. Taken together, our results uncovered a novel mechanism for establishing specific CD8⁺ tolerance to HBsAg in chronic HBV infection.

Tumor-Mediated Neutrophil Polarization and Therapeutic Implications

Neutrophils are immune cells with reported phenotypic and functional plasticity. Tumor-associated neutrophils display many roles during cancer progression. Several tumor microenvironment (TME)-derived factors orchestrate neutrophil release from the bone marrow, recruitment and functional polarization, while simultaneously neutrophils are active stimulators of the TME by secreting factors that affect immune interactions and subsequently tumor progression. Successful immunotherapies for many cancer types and stages depend on the targeting of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes. Neutrophils impact the success of immunotherapies, such as immune checkpoint blockade therapies, by displaying lymphocyte suppressive properties. The identification and characterization of distinct neutrophil subpopulations or polarization states with pro- and antitumor phenotypes and the identification of the major TME-derived factors of neutrophil polarization would allow us to harness the full potential of neutrophils as complementary targets in anticancer precision therapies.

Obesity and the Bidirectional Risk of Cancer and Cardiovascular Diseases in African Americans: Disparity vs. Ancestry

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) and cancer often occur in the same individuals, in part due to the shared risk factors such as obesity. Obesity promotes adipose inflammation, which is pathogenically linked to both cardiovascular disease and cancer. Compared with Caucasians, the prevalence of obesity is significantly higher in African Americans (AA), who exhibit more pronounced inflammation and, in turn, suffer from a higher burden of CVD and cancer-related mortality. The mechanisms that underlie this association among obesity, inflammation, and the bidirectional risk of CVD and cancer, particularly in AA, remain to be determined. Socio-economic disparities such as lack of access to healthy and affordable food may promote obesity and exacerbate hypertension and other CVD risk factors in AA. In turn, the resulting pro-inflammatory milieu contributes to the higher burden of CVD and cancer in AA. Additionally, biological factors that regulate systemic inflammation may be contributory. Mutations in atypical chemokine receptor 1 (ACKR1), otherwise known as the Duffy antigen receptor for chemokines (DARC), confer protection against malaria. Many AAs carry a mutation in the gene encoding this receptor, resulting in loss of its expression. ACKR1 functions as a decoy chemokine receptor, thus dampening chemokine receptor activation and inflammation. Published and preliminary data in humans and mice genetically deficient in ACKR1 suggest that this common gene mutation may contribute to ethnic susceptibility to obesity-related disease, CVD, and cancer. In this narrative review, we present the evidence regarding obesity-related disparities in the bidirectional risk of CVD and cancer and also discuss the potential association of gene polymorphisms in AAs with emphasis on ACKR1.

The CCR2/MCP-1 Chemokine Pathway and Lung Adenocarcinoma

Host anti-tumor immunity can be hindered by various mechanisms present within the tumor microenvironment, including the actions of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). We investigated the role of the CCR2/MCP-1 pathway in MDSC-associated tumor progression in murine lung cancer models. Phenotypic profiling revealed maximal expression of CCR2 by tumor-resident MDSCs, and MCP-1 by transplanted TC1 tumor cells, respectively. Use of CCR2-knockout (CCR2-KO) mice showed dependence of tumor growth on CCR2 signaling. Tumors in CCR2-KO mice had fewer CCR2^low MDSCs, CD4 T cells and Tregs than WT mice, and increased infiltration by CD8 T cells producing IFN-γ and granzyme-B. Effects were MDSC specific, since WT and CCR2-KO conventional T (Tcon) cells had comparable proliferation and production of inflammatory cytokines, and suppressive functions of WT and CCR2-KO Foxp3+ Treg cells were also similar. We used a thioglycolate-induced peritonitis model to demonstrate a role for CCR2/MCP-1 in trafficking of CCR2+ cells to an inflammatory site, and showed the ability of a CCR2 antagonist to inhibit such trafficking. Use of this CCR2 antagonist promoted anti-tumor immunity and limited tumor growth. In summary, tumor cells are the prime source of MCP-1 that promotes MDSC recruitment, and our genetic and pharmacologic data demonstrate that CCR2 targeting may be an important component of cancer immunotherapy.

Macrophages expedite cell proliferation of prostate intraepithelial neoplasia through their downstream target ERK

The risk factors for prostate cancer include a high-fat diet and obesity, both of which are associated with an altered cell environment including increased inflammation. It has been shown that chronic inflammation due to a high-fat diet or bacterial infection has the potential to accelerate prostate cancer as well as its precursor, prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN), development. However, the underlying mechanism of how chronic inflammation promotes prostate cancer development, especially PIN, remains unclear. In this study, we showed that more macrophages were present in PIN areas as compared to the normal areas of human prostate. When co-culturing PIN cells with macrophages in 3D, more PIN cells had nuclear localized cyclin D1, indicating that macrophages enhanced PIN cell proliferation. We identified ICAM-1 and CCL2 as chemoattractants expressed by PIN cells to recruit macrophages. Furthermore, we discovered that macrophage-secreted cytokines including C5a, CXCL1, and CCL2 were responsible for increased PIN cell proliferation. These three cytokines activated ERK and JNK signaling in PIN cells through a ligand-receptor interaction. However, only blockade of ERK abolished macrophage cytokines-induced cell proliferation of PIN. Overall, our results provide a mechanistic view on how macrophages activated through chronic inflammation can expedite PIN progression during prostate cancer development. The information from our work can facilitate a comprehensive understanding of prostate cancer development, which is required for improvement of current strategies for prostate cancer therapy.

Cytokines and Chemokines as Mediators of Prostate Cancer Metastasis

The consequences of prostate cancer metastasis remain severe, with huge impact on the mortality and overall quality of life of affected patients. Despite the convoluted interplay and cross talk between various cell types and secreted factors in the metastatic process, cytokine and chemokines, along with their receptors and signaling axis, constitute important factors that help drive the sequence of events that lead to metastasis of prostate cancer. These proteins are involved in extracellular matrix remodeling, epithelial-mesenchymal-transition, angiogenesis, tumor invasion, premetastatic niche creation, extravasation, re-establishment of tumor cells in secondary organs as well as the remodeling of the metastatic tumor microenvironment. This review presents an overview of the main cytokines/chemokines, including IL-6, CXCL12, TGFβ, CXCL8, VEGF, RANKL, CCL2, CX3CL1, IL-1, IL-7, CXCL1, and CXCL16, that exert modulatory roles in prostate cancer metastasis. We also provide extensive description of their aberrant expression patterns in both advanced disease states and metastatic sites, as well as their functional involvement in the various stages of the prostate cancer metastatic process.

Pancreatic Alpha-Cells Contribute Together With Beta-Cells to CXCL10 Expression in Type 1 Diabetes

C-X-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 10 (CXCL10) is a pro-inflammatory chemokine specifically recognized by the ligand receptor CXCR3 which is mostly expressed in T-lymphocytes. Although CXCL10 expression and secretion have been widely associated to pancreatic islets both in non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice and in human type 1 diabetic (T1D) donors, the specific expression pattern among pancreatic endocrine cell subtypes has not been clarified yet. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to shed light on the pancreatic islet expression of CXCL10 in NOD, in C57Bl/6J and in NOD-SCID mice as well as in human T1D pancreata from new-onset T1D patients (DiViD study) compared to non-diabetic multiorgan donors from the INNODIA European Network for Pancreatic Organ Donors with Diabetes (EUnPOD). CXCL10 was expressed in pancreatic islets of normoglycaemic and new-onset diabetic NOD mice but not in C57Bl/6J and NOD-SCID mice. CXCL10 expression was increased in pancreatic islets of new-onset diabetic NOD mice compared to normoglycaemic NOD mice. In NOD mice, CXCL10 colocalized both with insulin and glucagon. Interestingly, CXCL10-glucagon colocalization rate was significantly increased in diabetic vs. normoglycaemic NOD mouse islets, indicating an increased expression of CXCL10 also in alpha-cells. CXCL10 was expressed in pancreatic islets of T1D patients but not in non-diabetic donors. The analysis of the expression pattern of CXCL10 in human T1D pancreata from DiViD study, revealed an increased colocalization rate with glucagon compared to insulin. Of note, CXCL10 was also expressed in alpha-cells residing in insulin-deficient islets (IDI), suggesting that CXCL10 expression in alpha cells is not driven by residual beta-cells and therefore may represent an independent phenomenon. In conclusion, we show that in T1D CXCL10 is expressed by alpha-cells both in NOD mice and in T1D patients, thus pointing to an additional novel role for alpha-cells in T1D pathogenesis and progression.

Chemokines and their receptors promoting the recruitment of myeloid-derived suppressor cells into the tumor

Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) expand in tumor-bearing host. They suppress anti-tumor immune response and promote tumor growth. Chemokines play a vital role in recruiting MDSCs into tumor tissue. They can also induce the generation of MDSCs in the bone marrow, maintain their suppressive activity, and promote their proliferation and differentiation. Here, we review CCL2/CCL12-CCR2, CCL3/4/5-CCR5, CCL15-CCR1, CX3CL1/CCL26-CX3CR1, CXCL5/2/1-CXCR2, CXCL8-CXCR1/2, CCL21-CCR7, CXCL13-CXCR5 signaling pathways, their role in MDSCs recruitment to tumor tissue, and their correlation with tumor development, metastasis and prognosis. Targeting chemokines and their receptors may serve as a promising strategy in immunotherapy, especially combined with other strategies such as chemotherapy, cyclin-dependent kinase or immune checkpoints inhibitors.

Metabolic and functional reprogramming of myeloid-derived suppressor cells and their therapeutic control in glioblastoma

Glioblastoma, also known as glioblastoma multi-forme, is the most common and deadliest form of high-grade malignant brain tumors with limited available treatments. Within the glioblastoma tumor microenvironment (TME), tumor cells, stromal cells, and infiltrating immune cells continuously interact and exchange signals through various secreted factors including cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, and metabolites. Simultaneously, they dynamically reprogram their metabolism according to environmental energy demands such as hypoxia and neo-vascularization. Such metabolic re-programming can determine fates and functions of tumor cells as well as immune cells. Ultimately, glioma cells in the TME transform immune cells to suppress anti-tumor immune cells such as T, natural killer (NK) cells, and dendritic cells (DC), and evade immune surveillance, and even to promote angiogenesis and tumor metastasis. Glioma-associated microglia/macrophages (GAMM) and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) are most abundantly recruited and expanded myeloid lineage cells in glioblastoma TME and mainly lead to immunosuppression. In this review, of myeloid cells we will focus on MDSC as an important driver to induce immunosuppression in glioblastoma. Here, we review current literature on immunosuppressive functions and metabolic reprogramming of MDSCs in glioblastoma and discuss their metabolic pathways as potential therapeutic targets to improve current incurable glioblastoma treatment.

Turn Back the TIMe: Targeting Tumor Infiltrating Myeloid Cells to Revert Cancer Progression

Tumor cells frequently produce soluble factors that favor myelopoiesis and recruitment of myeloid cells to the tumor microenvironment (TME). Consequently, the TME of many cancer types is characterized by high infiltration of monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells and granulocytes. Experimental and clinical studies show that most myeloid cells are kept in an immature state in the TME. These studies further show that tumor-derived factors mold these myeloid cells into cells that support cancer initiation and progression, amongst others by enabling immune evasion, tumor cell survival, proliferation, migration and metastasis. The key role of myeloid cells in cancer is further evidenced by the fact that they negatively impact on virtually all types of cancer therapy. Therefore, tumor-associated myeloid cells have been designated as the culprits in cancer. We review myeloid cells in the TME with a focus on the mechanisms they exploit to support cancer cells. In addition, we provide an overview of approaches that are under investigation to deplete myeloid cells or redirect their function, as these hold promise to overcome resistance to current cancer therapies.

Autoantibodies to Chemokines and Cytokines Participate in the Regulation of Cancer and Autoimmunity

We have previously shown that predominant expression of key inflammatory cytokines and chemokines at autoimmune sites or tumor sites induces loss of B cells tolerance, resulting in autoantibody production against the dominant cytokine/chemokine that is largely expressed at these sites. These autoantibodies are high-affinity neutralizing antibodies. Based on animal models studies, we suggested that they participate in the regulation of cancer and autoimmunity, albeit at the level of their production cannot entirely prevent the development and progression of these diseases. We have, therefore, named this selective breakdown of tolerance as “Beneficial Autoimmunity.” Despite its beneficial outcome, this process is likely to be stochastic and not directed by a deterministic mechanism, and is likely to be associated with the dominant expression of these inflammatory mediators at sites that are partially immune privileged. A recent study conducted on autoimmune regulator-deficient patients reported that in human this type of breakdown of B cell tolerance is T cell dependent. This explains, in part, why the response is highly restricted, and includes high-affinity antibodies. The current mini-review explores this subject from different complementary perspectives. It also discusses three optional translational aspects: amplification of autoantibody production as a therapeutic approach, development of autoantibody based diagnostic tools, and the use of B cells from donors that produce these autoantibodies for the development of high-affinity human monoclonal antibodies.

Targeting Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells to Bypass Tumor-Induced Immunosuppression

The immune system has many sophisticated mechanisms to balance an extensive immune response. Distinct immunosuppressive cells could protect from excessive tissue damage and autoimmune disorders. Tumor cells take an advantage of those immunosuppressive mechanisms and establish a strongly immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME), which inhibits antitumor immune responses, supporting the disease progression. Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) play a crucial role in this immunosuppressive TME. Those cells represent a heterogeneous population of immature myeloid cells with a strong immunosuppressive potential. They inhibit an antitumor reactivity of T cells and NK cells. Furthermore, they promote angiogenesis, establish pre-metastatic niches, and recruit other immunosuppressive cells such as regulatory T cells. Accumulating evidences demonstrated that the enrichment and activation of MDSC correlated with tumor progression, recurrence, and negative clinical outcome. In the last few years, various preclinical studies and clinical trials targeting MDSC showed promising results. In this review, we discuss different therapeutic approaches on MDSC targeting to overcome immunosuppressive TME and enhance the efficiency of current tumor immunotherapies.

CCR5 in recruitment and activation of myeloid-derived suppressor cells in melanoma

Malignant melanoma is characterized by the development of chronic inflammation in the tumor microenvironment, leading to the accumulation of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). Using ret transgenic mouse melanoma model, we found a significant migration of MDSCs expressing C-C chemokine receptor (CCR)5 into primary tumors and metastatic lymph nodes, which was correlated with tumor progression. An increased CCR5 expression on MDSCs was associated with elevated concentrations of CCR5 ligands in melanoma microenvironment. In vitro experiments showed that the upregulation of CCR5 expression on CD11b+Gr1+ immature myeloid cells was induced by CCR5 ligands, IL-6, GM-CSF, and other inflammatory factors. Furthermore, CCR5+ MDSCs infiltrating melanoma lesions displayed a stronger immunosuppressive pattern than their CCR5- counterparts. Targeting CCR5/CCR5 ligand signaling via a fusion protein mCCR5-Ig, which selectively binds and neutralizes all three CCR5 ligands, increased the survival of tumor-bearing mice. This was associated with a reduced migration and immunosuppressive potential of tumor MDSCs. In melanoma patients, circulating CCR5+ MDSCs were increased as compared to healthy donors. Like in melanoma-bearing mice, we observed an enrichment of these cells and CCR5 ligands in tumors as compared to the peripheral blood. Our findings define a critical role for CCR5 not only in the recruitment but also in the activation of MDSCs in tumor lesions, suggesting that novel strategies of melanoma treatment could be based on blocking CCR5/CCR5 ligand interactions.

Prostate cancer downregulated SIRP-α modulates apoptosis and proliferation through p38-MAPK/NF-κB/COX-2 signaling

The present study investigated the regulatory mechanism of signal-regulatory protein (SIRP)-α in the apoptosis and proliferation of prostate cancer (CaP) cells. The expression profile of SIRP-α in prostate cancer cells was analyzed using reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blotting. Then SIRP-α function in CaP cells was further analyzed with the overexpression and RNA interference of SIRP-α. The results revealed that SIRP-α expression levels were decreased in CaP tissues and cell lines, with androgen-independent CaP exhibiting a lower SIRP-α expression compared with androgen-dependent CaP. Overexpression of SIRP-α resulted in a significantly reduced number of live CaP cells by enhancing apoptosis, whereas SIRP-α silencing increased CaP cell proliferation. Mechanistically, SIRP-α decreases cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression and cytokine production by negatively regulating p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and nuclear factor-κB pathway. Therefore, SIRP-α knockdown decreases cell apoptosis by enhancing COX-2 expression. The present results indicate that SIRP-α may function as a novel negative regulator to modulate cellular proliferation, survival and migration in CaP cells. The heightened sensitivity of cells restoring SIRP-α function could be exploited in the development of therapeutics that may potentiate the antineoplastic effects of conventional cytokines or chemotherapeutic agents.

The Role of Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells (MDSC) in Cancer Progression

The immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment represents not only one of the key factors stimulating tumor progression but also a strong obstacle for efficient tumor immunotherapy. Immunosuppression was found to be associated with chronic inflammatory mediators including cytokines, chemokines and growth factors produced by cancer and stroma cells. Long-term intensive production of these factors induces the formation of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) representing one of the most important players mediating immunosuppression. Moreover, MDSCs could not only inhibit anti-tumor immune reactions but also directly stimulate tumor growth and metastasis. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms of their generation, expansion, recruitment and activation is required for the development of novel strategies for tumor immunotherapy.

Chemokine-Derived Peptides: Novel Antimicrobial and Antineoplasic Agents

Chemokines are a burgeoning family of chemotactic cytokines displaying a broad array of functions such as regulation of homeostatic leukocyte traffic and development, as well as activating the innate immune system. Their role in controlling early and late inflammatory stages is now well recognized. An improper balance either in chemokine synthesis or chemokine receptor expression contributes to various pathological disorders making chemokines and their receptors a useful therapeutic target. Research in this area is progressing rapidly, and development of novel agents based on chemokine/chemokine receptors antagonist functions are emerging as attractive alternative drugs. Some of these novel agents include generation of chemokine-derived peptides (CDP) with potential agonist and antagonist effects on inflammation, cancer and against bacterial infections. CDP have been generated mainly from N- and C-terminus chemokine sequences with subsequent modifications such as truncations or elongations. In this review, we present a glimpse of the different pharmacological actions reported for CDP and our current understanding regarding the potential use of CDP alone or as part of the novel therapies proposed in the treatment of microbial infections and cancer.

Hypernociceptive responses following the intratibial inoculation of RM1 prostate cancer cells in mice

BACKGROUND

Pain due to bone metastases of prostatic origin is a relevant clinical issue. We study here the nociceptive responses obtained in mice receiving the intratibial inoculation of RM1 prostate cancer cells.

METHODS

10(2) -10(5) RM1 cells were inoculated to C57BL/6 mice and tumor development was analysed histologically and with luciferase-expressing RM1 cells. Spinal astroglial (GFAP) or microglial (Iba-1) expression was assessed with immunohistochemical methods and hypernociception was measured by the unilateral hot plate, the paw pressure and the von Frey tests. The analgesic effect of morphine, zoledronic acid or the CCR2 antagonist RS504393 was measured. Levels of the chemokines CCL2, CCL3, and CCL5 were determined by ELISA.

RESULTS

The inoculation of 10(3) RM1 cells induced tumoral growth in bone with a mixed osteoclastic/osteoblastic pattern and evoked astroglial, but not microglial, activation in the spinal cord. Hyperalgesia and allodynia were already established four days after inoculation and dose-dependently inhibited by the s.c. administration of morphine (1-5 mg/kg) or zoledronic acid (1-3 mg/kg). CCL2 and CCL5, but not CCL3, were released by RM1 cells in culture whereas only an increased presence of CCL2 was found in bone tumor homogenates. The administration of the CCR2 antagonist RS504393 (0.3-3 mg/kg) inhibited RM1 induced thermal hyperalgesia without modifying mechanical allodynia.

CONCLUSION

The intratibial inoculation of RM1 cells in immunocompetent mice induces hypernociceptive responses and can be useful to perform studies of bone cancer induced pain related to androgen-independent prostate cancer. The antinociceptive role derived from the blockade of the CCR2 chemokine receptors is further envisaged.

CCL2 Chemokine as a Potential Biomarker for Prostate Cancer: A Pilot Study

Purpose

Prostate specific antigen is not reliable in diagnosing prostate cancer (PCa), making the identification of novel, precise diagnostic biomarkers important. Since chemokines are associated with more aggressive disease and poor prognosis in diverse malignancies, we aimed to investigate the diagnostic relevance of chemokines in PCa.

Materials and Methods

Preoperative and early postoperative serum samples were obtained from 39 consecutive PCa patients undergoing radical prostatectomy. Serum from 15 healthy volunteers served as controls. Concentrations of CXCL12, CXCL13, CX3CL1, CCL2, CCL5, and CCL20 were measured in serum by Luminex. The expression activity of CXCR3, CXCR4, CXCR5, CXCR7, CXCL12, CXCL13, CX3CR1, CXCL1, CCR2, CCR5, CCR6, CCR7, CCL2, and CCL5 mRNA was assessed in tumor and adjacent normal tissue of prostatectomy specimens by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. The associations of these chemokines with clinical and histological parameters were tested.

Results

The gene expression activity of CCL2 and CCR6 was significantly higher in tumor tissue compared to adjacent normal tissue. CCL2 was also significantly higher in the blood samples of PCa patients, compared to controls. CCL5, CCL20, and CX3CL1 were lower in patient serum, compared to controls. CCR2 tissue mRNA was negatively correlated with the Gleason score and grading.

Conclusion

Chemokines are significantly modified during tumorigenesis of PCa, and CCL2 is a promising diagnostic biomarker.

Accelerated neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation in transgenic mice expressing P301L tau mutant and tau-tubulin kinase 1

Tau-tubulin kinase-1 (TTBK1) is a central nervous system (CNS)-specific protein kinase implicated in the pathological phosphorylation of tau. TTBK1-transgenic mice show enhanced neuroinflammation in the CNS. Double-transgenic mice expressing TTBK1 and frontotemporal dementia with parkinsonism-17-linked P301L (JNPL3) tau mutant (TTBK1/JNPL3) show increased accumulation of oligomeric tau protein in the CNS and enhanced loss of motor neurons in the ventral horn of the lumbar spinal cord. To determine the role of TTBK1-induced neuroinflammation in tauopathy-related neuropathogenesis, age-matched TTBK1/JNPL3, JNPL3, TTBK1, and non-transgenic littermates were systematically characterized. There was a striking switch in the activation phenotype and population of mononuclear phagocytes (resident microglia and infiltrating macrophages) in the affected spinal cord region: JNPL3 mice showed accumulation of alternatively activated microglia, whereas TTBK1 and TTBK1/JNPL3 mice showed accumulation of classically activated infiltrating peripheral monocytes. In addition, expression of chemokine ligand 2, a chemokine important for the recruitment of peripheral monocytes, was enhanced in TTBK1 and TTBK1/JNPL3 but not in other groups in the spinal cord. Furthermore, primary cultured mouse motor neurons showed axonal degeneration after transient expression of the TTBK1 gene or treatment with conditioned media derived from lipopolysaccharide-stimulated microglia; this was partially blocked by silencing of the endogenous TTBK1 gene in neurons. These data suggest that TTBK1 accelerates motor neuron neurodegeneration by recruiting proinflammatory monocytes and enhancing sensitivity to neurotoxicity in inflammatory conditions.

Dissecting the autocrine and paracrine roles of the CCR2-CCL2 axis in tumor survival and angiogenesis

The CCL2 CCR2 axis is likely to contributes to the development and progression of cancer diseases by two major mechanisms; autocrine effect of CCL2 as a survival/growth factor for CCR2+ cancer cells and, the attraction of CCR2+ CX₃CR1+tumor associated macrophages that in the absence of CCR2 hardly migrate. Thus far no in vivo system has been set up to differentiate the selective contribution of each of these features to cancer development. Here we employed a chimera animal model in which all non-malignant cells are CCR2-/-, but all cancer cells are CCR2+, combined with an adoptive transfer system of bone marrow (BM) CX₃CR1+ cells from CCR2+ mice harboring a targeted replacement of the CX₃CR1gene by an enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) reporter gene (cx₃cr1(gfp)), together with the CD45.1 congene. Using this system we dissected the selective contribution of CX₃CR1+CCR2+ cells, which comprise only about 7% of CD11b+ BM cells, to tumor development and angiogenesis. Showing that aside for their direct pro-angiogenic effect they are essential for the recruitment of other CD11b+ cells to the tumor site. We further show that the administration of CCR2-Ig, that selectively and specifically neutralize CCL2, to mice in which CCR2 is expressed only on tumor cells, further suppressed tumor development, implicating for the key role of this chemokine supporting tumor survival in an autocrine manner. This further emphasizes the important role of CCL2 as a target for therapy of cancer diseases.

A MCP1 fusokine with CCR2-specific tumoricidal activity

Background

The CCL2 chemokine is involved in promoting cancer angiogenesis, proliferation and metastasis by malignancies that express CCR2 receptor. Thus the CCL2/CCR2 axis is an attractive molecular target for anticancer drug development.

Methods

We have generated a novel fusion protein using GMCSF and an N-terminal truncated version of MCP1/CCL2 (6-76) [hereafter GMME1] and investigated its utility as a CCR2-specific tumoricidal agent.

Results

We found that distinct to full length CCL2 or its N-truncated derivative (CCL2 5-76), GMME1 bound to CCR2 on mouse lymphoma EG7, human multiple myeloma cell line U266, or murine and human medulloblastoma cell lines, and led to their death by apoptosis. We demonstrated that GMME1 specifically blocked CCR2-associated STAT3 phosphorylation and up-regulated pro-apoptotic BAX. Furthermore, GMME1 significantly inhibited EG7 tumor growth in C57BL/6 mice, and induced apoptosis of primary myeloma cells from patients.

Conclusion

Our data demonstrate that GMME1 is a fusokine with a potent, CCR2 receptor-mediated pro-apoptotic effect on tumor cells and could be exploited as a novel biological therapy for CCR2⁺ malignancies including lymphoid and central nervous system malignancies.

Chemokine nitration prevents intratumoral infiltration of antigen-specific T cells

Blocking CCL2 nitration in tumors promoted CD8⁺ influx and reduced tumor growth and prolonged survival in mice when combined with adoptive cell therapy.

Tumor-promoted constraints negatively affect cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) trafficking to the tumor core and, as a result, inhibit tumor killing. The production of reactive nitrogen species (RNS) within the tumor microenvironment has been reported in mouse and human cancers. We describe a novel RNS-dependent posttranslational modification of chemokines that has a profound impact on leukocyte recruitment to mouse and human tumors. Intratumoral RNS production induces CCL2 chemokine nitration and hinders T cell infiltration, resulting in the trapping of tumor-specific T cells in the stroma that surrounds cancer cells. Preconditioning of the tumor microenvironment with novel drugs that inhibit CCL2 modification facilitates CTL invasion of the tumor, suggesting that these drugs may be effective in cancer immunotherapy. Our results unveil an unexpected mechanism of tumor evasion and introduce new avenues for cancer immunotherapy.